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[[Image:Crown Hotel Nantwich.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Crown Hotel, Nantwich|Crown Hotel]], [[Nantwich]], an example of late 16th century close studding]]
[[Image:Crown Hotel Nantwich.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Crown Hotel, Nantwich|Crown Hotel]], [[Nantwich]], an example of late 16th century close studding]]
'''Close studding''' is a form of timber work used in [[Timber framing|timber-framed]] buildings in which vertical timbers (studs) are set close together, dividing the wall into narrow panels. Rather than being a structural feature, the primary aim of close studding is to produce an impressive front.<ref name="looking">[http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/default.asp?document=1.C.2.1.3.2 Looking at Buildings (Pevsner Architectural Guides): Close Studding] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
'''Close studding''' is a form of timber work used in [[Timber framing|timber-framed]] buildings in which vertical timbers ([[wall stud|studs]]) are set close together, dividing the wall into narrow panels. Rather than being a structural feature, the primary aim of close studding is to produce an impressive front.<ref name="looking">[http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/styles/medieval/walls-and-windows/timber-walls/close-studding.html Looking at Buildings (Pevsner Architectural Guides): Close Studding] (accessed 20 October 2017)</ref>


Close studding first appeared in [[England]] in the 13th century and was commonly used there from the mid-15th century until the end of the 17th century. It was also common in [[France]] from the 15th century.
Close studding first appeared in England in the 13th century and was commonly used there from the mid-15th century until the end of the 17th century. It was also common in France from the 15th century.


==Description==
==Description==
[[Image:Close studding diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Close studding with (right) and without (left) middle rail. Braces are not shown]]
[[Image:Close studding diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Close studding with (right) and without (left) middle rail. Braces are not shown]]
Although close studding is defined by the distance between the vertical timbers, the spacing used is variable, up to a maximum of around 2 feet (600 mm).<ref name="Harris_p60" /> Studs can either span the full height of the storey or be divided by a middle (or intermediate) rail. To give the frame stability, some form of diagonal bracing is required.<ref name="Harris_p60" /> [[Whitewash|Limewash]] and coloured paints would have been used to enhance the pattern.<ref name="Harris_p60" />
Although close studding is defined by the distance between the vertical timbers, the spacing used is variable, up to a maximum of around 2 feet (600&nbsp;mm).<ref name="Harris_p60" /> Studs can either span the full height of the storey or be divided by a middle (or intermediate) rail. To give the frame stability, some form of diagonal bracing is required.<ref name="Harris_p60" /> [[Whitewash|Limewash]] and coloured paints would have been used to enhance the pattern.<ref name="Harris_p60" />


==History and usage==
==History and usage==
The use of close studding possibly originated in [[East Anglia]], where the technique was employed in the earliest surviving timber walls thought to date from the early 13th century.<ref name="Harris_p60" /> Among the earliest examples outside East Anglia are [[St Michael's Church, Baddiley]] in [[Cheshire]] (1308)<ref name="IoE_Baddiley">[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?pid=1&id=56872 Images of England: Church of St. Michael] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref> and Mancetter Manor in [[Warwickshire]] (c. 1330).<ref name="IoE_Mancetter" /> It became fashionable in England around 1400, and by the middle of the 15th century close studding was widely used across that country.<ref name="Harris_p60" /><ref name="Harris_p22">Harris, 2003, pp. 22–25</ref> Its popularity coincided with the dominance of the [[Perpendicular Period|Perpendicular]] style of architecture, with its emphasis on verticals.<ref name="Currie" /> Close studding remained in common use in England until the end of the 17th century.<ref name="Harris_p22" /> Close-studded buildings dating from the 15th and 16th centuries are also seen in France,<ref name="Hartills_2">[http://www.quadro.net/~hartill/section2-2004.pdf Hartills Art 2004: Section Two – Medieval] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref><ref name="Hartills_3">[http://www.quadro.net/~hartill/section3-2004.pdf Hartills Art 2004: Section Three – Renaissance Architecture] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref> and some experts believe the technique might have originated there.<ref name="Currie">[http://www.historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=66 Currie CRJ. 'The age of carpentry: the new art and society in Plantagenet England' (2001)] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
The use of close studding possibly originated in [[East Anglia]], where the technique was employed in the earliest surviving timber walls thought to date from the early 13th century.<ref name="Harris_p60" /> Among the earliest examples outside East Anglia are [[St Michael's Church, Baddiley]] in [[Cheshire]] (1308)<ref name="IoE_Baddiley">[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1138586 Images of England: Church of St. Michael] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref> and Mancetter Manor in [[Warwickshire]] (c. 1330).<ref name="IoE_Mancetter" /> It became fashionable in England around 1400, and by the middle of the 15th century close studding was widely used across that country.<ref name="Harris_p60" /><ref name="Harris_p22">Harris, 2003, pp. 22–25</ref> Its popularity coincided with the dominance of the [[Perpendicular Period|Perpendicular]] style of architecture, with its emphasis on verticals.<ref name="Currie" /> Close studding remained in common use in England until the end of the 17th century.<ref name="Harris_p22" /> Close-studded buildings dating from the 15th and 16th centuries are also seen in France,<ref name="Hartills_2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207190343/http://www.quadro.net/~hartill/section2-2004.pdf Hartills Art 2004: Section Two – Medieval] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref><ref name="Hartills_3">[https://web.archive.org/web/20041207180615/http://www.quadro.net/~hartill/section3-2004.pdf Hartills Art 2004: Section Three – Renaissance Architecture] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref> and some experts believe the technique might have originated there.<ref name="Currie">[http://www.historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=66 Currie CRJ. 'The age of carpentry: the new art and society in Plantagenet England' (2001)] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref> Close studding is very common in the [[Normandy]] region of France.


[[Image:St Michaels Baddiley.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[St Michael's Church, Baddiley|St Michael's Church]], [[Baddiley]], one of the oldest surviving close-studded buildings]]
[[Image:St Michaels Baddiley.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[St Michael's Church, Baddiley|St Michael's Church]], [[Baddiley]], one of the oldest surviving close-studded buildings]]
Compared with [[square framing]], close studding uses a lot of timber and is time consuming to construct; it was therefore particularly employed for buildings of relatively high status. Public buildings such as guildhalls, market halls, churches and inns often employed close studding. It was also used for private houses of the wealthy, particularly townhouses but also the more prosperous farmhouses.<ref name="Harris_p60" /><ref name="Harris_p22" /> Close studding was not usually employed in outbuildings, although occasional examples exist, such as the Gunthwaite Hall barn in [[Barnsley]].<ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=333814 Images of England: Gunthwaite Hall barn] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref> Although most examples occur in entirely timber-framed buildings, close studding was also used on the upper storeys of houses with a stone or brick ground storey; examples include the Dragon Hall in [[Norwich]] and the Café 'Cave St-Vincent' in [[Compiègne]], France.<ref name="looking" /><ref name="Cave_St-Vincent" />
Compared with [[square framing]], close studding uses a lot of timber and is time-consuming to construct; it was therefore particularly employed for buildings of relatively high status. Public buildings such as guildhalls, market halls, churches and inns often employed close studding. It was also used for private houses of the wealthy, particularly townhouses but also the more prosperous farmhouses.<ref name="Harris_p60" /><ref name="Harris_p22" /> Close studding was not usually employed in outbuildings, although occasional examples exist, such as the [[Gunthwaite Hall]] barn in [[Barnsley]].<ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1151106 Images of England: Gunthwaite Hall barn] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref> Although most examples occur in entirely timber-framed buildings, close studding was also used on the upper storeys of houses with a stone or brick ground storey; examples include the [[Dragon_Hall,_Norwich|Dragon Hall]] in [[Norwich]] and the Café 'Cave St-Vincent' in [[Compiègne]], France.<ref name="looking" /><ref name="Cave_St-Vincent" />


With its lavish use of timber, close studding was extravagant and was seen as a status symbol.<ref name="Harris_p60" /><ref name="Russell">[http://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/timber/wood93.htm Russell P. 'Timber framed buildings and roofs' ''The Building Conservation Directory'', 1993] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref> This led to it being faked with paint or even cosmetic planking.<ref name="Harris_p60" /> The heavy timber consumption probably also contributed to the decline in the use of close studding from the end of the 17th century, with a reduced supply of domestic hardwood as well as increased competition for timber.<ref name="Russell" /><ref>Harris, 2003, p. 83</ref>
With its lavish use of timber, close studding was extravagant and was seen as a status symbol.<ref name="Harris_p60" /><ref name="Russell">[http://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/timber/wood93.htm Russell P. 'Timber framed buildings and roofs' ''The Building Conservation Directory'', 1993] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref> This led to it being faked with paint or even cosmetic planking.<ref name="Harris_p60" /> The heavy timber consumption probably also contributed to the decline in the use of close studding from the end of the 17th century, with a reduced supply of domestic hardwood as well as increased competition for timber.<ref name="Russell" /><ref>Harris, 2003, p. 83</ref>


==Variations==
==Variations==
[[Image:Lavenham_Guildhall_night.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Guildhall, [[Lavenham]], an example of close studding of the East Anglia school]]
[[Image:Lavenham Guildhall night.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Guildhall, [[Lavenham]], an example of close studding of the East Anglia school]]
Regional variation occurred across England in the use of the middle rail, which was common in the midlands but rare in the east and south east.<ref name="Harris_p60">Harris, 2003, pp. 60–63</ref> Variation in bracing is also seen. Some close-studded buildings, mainly dated before the mid-16th century, have arch or tension bracing to the exterior; examples include the Guildhall in [[Lavenham]]<ref name="McKenna_p8">McKenna, 1994, p. 8</ref> and the Chantry House in [[Bunbury]].<ref name="McKenna_p6">McKenna, 1994, pp. 6–7</ref> In later use, however, braces were usually constructed on the interior and concealed by plaster panelling.<ref name="Harris_p60" />
Regional variation occurred across England in the use of the middle rail, which was common in the midlands but rare in the east and south east.<ref name="Harris_p60">Harris, 2003, pp. 60–63</ref> Variation in bracing is also seen. Some close-studded buildings, mainly dated before the mid-16th century, have arch or tension bracing to the exterior; examples include the [[Lavenham_Guildhall|Guildhall]] in [[Lavenham]]<ref name="McKenna_p8">McKenna, 1994, p. 8</ref> and the [[Chantry_House,_Bunbury|Chantry House]] in [[Bunbury, Cheshire|Bunbury]].<ref name="McKenna_p6">McKenna, 1994, pp. 6–7</ref> In later use, however, braces were usually constructed on the interior and concealed by plaster panelling.<ref name="Harris_p60" />


Close studding was sometimes used in association with decorative panel work or [[close panelling]], particularly from the end of the 16th century.<ref>Price S, Molyneux N. 'The domestic timber-framed tradition', p. 38, in Brooks & Pevsner, 2007</ref> In such buildings, the lower storey would usually employ close studding, while the upper storeys would have small square panels with or without ornamentation. Examples include the White Lion in [[Congleton]]<ref name="McKenna_p41" /> and Moat Farm in [[Longdon]].<ref name="Harris_p33" /> An ornamental effect was also sometimes obtained with herringbone or chevron bracing between the uprights.<ref name="McKenna_p32">McKenna, 1994, p. 32</ref>
Close studding was sometimes used in association with decorative panel work or [[close panelling]], particularly from the end of the 16th century.<ref>Price S, Molyneux N. 'The domestic timber-framed tradition', p. 38, in Brooks & Pevsner, 2007</ref> In such buildings, the lower storey would usually employ close studding, while the upper storeys would have small square panels with or without ornamentation. Examples include the White Lion in [[Congleton]]<ref name="McKenna_p41" /> and Moat Farm in [[Longdon, Worcestershire|Longdon]].<ref name="Harris_p33" /> An ornamental effect was also sometimes obtained with herringbone or chevron bracing between the uprights.<ref name="McKenna_p32">McKenna, 1994, p. 32</ref>


==Selected examples==
==Selected examples==
Good examples of the various forms of the technique include:
Good examples of the various forms of the technique include:


===Churches===
===Churches===
*'''[[Church of St James and St Paul, Marton|Church of St James and St Paul]]''', [[Marton]], [[Cheshire]]: close studding with middle rail (c. 1370)<ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=58610 Images of England: Church of St James and St Paul] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Church of St James and St Paul, Marton|Church of St James and St Paul]]''', [[Marton, Cheshire]]: close studding with middle rail (c. 1370)<ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1139465 Images of England: Church of St James and St Paul] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[St Michael's Church, Baddiley|St Michael's Church]]''', [[Baddiley]], Cheshire: the chancel has close studding without a middle rail, with later brick infill (1308)<ref name="IoE_Baddiley" /><ref name="McKenna_p45">McKenna, 1994, p. 45</ref>
*'''[[St Michael's Church, Baddiley|St Michael's Church]]''', [[Baddiley]], Cheshire: the chancel has close studding without a middle rail, with later brick infill (1308)<ref name="IoE_Baddiley" /><ref name="McKenna_p45">McKenna, 1994, p. 45</ref>
*'''[[St Michael and All Angels Church, Altcar|St Michael and All Angels Church]]''', [[Great Altcar|Altcar]], [[West Lancashire]]: mostly close studded with middle rail (a much later example of 1879)<ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=357815 Images of England: Church of St Michael and All Saints, Altcar] (accessed 21 March 2008)</ref>
*'''[[St Michael and All Angels Church, Altcar|St Michael and All Angels Church]]''', [[Great Altcar|Altcar]], [[West Lancashire]]: mostly close studded with middle rail (a much later example of 1879)<ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1230934 Images of England: Church of St Michael and All Saints, Altcar] (accessed 21 March 2008)</ref>
*'''St Peter's Church''', [[Melverley]], [[Shropshire]]: close studding with middle rail (late 15th century)<ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=256671 Images of England: Church of St. Peter] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''St Peter's Church''', [[Melverley]], [[Shropshire]]: close studding with middle rail (late 15th century)<ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1367171 Images of England: Church of St. Peter] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>


===Inns and cafés===
===Inns and cafés===
*'''Bear's Head Hotel''', [[Brereton, Cheshire|Brereton]], Cheshire: close studding with two rails (1615)<ref name="McKenna_p41">McKenna, 1994, p. 41</ref><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=56352 Images of England: The Bear's Head Hotel] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Bear's Head Hotel''', [[Brereton, Cheshire|Brereton]], Cheshire: close studding with two rails (1615)<ref name="McKenna_p41">McKenna, 1994, p. 41</ref><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1138789 Images of England: The Bear's Head Hotel] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Café 'Cave St-Vincent'''', [[Compiègne]], [[France]]: close studding with braces on upper storey over brick ground floor with stone trimming (15th century)<ref name="Hartills_2" /><ref name="Cave_St-Vincent">[http://www.scholarsresource.com/browse/work/2144565975 Scholars Resource: Café 'Cave St.-Vincent'] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Café 'Cave St-Vincent'''', [[Compiègne]], France: close studding with braces on upper storey over brick ground floor with stone trimming (15th century)<ref name="Hartills_2" /><ref name="Cave_St-Vincent">[http://www.scholarsresource.com/browse/work/2144565975 Scholars Resource: Café 'Cave St.-Vincent'] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Crown Hotel, Nantwich|Crown Hotel]]''', [[Nantwich]], Cheshire: close studding on all three storeys with middle rail (c. 1584)<ref>McKenna, 1994, p. 18</ref><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=56617 Images of England: Crown Inn & Coffee House Cafe] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Crown Hotel, Nantwich|Crown Hotel]]''', [[Nantwich]], Cheshire: close studding on all three storeys with middle rail (c. 1584)<ref>McKenna, 1994, p. 18</ref><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1330054 Images of England: Crown Inn & Coffee House Cafe] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''String of Horses Inn''', originally at [[Frankwell]], [[Shrewsbury]], Shropshire, now in the [[Avoncroft Museum of Historic Buildings]]: close studding with middle rail on both ground and first storeys (1576)<ref name="Harris_p33" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=156148 Images of England: The String of Horses] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''String of Horses Inn''', originally at [[Frankwell]], [[Shrewsbury]], Shropshire, now at [[Avoncroft Museum of Historic Buildings]]: close studding with middle rail on both ground and first storeys (1576)<ref name="Harris_p33" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1167695 Images of England: The String of Horses] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''White Lion''', [[Congleton]], Cheshire: lower storey has close studding, with decorative panelling above (early 16th century)<ref name="McKenna_p41" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=55881 Images of England: Ye Olde White Lion Public House] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''White Lion''', [[Congleton]], Cheshire: lower storey has close studding, with decorative panelling above (early 16th century)<ref name="McKenna_p41" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1130502 Images of England: Ye Olde White Lion Public House] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[The Falcon, Chester|The Falcon]]''', [[Chester]], Cheshire, formerly a town house, now a public house, which has close studding on its east front at the level of the [[Chester Rows]].<ref>{{Citation |url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1376292 |title=Images of England: Falcon Inn, Chester |publisher=[[English Heritage]] | accessdate= 18 July 2009}}</ref>


===Private houses===
===Private houses===
*'''Chantry House''', [[Bunbury, Cheshire|Bunbury]], Cheshire: very close studding, with tension braces and arch bracing and no middle rail (1527)<ref name="McKenna_p6" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=56792 Images of England: The Chantry House] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Chantry House, Bunbury|Chantry House]]''', [[Bunbury, Cheshire]]: very close studding, with tension braces and arch bracing and no middle rail. (1527)<ref name="McKenna_p6" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1138635 Images of England: The Chantry House] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Gawsworth Old Rectory''', [[Gawsworth]], Cheshire: close studding with middle rail and arch bracing (late 16th century)<ref name="McKenna_p6" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=58592 Images of England: The Old Rectory] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Gawsworth Old Rectory]]''', [[Gawsworth]], Cheshire: close studding with middle rail and arch bracing (late 16th century)<ref name="McKenna_p6" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1139496 Images of England: The Old Rectory] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Greyfriars''', [[Worcester]], [[Worcestershire]]: close studding with middle rail to both storeys (c.1480–1500)<ref name="Brooks_p35" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=146914 Images of England: Greyfriars, Friar Street] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Greyfriars''', [[Worcester, England|Worcester]], [[Worcestershire]]: close studding with middle rail to both storeys (c.1480–1500)<ref name="Brooks_p35" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120920211253/http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=146914 Images of England: Greyfriars, Friar Street] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Mancetter Manor''', [[Mancetter]], [[Warwickshire]]: close studding with plaster infill (c. 1330)<ref name="IoE_Mancetter">[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=309201 Images of England: Mancetter Manor and attached gatepier] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref><ref name="Currie" />
*'''Mancetter Manor''', [[Mancetter]], [[Warwickshire]]: close studding with plaster infill (c. 1330)<ref name="IoE_Mancetter">[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1185415 Images of England: Mancetter Manor and attached gatepier] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref><ref name="Currie" />
*'''Moat Farm''', [[Longdon]], Worcestershire: close studding with middle rail on ground floor; upper floor mixes square framing and decorative panelling<ref name="Harris_p33">Harris, 2003, p. 33–36</ref>
*'''Moat Farm''', [[Longdon, Worcestershire|Longdon]], Worcestershire: close studding with middle rail on ground floor; upper floor mixes square framing and decorative panelling<ref name="Harris_p33">Harris, 2003, p. 33–36</ref>
*'''[[Moss Hall, Audlem|Moss Hall]]''', [[Audlem]], Cheshire: close studding with middle rails to each storey, with no decorative panelling (1616)<ref>McKenna, 1994, p. 20–21</ref><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=57029 Images of England: Moss Hall] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Moss Hall, Audlem|Moss Hall]]''', [[Audlem]], Cheshire: close studding with middle rails to each storey, with no decorative panelling (1616)<ref>McKenna, 1994, p. 20–21</ref><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1138519 Images of England: Moss Hall] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Paycocke's''', [[Coggeshall]], [[Essex]]: the main elevation has close studding on both storeys, with a middle rail on the ground floor (c. 1500)<ref name="Harris_p33" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=116256 Images of England: Paycocke's] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref><ref>[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-paycockes/ National Trust: Paycocke's] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Paycocke's''', [[Coggeshall]], [[Essex]]: the main elevation has close studding on both storeys, with a middle rail on the ground floor (c. 1500)<ref name="Harris_p33" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1337597 Images of England: Paycocke's] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref><ref>[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-paycockes/ National Trust: Paycocke's] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930191259/http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-findaplace/w-paycockes/ |date=2007-09-30 }} (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>


===Public halls===
===Public halls===
*'''Booth Hall''' or '''Round House''', [[Evesham]], Worcestershire: close studding with middle rail on all three storeys (late 15th century)<ref name="Brooks_p35">Brooks & Pevsner, 2007, p. 35</ref><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=147393 Images of England: No 2 Bridge Street (Round House) (National Westminster Bank)] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Booth Hall''' or '''Round House''', [[Evesham]], Worcestershire: close studding with middle rail on all three storeys (late 15th century)<ref name="Brooks_p35">Brooks & Pevsner, 2007, p. 35</ref><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1156077 Images of England: No 2 Bridge Street (Round House) (National Westminster Bank)] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Dragon Hall''', [[Norwich]], [[Norfolk]]: close studding without middle rail to first floor, over brick and flint ground floor (14th century)<ref name="looking" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=229181 Images of England: The Old Barge, 115–123 King Street] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Dragon Hall, Norwich|Dragon Hall]]''', [[Norwich]], [[Norfolk]]: close studding without middle rail to first floor, over brick and flint ground floor (14th century)<ref name="looking" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1051236 Images of England: The Old Barge, 115–123 King Street] (accessed 11 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Guildhall''', [[Lavenham]], [[Suffolk]]: close studding to all storeys, with tension braces and no middle rail (early 16th century)<ref name="McKenna_p8" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=276767 Images of England: The Guildhall] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''[[Lavenham Guildhall|Guildhall]]''', [[Lavenham]], [[Suffolk]]: close studding to all storeys, with tension braces and no middle rail (early 16th century)<ref name="McKenna_p8" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1037186 Images of England: The Guildhall] (accessed 10 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Moot Hall''', [[Fordwich]], [[Kent]]: close-studded overhanging first storey with brick or plaster infill and no middle rail; the ground floor in brick and flint was rebuilt at a later date (early 15th century)<ref name="Harris_p33" /><ref>[http://www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx?id=171149 Images of England: Town Hall] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Moot Hall''', [[Fordwich]], [[Kent]]: close-studded overhanging first storey with brick or plaster infill and no middle rail; the ground floor in brick and flint was rebuilt at a later date (early 15th century)<ref name="Harris_p33" /><ref>[https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1085670 Images of England: Town Hall] (accessed 9 October 2007)</ref>
*'''Town residence''', [[Albi]], France: close studding on three storeys (16th century)<ref name="Hartills_3" />
*'''Town residence''', [[Albi]], France: close studding on three storeys (16th century)<ref name="Hartills_3" />

==See also==
*[[Poteaux-sur-sol]] construction in the historical region of North America known as [[New France]], which can have a similar appearance


==Notes and references==
==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}

===Sources===
===Sources===
*Harris R. ''Discovering Timber-framed Buildings'' (Shire Publications, Princes Risborough; 2003) (ISBN 0-7478-0215-7)
*Harris R. ''Discovering Timber-framed Buildings'' (Shire Publications, Princes Risborough; 2003) ({{ISBN|0-7478-0215-7}})
*McKenna L. ''Timber Framed Buildings in Cheshire'' (Cheshire County Council; 1994) (ISBN 0906765161)
*McKenna L. ''Timber Framed Buildings in Cheshire'' (Cheshire County Council; 1994) ({{ISBN|0-906765-16-1}})
*Brooks A, Pevsner N. ''Worcestershire: The Buildings of England'' (revised edn) (Yale University Press; 2007) (ISBN 030011298X)
*Brooks A, Pevsner N. ''Worcestershire: The Buildings of England'' (revised edn) (Yale University Press; 2007) ({{ISBN|0-300-11298-X}})


[[Category:Building]]
[[Category:Building]]
[[Category:Timber framing]]

Latest revision as of 23:37, 10 August 2022

Crown Hotel, Nantwich, an example of late 16th century close studding

Close studding is a form of timber work used in timber-framed buildings in which vertical timbers (studs) are set close together, dividing the wall into narrow panels. Rather than being a structural feature, the primary aim of close studding is to produce an impressive front.[1]

Close studding first appeared in England in the 13th century and was commonly used there from the mid-15th century until the end of the 17th century. It was also common in France from the 15th century.

Description

[edit]
Close studding with (right) and without (left) middle rail. Braces are not shown

Although close studding is defined by the distance between the vertical timbers, the spacing used is variable, up to a maximum of around 2 feet (600 mm).[2] Studs can either span the full height of the storey or be divided by a middle (or intermediate) rail. To give the frame stability, some form of diagonal bracing is required.[2] Limewash and coloured paints would have been used to enhance the pattern.[2]

History and usage

[edit]

The use of close studding possibly originated in East Anglia, where the technique was employed in the earliest surviving timber walls thought to date from the early 13th century.[2] Among the earliest examples outside East Anglia are St Michael's Church, Baddiley in Cheshire (1308)[3] and Mancetter Manor in Warwickshire (c. 1330).[4] It became fashionable in England around 1400, and by the middle of the 15th century close studding was widely used across that country.[2][5] Its popularity coincided with the dominance of the Perpendicular style of architecture, with its emphasis on verticals.[6] Close studding remained in common use in England until the end of the 17th century.[5] Close-studded buildings dating from the 15th and 16th centuries are also seen in France,[7][8] and some experts believe the technique might have originated there.[6] Close studding is very common in the Normandy region of France.

St Michael's Church, Baddiley, one of the oldest surviving close-studded buildings

Compared with square framing, close studding uses a lot of timber and is time-consuming to construct; it was therefore particularly employed for buildings of relatively high status. Public buildings such as guildhalls, market halls, churches and inns often employed close studding. It was also used for private houses of the wealthy, particularly townhouses but also the more prosperous farmhouses.[2][5] Close studding was not usually employed in outbuildings, although occasional examples exist, such as the Gunthwaite Hall barn in Barnsley.[9] Although most examples occur in entirely timber-framed buildings, close studding was also used on the upper storeys of houses with a stone or brick ground storey; examples include the Dragon Hall in Norwich and the Café 'Cave St-Vincent' in Compiègne, France.[1][10]

With its lavish use of timber, close studding was extravagant and was seen as a status symbol.[2][11] This led to it being faked with paint or even cosmetic planking.[2] The heavy timber consumption probably also contributed to the decline in the use of close studding from the end of the 17th century, with a reduced supply of domestic hardwood as well as increased competition for timber.[11][12]

Variations

[edit]
Guildhall, Lavenham, an example of close studding of the East Anglia school

Regional variation occurred across England in the use of the middle rail, which was common in the midlands but rare in the east and south east.[2] Variation in bracing is also seen. Some close-studded buildings, mainly dated before the mid-16th century, have arch or tension bracing to the exterior; examples include the Guildhall in Lavenham[13] and the Chantry House in Bunbury.[14] In later use, however, braces were usually constructed on the interior and concealed by plaster panelling.[2]

Close studding was sometimes used in association with decorative panel work or close panelling, particularly from the end of the 16th century.[15] In such buildings, the lower storey would usually employ close studding, while the upper storeys would have small square panels with or without ornamentation. Examples include the White Lion in Congleton[16] and Moat Farm in Longdon.[17] An ornamental effect was also sometimes obtained with herringbone or chevron bracing between the uprights.[18]

Selected examples

[edit]

Good examples of the various forms of the technique include:

Churches

[edit]

Inns and cafés

[edit]

Private houses

[edit]

Public halls

[edit]
  • Booth Hall or Round House, Evesham, Worcestershire: close studding with middle rail on all three storeys (late 15th century)[31][37]
  • Dragon Hall, Norwich, Norfolk: close studding without middle rail to first floor, over brick and flint ground floor (14th century)[1][38]
  • Guildhall, Lavenham, Suffolk: close studding to all storeys, with tension braces and no middle rail (early 16th century)[13][39]
  • Moot Hall, Fordwich, Kent: close-studded overhanging first storey with brick or plaster infill and no middle rail; the ground floor in brick and flint was rebuilt at a later date (early 15th century)[17][40]
  • Town residence, Albi, France: close studding on three storeys (16th century)[8]

See also

[edit]
  • Poteaux-sur-sol construction in the historical region of North America known as New France, which can have a similar appearance

Notes and references

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Looking at Buildings (Pevsner Architectural Guides): Close Studding (accessed 20 October 2017)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Harris, 2003, pp. 60–63
  3. ^ a b Images of England: Church of St. Michael (accessed 9 October 2007)
  4. ^ a b Images of England: Mancetter Manor and attached gatepier (accessed 10 October 2007)
  5. ^ a b c Harris, 2003, pp. 22–25
  6. ^ a b c Currie CRJ. 'The age of carpentry: the new art and society in Plantagenet England' (2001) (accessed 10 October 2007)
  7. ^ a b Hartills Art 2004: Section Two – Medieval (accessed 10 October 2007)
  8. ^ a b Hartills Art 2004: Section Three – Renaissance Architecture (accessed 10 October 2007)
  9. ^ Images of England: Gunthwaite Hall barn (accessed 10 October 2007)
  10. ^ a b Scholars Resource: Café 'Cave St.-Vincent' (accessed 10 October 2007)
  11. ^ a b Russell P. 'Timber framed buildings and roofs' The Building Conservation Directory, 1993 (accessed 11 October 2007)
  12. ^ Harris, 2003, p. 83
  13. ^ a b McKenna, 1994, p. 8
  14. ^ a b c McKenna, 1994, pp. 6–7
  15. ^ Price S, Molyneux N. 'The domestic timber-framed tradition', p. 38, in Brooks & Pevsner, 2007
  16. ^ a b c McKenna, 1994, p. 41
  17. ^ a b c d e Harris, 2003, p. 33–36
  18. ^ McKenna, 1994, p. 32
  19. ^ Images of England: Church of St James and St Paul (accessed 10 October 2007)
  20. ^ McKenna, 1994, p. 45
  21. ^ Images of England: Church of St Michael and All Saints, Altcar (accessed 21 March 2008)
  22. ^ Images of England: Church of St. Peter (accessed 10 October 2007)
  23. ^ Images of England: The Bear's Head Hotel (accessed 9 October 2007)
  24. ^ McKenna, 1994, p. 18
  25. ^ Images of England: Crown Inn & Coffee House Cafe (accessed 9 October 2007)
  26. ^ Images of England: The String of Horses (accessed 9 October 2007)
  27. ^ Images of England: Ye Olde White Lion Public House (accessed 9 October 2007)
  28. ^ Images of England: Falcon Inn, Chester, English Heritage, retrieved 18 July 2009
  29. ^ Images of England: The Chantry House (accessed 10 October 2007)
  30. ^ Images of England: The Old Rectory (accessed 10 October 2007)
  31. ^ a b Brooks & Pevsner, 2007, p. 35
  32. ^ Images of England: Greyfriars, Friar Street (accessed 11 October 2007)
  33. ^ McKenna, 1994, p. 20–21
  34. ^ Images of England: Moss Hall (accessed 10 October 2007)
  35. ^ Images of England: Paycocke's (accessed 9 October 2007)
  36. ^ National Trust: Paycocke's Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine (accessed 9 October 2007)
  37. ^ Images of England: No 2 Bridge Street (Round House) (National Westminster Bank) (accessed 11 October 2007)
  38. ^ Images of England: The Old Barge, 115–123 King Street (accessed 11 October 2007)
  39. ^ Images of England: The Guildhall (accessed 10 October 2007)
  40. ^ Images of England: Town Hall (accessed 9 October 2007)

Sources

[edit]
  • Harris R. Discovering Timber-framed Buildings (Shire Publications, Princes Risborough; 2003) (ISBN 0-7478-0215-7)
  • McKenna L. Timber Framed Buildings in Cheshire (Cheshire County Council; 1994) (ISBN 0-906765-16-1)
  • Brooks A, Pevsner N. Worcestershire: The Buildings of England (revised edn) (Yale University Press; 2007) (ISBN 0-300-11298-X)
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