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{{Short description|Class of fungi}}
{{Taxobox
{{Taxobox
| name = Hyphomycetes
| name = Hyphomycetes
| regnum = [[fungus|Fungi]]
| regnum = [[Fungi]]
| subdivision_ranks = orders
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision = [[Hyphomycetales]]<br>[[Stilbellales]]<br>[[Tuberculariales]]
| subdivision = [[Hyphomycetales]] (obsolete)<br />[[Stilbellales]] (obsolete)<br />[[Tuberculariales]] (obsolete)
}}
}}

⚫
'''Hyphomycetes''' are a [[form classification]] of [[Fungi]], part of what has often been referred to as Fungi imperfecti, [[Deuteromycota]], or [[anamorph]]ic fungi. Hyphomycetes lack closed [[sporocarp|fruit bodies]], and are often referred to as [[mould]]s (or molds). Most hyphomycetes are now assigned to the [[Ascomycota]], on the basis of genetic connections made by life-cycle studies or by [[phylogenetic]] analysis of [[DNA sequence]]s; many remain unassigned phylogenetically. Identification of hyphomycetes is primarily based on microscopic [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] including: [[conidia]]l morphology, especially [[Cell division|septation]], shape, size, colour and cell wall texture, the arrangement of conidia as they are borne on the conidiogenous cells (e.g. if they are solitary, [[arthrocatenate]], [[blastocatenate]], [[basocatenate]], or [[gloiosporae]]), the type [[conidiogenous]] cell (e.g. non-specialized or [[hypha]]-like, [[phialide]], [[annellide]], or [[sympodial]]), and other additional features such as the presence of [[sporodochia]] or [[synnemata]].<ref name=Kendrick1973>{{cite book
'''Hyphomycetes''' are a [[form classification]] of [[fungi]], part of what has often been referred to as fungi imperfecti, [[Deuteromycota]], or [[anamorph]]ic fungi. Hyphomycetes lack closed [[sporocarp (fungi)|fruit bodies]], and are often referred to as [[Mold (fungus)|mould]]s (or molds). Most hyphomycetes are now assigned to the [[Ascomycota]], on the basis of genetic connections made by life-cycle studies or by [[phylogenetic]] analysis of [[DNA sequence]]s; many remain unassigned phylogenetically.
| author = Kendrick, W.B.

|author2=Carmichael, J.W.
Although no longer considered a phylogenetically defined taxon, the prevalence of hyphomycete forms in nature, the built environment, and laboratories means that identification of members this group remains of practical importance.
| year = 1973
| title = Hyphomycetes
| journal = The Fungi: An Advanced Treatise
| publisher = Academic Press, New York
| pages = 323–509
| isbn = 0-12-045604-4
| editor = Ainsworth, G.C.; Sparrow, F.K.; Sussman, A.S.
}}</ref>
<ref name=Subramanian1982>{{cite book
| title = Hyphomycetes
| author = C.V.Subramanian
| publisher = Academic Press
| year = 1982
}}</ref>
<ref name=Seifert2011>{{cite book
| author = Seifert, K.A.
| coauthors = Morgan-Jones, G.
| coauthors = Gams, W.
|author2=Kendrick, B.
| year = 2011
| title = The Genera of Hyphomycetes
| publisher = CBS Fungal Biodiversity Centre, the Netherlands
| pages = 1–997
}}</ref>


==Taxonomic and nomenclatural history==
==Taxonomic and nomenclatural history==
Because asexual forms of fungi usually occur separately from their sexual forms, when microscopic fungi began to be studied in the early 19th century, it was often unknown when two morphologically different forms were actually part of one species. The tendency for some organisms to apparently only have asexual forms, or for their sexual forms to be discovered long after the asexual forms, meant that an independent taxonomy was developed for asexual fungi. Near the beginning of the 20th century, when it became clearer that many asexual and sexual forms were related, the concept of 'form taxa' was developed. The independent taxonomy of asexual forms was regarded as artificial, not representative of evolutionary relationships, and intended to be practical for identification purposes. The taxonomy of the sexual states was considered the true classification. The result was that many fungal species ended up with two accepted Latin binomials, one for the asexual form (or anamorph) and the other for the sexual form (teleomorph). This dual nomenclature was only abandoned in January 2012,<ref name="Hibbett 2013"/> and the transition to a single name system, with one name representing all morphs of a fungus, is still incomplete.<ref name="Hawksworth 2014"/>
Because asexual forms of fungi usually occur separately from their sexual forms, when microscopic fungi began to be studied in the early 19th century, it was often unknown when two morphologically different forms were actually part of one species. The tendency for some organisms to apparently only have asexual forms, or for their sexual forms to be discovered long after the asexual forms, meant that an independent taxonomy was developed for asexual fungi. Near the beginning of the 20th century, when it became clearer that many asexual and sexual forms were related, the concept of 'form taxa' was developed. The independent taxonomy of asexual forms was regarded as artificial, not representative of evolutionary relationships, and intended to be practical for identification purposes. The taxonomy of the sexual states was considered the true classification. The result was that many fungal species ended up with two accepted Latin binomials, one for the asexual form (or anamorph) and the other for the sexual form (teleomorph). This dual nomenclature was only abandoned in January 2012,<ref name="Hibbett 2013"/> and the transition to a single name system, with one name representing all morphs of a fungus, is still incomplete.<ref name="Hawksworth 2014"/>

==Identification==

⚫
Traditional identification of hyphomycetes was primarily based on microscopic [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] including: [[conidia]]l morphology, especially [[Cell division|septation]], shape, size, colour and cell wall texture, the arrangement of conidia as they are borne on the conidiogenous cells (e.g. if they are solitary, in chains, or produced in slime), the type of [[conidiogenous]] cell (e.g. non-specialized or [[hypha]]-like, [[phialide]], [[annellide]], or [[sympodial]]), and other additional features such as the presence of [[Sporodochium|sporodochia]] or [[synnemata]].<ref name=Kendrick1973/><ref name=Subramanian1982/><ref name=Seifert2011/>

For species growing in culture, or in environmental DNA studies, most identifications of Hyphomycetes are now done with [[DNA barcoding]]. This is not always possible, however, for archival specimens or samples such as microscopic slides from air samples.


==Ecological importance==
==Ecological importance==
Line 40: Line 24:
'''Aquatic''' or '''Ingoldian''' hyphomycetes are common on submerged decaying leaves and other organic matter, especially in clean running water with good aeration. Colonised leaves fall from the tree into the river. Their branched, septate mycelium penetrates through the leaf surface and spreads through leaf tissue. Conidiophores project into the water and bear conidia, which are often sigmoid, branched or tetraradiate structures. Aquatic hyphomycetes play an important role in the breakdown of organic matter in rivers, because their extracellular enzymes break down leaf tissue, which in turn is made more palatable to invertebrates. Leaves with fungi (conditioned) are a more nutritious source of food than unconditioned leaves.<ref name="Bärlocher 2011"/>
'''Aquatic''' or '''Ingoldian''' hyphomycetes are common on submerged decaying leaves and other organic matter, especially in clean running water with good aeration. Colonised leaves fall from the tree into the river. Their branched, septate mycelium penetrates through the leaf surface and spreads through leaf tissue. Conidiophores project into the water and bear conidia, which are often sigmoid, branched or tetraradiate structures. Aquatic hyphomycetes play an important role in the breakdown of organic matter in rivers, because their extracellular enzymes break down leaf tissue, which in turn is made more palatable to invertebrates. Leaves with fungi (conditioned) are a more nutritious source of food than unconditioned leaves.<ref name="Bärlocher 2011"/>


'''[[Coprophilous fungi|Coprophilous]]''' or dung-loving hyphomycetes are part of the [[ecological succession|succession]] of fungi occurring on many kinds of [[herbivore]] faeces, playing an important role in breaking down [[cellulose]].<ref name=Seifert1983>{{cite book
'''[[Coprophilous fungi|Coprophilous]]''' or dung-loving hyphomycetes are part of the [[ecological succession|succession]] of fungi occurring on many kinds of [[herbivore]] faeces, playing an important role in breaking down [[cellulose]].<ref name=Seifert1983/> Several species are found only on dung, such as ''[[Angulimaya sundara]]'', ''[[Onychophora coprophila]]'', ''[[Pulchromyces fimicola]]'', ''[[Sphondylocephalum verticillatum]]'' and ''[[Stilbella fimetaria]]''.
| author = Seifert, K.A.
| author2 = Kendrick, W.B.
| author3= Murase, G.
| year = 1983
| title = A key to Hyphomycetes on dung
| journal = University of Waterloo Biology Series no. 27
| pages = 1–62
}}</ref> Several species are found only on dung, such as ''[[Angulimaya sundara]]'', ''[[Onychophora coprophila]]'', ''[[Pulchromyces fimicola]]'', ''[[Sphondylocephalum verticillatum]]'' and ''[[Stilbella fimetaria]]''.


⚫
'''[[entomopathogenic fungus|Entomogenous]], entomopathogenic''' or insect-pathogenic hyphomycetes infect and kill insects (and spiders) and are especially diverse in tropical and subtropical regions, especially in Asia.<ref name=Samson1988/> Most are asexual states of or phylogenetically related to the Ascomycete families, [[Cordycipitaceae]] and [[Ophiocordycipitaceae]]. Insect hosts are infected by asexual spores, which germinate and grow to fill the host body with [[mycelium]] or hyphal bodies, then produce sporulating structures on the insect carcass. They are often found on dead insects under bark or in soil, but some affect insect behaviour ("[[Ophiocordyceps unilateralis|zombie fungus]]"), causing infected hosts to climb towards the light, ensuring that air-borne infective spores will be released higher up in the [[canopy (biology)|canopy]] of the forest or meadow.<ref name="Hughes 2011"/> Well-known entomogenous hyphomycetes are classified in ''[[Beauveria]]'', ''[[Metarhizium]]'' and ''[[Tolypocladium]]''; famous anamorphic [[genus|generic]] names such as ''[[Akanthomyces]]'', ''[[Gibellula]]'', ''[[Hirsutella]]'', ''[[Hymenostilbe]]'' and ''[[Isaria]]'' are now subsumed in genera formerly considered sexual, such as ''[[Cordyceps]]'', ''[[Ophiocordyceps]]'' and ''[[Torubiella]]'' under fungal single-name nomenclature.<ref name=Quandt2014/> Species of ''Beauveria'' and ''Metarhizium'' show some promise as [[biological control agent]]s against pest insects.<ref name="Fernandes 2012"/> ''[[Tolypocladium inflatum]]'' was the original source of [[cyclosporine A]], used as a drug to prevent rejection of [[organ transplant]]s.<ref name="Survase 2011"/>
'''[[entomopathogenic fungus|Entomogenous]], entomopathogenic''' or insect-pathogenic hyphomycetes infect and kill insects (and spiders) and are especially diverse in tropical and subtropical regions, especially in Asia.<ref name=Samson1988>{{cite book
| author = Samson, R.A.
| author2 = Evans, H.C.
| author3= Latgé, J.-P.
| year = 1988
| title = Atlas of entomopathogenic fungi
| publisher = Springer, Berlin, Germany.
⚫
}}</ref> Most are asexual states of or phylogenetically related to the Ascomycete families, [[Cordycipitaceae]] and [[Ophiocordycipitaceae]]. Insect hosts are infected by asexual spores, which germinate and grow to fill the host body with [[mycelium]] or hyphal bodies, then produce sporulating structures on the insect carcass. They are often found on dead insects under bark or in soil, but some affect insect behaviour ("[[Ophiocordyceps unilateralis|zombie fungus]]"), causing infected hosts to climb towards the light, ensuring that air-borne infective spores will be released higher up in the [[canopy (biology)|canopy]] of the forest or meadow.<ref name="Hughes 2011"/> Well-known entomogenous hyphomycetes are classified in ''[[Beauveria]]'', ''[[Metarhizium]]'' and ''[[Tolypocladium]]''; famous anamorphic [[genus|generic]] names such as ''[[Akanthomyces]]'', ''[[Gibellula]]'', ''[[Hirsutella]]'', ''[[Hymenostilbe]]'' and ''[[Isaria]]'' are now subsumed in genera formerly considered sexual, such as ''[[Cordyceps]]'', ''[[Ophiocordyceps]]'' and ''[[Torubiella]]'' under fungal single-name nomenclature.<ref name=Quandt2014>{{cite news
| author = Quandt
| year = 2014
| title = Phylogenetic-based nomenclatural proposals for Ophiocordycipitaceae (Hypocreales) with new combinations in ''Tolypocladium''
| journal = IMA Fungus 5
| pages = 121–134.
}}</ref> Species of ''Beauveria'' and ''Metarhizium'' show some promise as [[biological control agent]]s against pest insects.<ref name="Fernandes 2012"/> ''[[Tolypocladium inflatum]]'' was the original source of [[cyclosporine A]], used as a drug to prevent rejection of [[organ transplant]]s.<ref name="Survase 2011"/>


Many '''food-borne fungi''' are hyphomycetes. Species of ''Penicillium'' and ''Aspergillus'' are particularly common agents of food spoilage and also produce important mycotoxins that affect human health.<ref name=Samson2010>{{cite book
Many '''food-borne fungi''' are hyphomycetes. Species of ''Penicillium'' and ''Aspergillus'' are particularly common agents of food spoilage and also produce important mycotoxins that affect human health.<ref name=Samson2010/> Some species, such as ''Penicillium digitatum'' on citrus fruits, and ''Penicillium expansum'' on apples, are common on specific foods, while others are less specialized and grow on many different kinds of food.
| author = Samson, R.A.
| author2 = Houbraken, J.
| author3 = Thrane, U.
| author4 = Frisvad, J.C.
| author5 = Andersen, B.
| year = 2010
| title = Food and Indoor Fungi.
| publisher = CBS Laboratory Manual Series, no. 2
}}</ref> Some species, such as ''Penicillium digitatum'' on citrus fruits, and ''Penicillium expansum'' on apples, are common on specific foods, while others are less specialized and grow on many different kinds of food.


'''[[Nematophagous fungus|Nematophagous]]''' or nematode-trapping hyphomycetes either live their life-cycles in the bodies of dead nematodes or trap and kill nematodes in order to supplement their [[nitrogen]] requirements.<ref name=Barron1977>{{cite book
'''[[Nematophagous fungus|Nematophagous]]''' or nematode-trapping hyphomycetes either live their life-cycles in the bodies of dead nematodes or trap and kill nematodes in order to supplement their [[nitrogen]] requirements.<ref name=Barron1977>{{cite journal
| author = Barron, G.L.
| author = Barron, G.L.
| year = 1973
| year = 1973
| title = The Nematode-Destroying Fungi
| title = The Nematode-Destroying Fungi
| journal = Topics in Mycobiology No. 1
| journal = Topics in Mycobiology |issue=1
| publisher = Canadian Biological Publications; Guelph, Ont., Canada.
| publisher = Canadian Biological Publications |location=Guelph, Ont., Canada.
}}</ref> Species of the hyphomycete genus ''[[Arthrobotrys]]'', phylogenetically related to or being the asexual forms of ''[[Orbilia]]'', produce constricting loops that quickly shut to grab nematodes, or non-constricting loops or hyphal networks that entangle nematodes, or sticky knobs that adhere to nematodes as they swim by. Attempts to exploit these fungi as biological control agents against agriculturally harmful nematodes have generally been unsuccessful.<ref name="Waller 1996"/>
}}</ref> Species of the hyphomycete genus ''[[Arthrobotrys]]'', phylogenetically related to or being the asexual forms of ''[[Orbilia]]'', produce constricting loops that quickly shut to grab nematodes, or non-constricting loops or hyphal networks that entangle nematodes, or sticky knobs that adhere to nematodes as they swim by. Attempts to exploit these fungi as biological control agents against agriculturally harmful nematodes have generally been unsuccessful.<ref name="Waller 1996"/>


==See also==
==See also==
{{Portal|Fungi}}
{{Portal|Fungi}}
{{Col-begin|width=auto}}
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
{{Col-break}}
*''[[Acremonium]]''
*''[[Acremonium]]''
*''[[Alternaria]]''
*''[[Alternaria]]''
Line 101: Line 54:
*''[[Isaria]]''
*''[[Isaria]]''
*''[[Madurella]]''
*''[[Madurella]]''
{{Col-break}}
*''[[Malbranchea]]''
*''[[Malbranchea]]''
*''[[Paecilomyces]]''
*''[[Paecilomyces]]''
Line 115: Line 67:
*''[[Wallemia]]''
*''[[Wallemia]]''


{{Col-end}}
{{div col end}}


== References ==
== References ==
Line 122: Line 74:
<ref name="Bärlocher 2011">{{cite book |author=Bärlocher F. |title=The Ecology of Aquatic Hyphomycetes |series=Ecological Studies |volume=94 |year=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-76857-6}}</ref>
<ref name="Bärlocher 2011">{{cite book |author=Bärlocher F. |title=The Ecology of Aquatic Hyphomycetes |series=Ecological Studies |volume=94 |year=2011 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-76857-6}}</ref>


<ref name="Fernandes 2012">{{cite journal |author=Fernandes ÉK, Bittencourt VR, Roberts DW. |title=Perspectives on the potential of entomopathogenic fungi in biological control of ticks |journal=Experimental Parasitology |year=2012 |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=300–5 |pmid=22143088 |doi=10.1016/j.exppara.2011.11.004}}</ref>
<ref name="Fernandes 2012">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernandes ÉK, Bittencourt VR, Roberts DW |title=Perspectives on the potential of entomopathogenic fungi in biological control of ticks |journal=Experimental Parasitology |year=2012 |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=300–5 |pmid=22143088 |doi=10.1016/j.exppara.2011.11.004}}</ref>


<ref name="Hawksworth 2014">{{cite journal |author=Hawkswrth DL. |title=Possible house-keeping and other draft proposals to clarify or enhance the naming of fungi within the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) |journal=IMA Fungus |year=2014 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=31–7 |pmid=25083404 |doi=10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.01.04 |pmc=4107894}} {{open access}}</ref>
<ref name="Hawksworth 2014">{{cite journal |author=Hawksworth DL. |author-link=David Leslie Hawksworth |title=Possible house-keeping and other draft proposals to clarify or enhance the naming of fungi within the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) |journal=IMA Fungus |year=2014 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=31–7 |pmid=25083404 |doi=10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.01.04 |pmc=4107894}} {{open access}}</ref>


<ref name="Hibbett 2013">{{cite journal |author=Hibbett DS, Taylor JW. |title=Fungal systematics: is a new age of enlightenment at hand? |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |year=2013 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=129–33 |pmid=23288349 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro2963}}</ref>
<ref name="Hibbett 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hibbett DS, Taylor JW |title=Fungal systematics: is a new age of enlightenment at hand? |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |year=2013 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=129–33 |pmid=23288349 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro2963|s2cid=17070407 }}</ref>


<ref name="Hughes 2011">{{cite journal |author=Hughes DP, Andersen SB, Hywel-Jones NL, Himaman W, Billen J, Boomsma JJ. |title=Behavioral mechanisms and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection |journal=BMC Ecology |year=2011 |volume=11 |issue=13 |pages=1–10 |pmc=3118224 |doi=10.1186/1472-6785-11-13}} {{open access}}</ref>
<ref name="Hughes 2011">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hughes DP, Andersen SB, Hywel-Jones NL, Himaman W, Billen J, Boomsma JJ |title=Behavioral mechanisms and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection |journal=BMC Ecology |year=2011 |volume=11 |issue=13 |pages=1–10 |pmc=3118224 |doi=10.1186/1472-6785-11-13 |pmid=21554670 |doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref>


<ref name=Kendrick1973>{{cite book |author=Kendrick, W.B. |author2=Carmichael, J.W. |year=1973 |title=Hyphomycetes |journal=The Fungi: An Advanced Treatise |publisher=Academic Press |pages=323–509 |isbn=0-12-045604-4 |editor=Ainsworth, G.C. |editor2=Sparrow, F.K. |editor3=Sussman, A.S.}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name="Survase 2011">{{cite journal |author=Survase SA, Kagliwal LD, Annapure US, Singhal RS. |title=Cyclosporin A — a review on fermentative production, downstream processing and pharmacological applications |journal=Biotechnology Advances |year=2011 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=418–35 |pmid=21447377 |doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.03.004}}</ref>


<ref name="Waller 1996">{{cite journal |author=Waller PJ, Faedo M. |title=The prospects for biological control of the free-living stages of nematode parasites of livestock |journal=International Journal for Parasitology |year=1996 |volume=26 |issue=8–9 |pages=915–25 |pmid=8923139 |doi=10.1016/S0020-7519(96)80064-6}}</ref>
<ref name=Quandt2014>{{cite journal |author=Quandt |year=2014 |title=Phylogenetic-based nomenclatural proposals for Ophiocordycipitaceae (Hypocreales) with new combinations in ''Tolypocladium'' |journal=IMA Fungus |volume=5 |issue=1 | pages=121–134|doi=10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.01.12 |pmid=25083412 |pmc=4107890 }}</ref>

<ref name=Samson1988>{{cite book |author=Samson, R.A. |author2=Evans, H.C. |author3=Latgé, J.-P. |year=1988 |title=Atlas of entomopathogenic fungi |publisher=Springer |isbn=3540188312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WsmAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>

<ref name=Samson2010>{{cite book |author=Samson, R.A. |author2=Houbraken, J. |author3=Thrane, U. |author4=Frisvad, J.C. |author5=Andersen, B. |year= 2010 |title=Food and Indoor Fungi. |publisher=CBS Laboratory Manual Series |volume=2}}</ref>

<ref name=Seifert1983>{{cite journal |author=Seifert, K.A. |author2=Kendrick, W.B. |author3=Murase, G. |year=1983 |title=A key to Hyphomycetes on dung |journal=University of Waterloo Biology Series No. 27 |pages=1–62}}</ref>

<ref name=Seifert2011>{{cite book |author=Seifert, K.A. |author3=Morgan-Jones, G. |author4=Gams, W. |author2=Kendrick, B. |year=2011 |title=The Genera of Hyphomycetes |publisher=CBS Fungal Biodiversity Centre |pages=1–997}}</ref>

<ref name="Subramanian1982">{{cite book |first=C. V. |last=Subramanian | title=Hyphomycetes | publisher=Academic Press | author-link=C. V. Subramanian | year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTslAQAAMAAJ |isbn=978-0-12-675620-3}}</ref>

⚫
<ref name="Survase 2011">{{cite journal |vauthors=Survase SA, Kagliwal LD, Annapure US, Singhal RS |title=Cyclosporin A — a review on fermentative production, downstream processing and pharmacological applications |journal=Biotechnology Advances |year=2011 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=418–35 |pmid=21447377 |doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.03.004}}</ref>

<ref name="Waller 1996">{{cite journal |vauthors=Waller PJ, Faedo M |title=The prospects for biological control of the free-living stages of nematode parasites of livestock |journal=International Journal for Parasitology |year=1996 |volume=26 |issue=8–9 |pages=915–25 |pmid=8923139 |doi=10.1016/S0020-7519(96)80064-6}}</ref>


}}
}}

⚫
== Literature ==
⚫
*{{cite journal |first1=Keith A. |last1=Seifert |first2=Gareth |last2=Morgan-Jones |first3=Walter |last3=Gams |first4=Bryce |last4=Kendrick |title=The Genera of Hyphomycetes |journal=CBS Biodiversity Series |issue=9 |issn=1571-8859 |year=2011 |publisher=CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre |isbn=9789070351854}}


== External links ==
== External links ==
{{wikispecies}}
{{Wikispecies}}
*http://www.generaofhyphomycetes.org
*http://www.generaofhyphomycetes.org
*http://www.mycology.adelaide.edu.au/Fungal_Descriptions/Hyphomycetes_(hyaline)/
*https://web.archive.org/web/20070501103624/http://www.mycology.adelaide.edu.au/Fungal_Descriptions/Hyphomycetes_(hyaline)/
*http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/bioref/Fungi/Botrytis_cinerea.html
*https://web.archive.org/web/20070602115822/http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/bioref/Fungi/Botrytis_cinerea.html


{{Taxonbar|from=Q1046151}}
⚫
== Literature ==
{{Authority control}}
⚫
*Keith A. Seifert, Gareth Morgan-Jones, Walter Gams, Bryce Kendrick: The Genera of Hyphomycetes. Issue 9 of CBS Biodiversity Series, ISSN 1571-8859. CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, 2011. ISBN 9789070351854.


[[Category:Deuteromycota]]
[[Category:Deuteromycota]]
[[Category:Fungal obsolete taxonomic groups]]
[[Category:Obsolete fungus taxa]]
[[Category:Ascomycota]]
[[Category:Ascomycota]]

Latest revision as of 08:43, 20 August 2024

Hyphomycetes
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Orders

Hyphomycetales (obsolete)
Stilbellales (obsolete)
Tuberculariales (obsolete)

Hyphomycetes are a form classification of fungi, part of what has often been referred to as fungi imperfecti, Deuteromycota, or anamorphic fungi. Hyphomycetes lack closed fruit bodies, and are often referred to as moulds (or molds). Most hyphomycetes are now assigned to the Ascomycota, on the basis of genetic connections made by life-cycle studies or by phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences; many remain unassigned phylogenetically.

Although no longer considered a phylogenetically defined taxon, the prevalence of hyphomycete forms in nature, the built environment, and laboratories means that identification of members this group remains of practical importance.

Taxonomic and nomenclatural history

[edit]

Because asexual forms of fungi usually occur separately from their sexual forms, when microscopic fungi began to be studied in the early 19th century, it was often unknown when two morphologically different forms were actually part of one species. The tendency for some organisms to apparently only have asexual forms, or for their sexual forms to be discovered long after the asexual forms, meant that an independent taxonomy was developed for asexual fungi. Near the beginning of the 20th century, when it became clearer that many asexual and sexual forms were related, the concept of 'form taxa' was developed. The independent taxonomy of asexual forms was regarded as artificial, not representative of evolutionary relationships, and intended to be practical for identification purposes. The taxonomy of the sexual states was considered the true classification. The result was that many fungal species ended up with two accepted Latin binomials, one for the asexual form (or anamorph) and the other for the sexual form (teleomorph). This dual nomenclature was only abandoned in January 2012,[1] and the transition to a single name system, with one name representing all morphs of a fungus, is still incomplete.[2]

Identification

[edit]

Traditional identification of hyphomycetes was primarily based on microscopic morphology including: conidial morphology, especially septation, shape, size, colour and cell wall texture, the arrangement of conidia as they are borne on the conidiogenous cells (e.g. if they are solitary, in chains, or produced in slime), the type of conidiogenous cell (e.g. non-specialized or hypha-like, phialide, annellide, or sympodial), and other additional features such as the presence of sporodochia or synnemata.[3][4][5]

For species growing in culture, or in environmental DNA studies, most identifications of Hyphomycetes are now done with DNA barcoding. This is not always possible, however, for archival specimens or samples such as microscopic slides from air samples.

Ecological importance

[edit]

Aquatic or Ingoldian hyphomycetes are common on submerged decaying leaves and other organic matter, especially in clean running water with good aeration. Colonised leaves fall from the tree into the river. Their branched, septate mycelium penetrates through the leaf surface and spreads through leaf tissue. Conidiophores project into the water and bear conidia, which are often sigmoid, branched or tetraradiate structures. Aquatic hyphomycetes play an important role in the breakdown of organic matter in rivers, because their extracellular enzymes break down leaf tissue, which in turn is made more palatable to invertebrates. Leaves with fungi (conditioned) are a more nutritious source of food than unconditioned leaves.[6]

Coprophilous or dung-loving hyphomycetes are part of the succession of fungi occurring on many kinds of herbivore faeces, playing an important role in breaking down cellulose.[7] Several species are found only on dung, such as Angulimaya sundara, Onychophora coprophila, Pulchromyces fimicola, Sphondylocephalum verticillatum and Stilbella fimetaria.

Entomogenous, entomopathogenic or insect-pathogenic hyphomycetes infect and kill insects (and spiders) and are especially diverse in tropical and subtropical regions, especially in Asia.[8] Most are asexual states of or phylogenetically related to the Ascomycete families, Cordycipitaceae and Ophiocordycipitaceae. Insect hosts are infected by asexual spores, which germinate and grow to fill the host body with mycelium or hyphal bodies, then produce sporulating structures on the insect carcass. They are often found on dead insects under bark or in soil, but some affect insect behaviour ("zombie fungus"), causing infected hosts to climb towards the light, ensuring that air-borne infective spores will be released higher up in the canopy of the forest or meadow.[9] Well-known entomogenous hyphomycetes are classified in Beauveria, Metarhizium and Tolypocladium; famous anamorphic generic names such as Akanthomyces, Gibellula, Hirsutella, Hymenostilbe and Isaria are now subsumed in genera formerly considered sexual, such as Cordyceps, Ophiocordyceps and Torubiella under fungal single-name nomenclature.[10] Species of Beauveria and Metarhizium show some promise as biological control agents against pest insects.[11] Tolypocladium inflatum was the original source of cyclosporine A, used as a drug to prevent rejection of organ transplants.[12]

Many food-borne fungi are hyphomycetes. Species of Penicillium and Aspergillus are particularly common agents of food spoilage and also produce important mycotoxins that affect human health.[13] Some species, such as Penicillium digitatum on citrus fruits, and Penicillium expansum on apples, are common on specific foods, while others are less specialized and grow on many different kinds of food.

Nematophagous or nematode-trapping hyphomycetes either live their life-cycles in the bodies of dead nematodes or trap and kill nematodes in order to supplement their nitrogen requirements.[14] Species of the hyphomycete genus Arthrobotrys, phylogenetically related to or being the asexual forms of Orbilia, produce constricting loops that quickly shut to grab nematodes, or non-constricting loops or hyphal networks that entangle nematodes, or sticky knobs that adhere to nematodes as they swim by. Attempts to exploit these fungi as biological control agents against agriculturally harmful nematodes have generally been unsuccessful.[15]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Hibbett DS, Taylor JW (2013). "Fungal systematics: is a new age of enlightenment at hand?". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 11 (2): 129–33. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2963. PMID 23288349. S2CID 17070407.
  2. ^ Hawksworth DL. (2014). "Possible house-keeping and other draft proposals to clarify or enhance the naming of fungi within the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN)". IMA Fungus. 5 (1): 31–7. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.01.04. PMC 4107894. PMID 25083404. Open access icon
  3. ^ Kendrick, W.B.; Carmichael, J.W. (1973). Ainsworth, G.C.; Sparrow, F.K.; Sussman, A.S. (eds.). Hyphomycetes. Academic Press. pp. 323–509. ISBN 0-12-045604-4. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  4. ^ Subramanian, C. V. (1982). Hyphomycetes. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-675620-3.
  5. ^ Seifert, K.A.; Kendrick, B.; Morgan-Jones, G.; Gams, W. (2011). The Genera of Hyphomycetes. CBS Fungal Biodiversity Centre. pp. 1–997.
  6. ^ Bärlocher F. (2011). The Ecology of Aquatic Hyphomycetes. Ecological Studies. Vol. 94. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-76857-6.
  7. ^ Seifert, K.A.; Kendrick, W.B.; Murase, G. (1983). "A key to Hyphomycetes on dung". University of Waterloo Biology Series No. 27: 1–62.
  8. ^ Samson, R.A.; Evans, H.C.; Latgé, J.-P. (1988). Atlas of entomopathogenic fungi. Springer. ISBN 3540188312.
  9. ^ Hughes DP, Andersen SB, Hywel-Jones NL, Himaman W, Billen J, Boomsma JJ (2011). "Behavioral mechanisms and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection". BMC Ecology. 11 (13): 1–10. doi:10.1186/1472-6785-11-13. PMC 3118224. PMID 21554670. Open access icon
  10. ^ Quandt (2014). "Phylogenetic-based nomenclatural proposals for Ophiocordycipitaceae (Hypocreales) with new combinations in Tolypocladium". IMA Fungus. 5 (1): 121–134. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.01.12. PMC 4107890. PMID 25083412.
  11. ^ Fernandes ÉK, Bittencourt VR, Roberts DW (2012). "Perspectives on the potential of entomopathogenic fungi in biological control of ticks". Experimental Parasitology. 130 (3): 300–5. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2011.11.004. PMID 22143088.
  12. ^ Survase SA, Kagliwal LD, Annapure US, Singhal RS (2011). "Cyclosporin A — a review on fermentative production, downstream processing and pharmacological applications". Biotechnology Advances. 29 (4): 418–35. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.03.004. PMID 21447377.
  13. ^ Samson, R.A.; Houbraken, J.; Thrane, U.; Frisvad, J.C.; Andersen, B. (2010). Food and Indoor Fungi. Vol. 2. CBS Laboratory Manual Series.
  14. ^ Barron, G.L. (1973). "The Nematode-Destroying Fungi". Topics in Mycobiology (1). Guelph, Ont., Canada.: Canadian Biological Publications.
  15. ^ Waller PJ, Faedo M (1996). "The prospects for biological control of the free-living stages of nematode parasites of livestock". International Journal for Parasitology. 26 (8–9): 915–25. doi:10.1016/S0020-7519(96)80064-6. PMID 8923139.

Literature

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  • Seifert, Keith A.; Morgan-Jones, Gareth; Gams, Walter; Kendrick, Bryce (2011). "The Genera of Hyphomycetes". CBS Biodiversity Series (9). CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre. ISBN 9789070351854. ISSN 1571-8859.
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