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{{Infobox anatomy
{{Infobox anatomy
| Name = Subcutaneous tissue
| Name = Subcutaneous tissue
| Latin = tela subcutanea<ref name=ta98>{{cite book| title = Terminologia Anatomica| chapter = The Integument| year= 1998| chapter-url = http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/16.0.03.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm}}</ref>
| Latin = tela subcutanea<ref name=ta98>{{Terminologia Anatomica|A16.0.03.001}}</ref>
| Greek =
| Greek =
| Image =
| Image =
| Caption =
| Caption =
| Width =
| Width =
| Image2 = Skin.png
| Image2 = Skin.png
| Caption2 = The hypodermis is the lower layer of skin shown in the diagram above.
| Caption2 = The hypodermis is the lower layer of skin shown in the diagram above.
| Precursor =
| Precursor =
| System = [[integumentary]]
| System = [[Integumentary]]
| Artery =
| Artery =
| Vein =
| Vein =
| Nerve =
| Nerve =
| Lymph =
| Lymph =
}}
}}


The '''subcutaneous tissue''' ({{etymology|la|subcutaneous|beneath the skin}}), also called the '''hypodermis''', '''hypoderm''' ({{etymology|gre||beneath the skin}}), '''subcutis''', '''superficial fascia''',<ref>{{Cite web|title=hypodermis lumenlearning|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/hypodermis/|url-status=live}}</ref> is the lowermost layer of the [[integumentary system]] in [[vertebrate]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Mosby's Medical, Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary]]|year=1994|publisher=Mosby|location=St. Louis|isbn=978-0801672255|edition=4th|pages=998, 774, 1497}}</ref> The types of cells found in the layer are [[fibroblast]]s, [[adipose cells]], and [[macrophage]]s. The subcutaneous tissue is derived from the [[mesoderm]], but unlike the [[dermis]], it is not derived from the mesoderm's [[Dermatome (anatomy)|dermatome]] region. It consists primarily of [[loose connective tissue]], and contains larger blood vessels and nerves than those found in the dermis. It is a major site of fat storage in the body.
The '''subcutaneous tissue''' ({{etymology|la|subcutaneous|beneath the skin}}), also called the '''hypodermis''', '''hypoderm''' ({{etymology|gre||beneath the skin}}), '''subcutis''', or '''superficial fascia''',<ref>{{Cite web|title=hypodermis lumenlearning|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/hypodermis/}}</ref> is the lowermost layer of the [[integumentary system]] in [[vertebrate]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Mosby's Medical, Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary]]|year=1994|publisher=Mosby|location=St. Louis|isbn=978-0801672255|edition=4th|pages=998, 774, 1497}}</ref> The types of cells found in the layer are [[fibroblast]]s, [[adipose cells]], and [[macrophage]]s. The subcutaneous tissue is derived from the [[mesoderm]], but unlike the [[dermis]], it is not derived from the mesoderm's [[Dermatome (anatomy)|dermatome]] region. It consists primarily of [[loose connective tissue]] and contains larger blood vessels and nerves than those found in the dermis. It is a major site of fat storage in the body.


In [[arthropods]], a hypodermis can refer to an epidermal layer of cells that secretes the [[chitin]]ous [[cuticle]]. The term also refers to a layer of cells lying immediately below the [[Epidermis (botany)|epidermis]] of plants.
In [[arthropods]], a hypodermis can refer to an epidermal layer of cells that secretes the [[chitin]]ous [[cuticle]]. The term also refers to a layer of cells lying immediately below the [[Epidermis (botany)|epidermis]] of plants.

⚫
==Structure==


⚫
==Structure==
* Fibrous bands anchoring the skin to the [[deep fascia]]<ref name=mcminn2003 />
* Fibrous bands anchoring the skin to the [[deep fascia]]<ref name=mcminn2003 />
* [[Collagen]] and [[elastin]] fibers attaching it to the dermis<ref name=loreal />
* [[Collagen]] and [[elastin]] fibers attaching it to the dermis<ref name=loreal />
* Fat is absent from the eyelids, clitoris, penis, much of [[Pinna (anatomy)|pinna]], and scrotum<ref name=ta98 />
* Fat is absent from the eyelids, clitoris, [[penis]], much of [[Pinna (anatomy)|pinna]], and scrotum<ref name=ta98 />
* Blood vessels on route to the dermis<ref name=tamarkin />
* Blood vessels on route to the dermis<ref name=tamarkin />
* Lymphatic vessels on route from the dermis<ref name=dartmouth />
* Lymphatic vessels on route from the dermis<ref name=dartmouth />
* The glandular part of some [[sweat gland]]s; [[mammary gland]] lie entirely within the subcutaneous tissue<ref name=fischer2006 /> (which are modified [[apocrine sweat glands]])<ref name=krstic04>{{cite book| publisher = Springer| isbn = 9783540536666| last = Krstic| first = Radivoj V.| title = Human Microscopic Anatomy: An Atlas for Students of Medicine and Biology| date = 18 March 2004|pages=466}}</ref>
* The glandular part of some [[sweat gland]]s; [[mammary glands]] lie entirely within the subcutaneous tissue<ref name=fischer2006 /> (which are modified [[apocrine sweat glands]])<ref name=krstic04>{{cite book| publisher = Springer| isbn = 9783540536666| last = Krstic| first = Radivoj V.| title = Human Microscopic Anatomy: An Atlas for Students of Medicine and Biology| date = 18 March 2004|pages=466}}</ref>
* Cutaneous nerves<ref name=dartmouth /> and free endings
* Cutaneous nerves<ref name=dartmouth /> and free endings
* Hair follicle roots
* Hair follicle roots
* [[Ruffini ending|Ruffini]]<ref name=kenneth2007 />{{rp|478}} and [[Pacinian corpuscles]]
* [[Ruffini ending|Ruffini]]<ref name=kenneth2007 />{{rp|478}} and [[Pacinian corpuscles]]
* [[Mast cells]]<ref name=goldsmith>{{cite book | edition=8 | publisher=McGraw-Hill | isbn=978-0071669047 | last=Goldsmith | first=Lowell A. |author2=Katz, Stephen I. |author3=Gilchrest, Barbara A. |author4=Paller, Amy S. |author5=Leffell, David J. |author6= Wolff, Klaus | title=Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine | date=10 April 2012 |page=64}}</ref>
* [[Mast cells]]<ref name=goldsmith>{{cite book | edition=8 | publisher=McGraw-Hill | isbn=978-0071669047 | last=Goldsmith | first=Lowell A. |author2=Katz, Stephen I. |author3=Gilchrest, Barbara A. |author4=Paller, Amy S. |author5=Leffell, David J. |author6= Wolff, Klaus | title=Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine | date=10 April 2012 |page=64}}</ref>
* Bursae, in the space overlying joints in order to facilitate smooth passage of overlying skin
* Bursae, in the space overlying joints in order to facilitate smooth passage of overlying skin
* Fine, flat sheets of muscle, in certain locations, including the scalp, face, hand, nipple, and scrotum, called the [[panniculus carnosus]]
* Fine, flat sheets of muscle, in certain locations, including the scalp, face, hand, nipple, and scrotum, called the [[panniculus carnosus]]


In some animals, such as whales and hibernating mammals, the hypodermis forms an important insulating layer and/or food store.
The hypodermis forms an important insulating layer and/or food store in some animals, such as whales and hibernating mammals.


In some plants, the hypodermis is a layer of cells immediately below the epidermis of leaves. It is often mechanically strengthened, for example, in pine leaves, forming an extra protective layer or a water storage tissue.
In some plants, the hypodermis is a layer of cells immediately below the epidermis of leaves. It is often mechanically strengthened, for example, in pine leaves, forming an extra protective layer or a water storage tissue.


=== {{Visible anchor|Subcutaneous fat}} ===<!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before saving your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. (This text: [[Template:Anchor comment]]) -->
=== Subcutaneous fat ===<!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before saving your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. (This text: [[Template:Anchor comment]]) -->
[[File:FatCT2008.JPG|right|thumb|alt=Two computed tomography images of a horizontal section of the mid abdominal region; one from a normal weight individual the other from an obese person. In both the bony structures and organs appear similar. The primary difference is that in the normal weight person there is little subcutaneous fat and the obese person shows substantially subcutaneous fat.|Cross-sections of the torso of a person of normal weight (left) and an obese person (right), taken by [[Computed tomography|CT scan]]. Note the 3.6&nbsp;cm (1.4&nbsp;inches) of [[subcutaneous fat]] on the obese person.]]
[[File:FatCT2008.JPG|right|thumb|alt=Two computed tomography images of a horizontal section of the mid-abdominal region; one from a normal-weight individual and the other from an obese person. In both, the bony structures and organs appear similar. The primary difference is that in the normal-weight person, there is little subcutaneous fat, and the obese person shows substantially subcutaneous fat.|Cross-sections of the torso of a person of normal weight (left) and an obese person (right), taken by [[Computed tomography|CT scan]]. Note the 3.6&nbsp;cm (1.4&nbsp;inches) of [[subcutaneous fat]] on the obese person.]]
[[panniculus adiposus|Subcutaneous fat]] is the layer of subcutaneous tissue that is most widely distributed.<ref name=ta98/> It is composed of adipocytes, which are grouped together in [[lobules]] separated by [[connective tissue]].<ref name=loreal /> The number of adipocytes varies among different areas of the body, while their size varies according to the body's nutritional state.<ref name=mesh /> It acts as padding and as an energy reserve, as well as providing some minor [[thermoregulation]] via insulation.<ref name=kenneth2007 /><ref name=loreal /> Subcutaneous fat is found just beneath the skin, as opposed to [[visceral fat]], which is found in the [[peritoneal cavity]],<ref name=harvard2006 /> and can be measured using [[body fat]] [[caliper]]s to give a rough estimate of total body [[adiposity]].<ref name=orphanidou1994 />
[[panniculus adiposus|Subcutaneous fat]] is the most widely distributed subcutaneous tissue layer.<ref name=ta98/> It is composed of adipocytes, which are grouped together in [[lobules]] separated by [[connective tissue]].<ref name=loreal /> The number of adipocytes varies among different body areas, while their size varies according to the body's nutritional state.<ref name=mesh /> It acts as padding and as an energy reserve, as well as providing some minor [[thermoregulation]] via insulation.<ref name=kenneth2007 /><ref name=loreal /> Subcutaneous fat is found just beneath the skin, as opposed to [[visceral fat]], which is found in the [[peritoneal cavity]],<ref name=harvard2006 /> and can be measured using [[body fat]] [[caliper]]s to give a rough estimate of total body [[adiposity]].<ref name=orphanidou1994 />


==Clinical significance==
==Clinical significance==
===Injection===
===Injection===
{{main|Subcutaneous injection}}
{{main|Subcutaneous injection}}
Injection into the subcutaneous tissue is a [[route of administration]] used for drugs such as [[insulin]]: because it is highly vascular, the tissue absorbs drugs quickly.<ref name=kenneth2007 />{{rp|135}} Subcutaneous injection is believed to be the most effective manner to administer some drugs, such as human growth hormones. Just as the subcutaneous tissue can store fat, it can also provide good storage space for drugs that need to be released gradually because there is limited blood flow. "[[Skin popping]]" is a slang term that includes this method of administration, and is usually used in association with [[recreational drugs]].
Injection into the subcutaneous tissue is a [[route of administration]] used for drugs such as [[insulin]]: because it possesses few blood vessels, the tissue absorbs drugs slowly.<ref name=kenneth2007 />{{rp|135}} Subcutaneous injection is believed to be the most effective manner to administer some drugs, such as human growth hormones. Just as the subcutaneous tissue can store fat, it can also provide good storage space for drugs that need to be released gradually because of limited blood flow. "[[Skin popping]]" is a slang term that includes this method of administration and is usually used in association with [[recreational drugs]].


===Disease===
===Disease===
Line 55: Line 54:


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Dermis]]
* [[Dermis]]
*[[Epidermis (skin)|Epidermis]]
* [[Epidermis (skin)|Epidermis]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=dartmouth>{{cite web | last=O'Rahilly | first=Ronan |author2=Müller, Fabiola |author3=Carpenter, Stanley |author4=Swenson, Rand |author5= Dartmouth Medical School | title=Chapter 4: The skin, hair and nails | work=Basic Human Anatomy: A Regional Study of Human Structure | access-date=9 June 2013 | url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/part_1/chapter_4.html}}</ref>
<ref name=dartmouth>{{cite web | last=O'Rahilly | first=Ronan |author2=Müller, Fabiola |author3=Carpenter, Stanley |author4=Swenson, Rand |author5= Dartmouth Medical School | title=Chapter 4: The skin, hair and nails | work=Basic Human Anatomy: A Regional Study of Human Structure | access-date=9 June 2013 | url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/part_1/chapter_4.html}}</ref>
<!--unused ref<ref name=farris>{{cite web | last=Farris | first=Patricia K. | title=Skin Anatomy and Physiology | work=Nu Skin | access-date=5 June 2013 | url=http://www.nuskin.com/en_ZA/corporate/company/science/skin_care_science/skin_anatomy_andphysiology.html}}</ref>-->
<!--unused ref<ref name=farris>{{cite web | last=Farris | first=Patricia K. | title=Skin Anatomy and Physiology | work=Nu Skin | access-date=5 June 2013 | url=http://www.nuskin.com/en_ZA/corporate/company/science/skin_care_science/skin_anatomy_andphysiology.html}}</ref>-->
<ref name=fischer2006>{{cite book| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins| isbn = 078177165X| last1 = Fischer| first1 = Josef E.| first2 = Kirby I. |last2= Bland|first3= Mark P.|last3= Callery| title = Mastery of Surgery| url = https://archive.org/details/masterysurgery00fisc| url-access = limited| date = 18 December 2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/masterysurgery00fisc/page/n1926 482]}}</ref>
<ref name=fischer2006>{{cite book| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins| isbn = 078177165X| last1 = Fischer| first1 = Josef E.| first2 = Kirby I. |last2= Bland|first3= Mark P.|last3= Callery| title = Mastery of Surgery| url = https://archive.org/details/masterysurgery00fisc| url-access = limited| date = 18 December 2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/masterysurgery00fisc/page/n1926 482]}}</ref>
<ref name=harvard2006>{{cite web| publisher = Harvard Medical School| title = Abdominal fat and what to do about it| work = Harvard Health Publications| access-date = 5 June 2013| year = 2006| url = http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsweek/Abdominal-fat-and-what-to-do-about-it.htm}}</ref>
<ref name=harvard2006>{{cite web| publisher = Harvard Medical School| title = Abdominal fat and what to do about it| work = Harvard Health Publications| access-date = 5 June 2013| year = 2006| url = http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsweek/Abdominal-fat-and-what-to-do-about-it.htm}}</ref>
<ref name=kenneth2007>{{cite book| publisher = Rex Bookstore, Inc.| isbn = 978-0071259712| last = Kenneth| first = Saladin| title = Human Anatomy| year = 2007 | pages=135, 478, 602}}</ref>
<ref name=kenneth2007>{{cite book| publisher = Rex Bookstore, Inc.| isbn = 978-0071259712| last = Kenneth| first = Saladin| title = Human Anatomy| year = 2007 | pages=135, 478, 602}}</ref>
<ref name=loreal>{{cite web| publisher = L'Oréal| title = The hypodermis| work = An Organ Revealed| access-date = 4 June 2013| url = http://www.skin-science.com/_int/_en/topic/topic_sousrub.aspx?tc=SKIN_SCIENCE_ROOT%5EAN_ORGAN_REVEALED%5ETHE_HYPODERMIS&cur=THE_HYPODERMIS}}</ref>
<ref name=loreal>{{cite web| publisher = L'Oréal| title = The hypodermis| work = An Organ Revealed| access-date = 4 June 2013| url = http://www.skin-science.com/_int/_en/topic/topic_sousrub.aspx?tc=SKIN_SCIENCE_ROOT%5EAN_ORGAN_REVEALED%5ETHE_HYPODERMIS&cur=THE_HYPODERMIS}}</ref>
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<ref name=mcminn2003>{{cite book| publisher = Churchill Livingstone| isbn = 0729537528| last = McMinn | first=R.M.H.| title = Lasts Anatomy: Regional and Applied| date = 2003| page = 3}}</ref>
<ref name=mcminn2003>{{cite book| publisher = Churchill Livingstone| isbn = 0729537528| last = McMinn | first=R.M.H.| title = Lasts Anatomy: Regional and Applied| date = 2003| page = 3}}</ref>
<ref name=mesh>{{cite web| publisher = National Library of Medicine| title = Subcutaneous Tissue| work = Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)| access-date = 5 June 2013| url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2011/MB_cgi?mode=&term=Subcutaneous+Tissue}}</ref>
<ref name=mesh>{{cite web| publisher = National Library of Medicine| title = Subcutaneous Tissue| work = Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)| access-date = 5 June 2013| url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2011/MB_cgi?mode=&term=Subcutaneous+Tissue}}</ref>
<!-- unused ref <ref name=stecco2012>{{cite book | publisher=PICCIN | isbn=8829921998 | last=Stecco | first=Luigi |author2=Stecco, Carla | title=Fascial Manipulation: Practical Part | year= 2012 |pages=5–6}}</ref> -->
<!-- unused ref <ref name=stecco2012>{{cite book | publisher=PICCIN | isbn=8829921998 | last=Stecco | first=Luigi |author2=Stecco, Carla | title=Fascial Manipulation: Practical Part | year= 2012 |pages=5–6}}</ref> -->
<ref name=ta98>{{cite book| title = Terminologia Anatomica| chapter = The Integument| year= 1998| chapter-url = http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/16.0.03.001%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm}}</ref>
<ref name=tamarkin>{{cite web | last=Tamarkin | first=Dawn A. | publisher=Springfield Technical Community College | title=Unit 4: Skin & Bone Structure | access-date=8 June 2013 | url=http://faculty.stcc.edu/AandP/AP/AP1pages/Units1to4/skin/unit4.htm}}</ref>
<ref name=tamarkin>{{cite web | last=Tamarkin | first=Dawn A. | publisher=Springfield Technical Community College | title=Unit 4: Skin & Bone Structure | access-date=8 June 2013 | url=http://faculty.stcc.edu/AandP/AP/AP1pages/Units1to4/skin/unit4.htm}}</ref>
}}
}}

Latest revision as of 18:50, 29 October 2024

Subcutaneous tissue
The hypodermis is the lower layer of skin shown in the diagram above.
Details
SystemIntegumentary
Identifiers
Latintela subcutanea[1]
MeSHD040521
TA98A16.0.03.001
TA27083
THH3.12.00.2.00001
FMA9630
Anatomical terminology

The subcutaneous tissue (from Latin subcutaneous 'beneath the skin'), also called the hypodermis, hypoderm (from Greek 'beneath the skin'), subcutis, or superficial fascia,[2] is the lowermost layer of the integumentary system in vertebrates.[3] The types of cells found in the layer are fibroblasts, adipose cells, and macrophages. The subcutaneous tissue is derived from the mesoderm, but unlike the dermis, it is not derived from the mesoderm's dermatome region. It consists primarily of loose connective tissue and contains larger blood vessels and nerves than those found in the dermis. It is a major site of fat storage in the body.

In arthropods, a hypodermis can refer to an epidermal layer of cells that secretes the chitinous cuticle. The term also refers to a layer of cells lying immediately below the epidermis of plants.

Structure

[edit]

The hypodermis forms an important insulating layer and/or food store in some animals, such as whales and hibernating mammals.

In some plants, the hypodermis is a layer of cells immediately below the epidermis of leaves. It is often mechanically strengthened, for example, in pine leaves, forming an extra protective layer or a water storage tissue.

Subcutaneous fat

[edit]
Two computed tomography images of a horizontal section of the mid-abdominal region; one from a normal-weight individual and the other from an obese person. In both, the bony structures and organs appear similar. The primary difference is that in the normal-weight person, there is little subcutaneous fat, and the obese person shows substantially subcutaneous fat.
Cross-sections of the torso of a person of normal weight (left) and an obese person (right), taken by CT scan. Note the 3.6 cm (1.4 inches) of subcutaneous fat on the obese person.

Subcutaneous fat is the most widely distributed subcutaneous tissue layer.[1] It is composed of adipocytes, which are grouped together in lobules separated by connective tissue.[5] The number of adipocytes varies among different body areas, while their size varies according to the body's nutritional state.[12] It acts as padding and as an energy reserve, as well as providing some minor thermoregulation via insulation.[10][5] Subcutaneous fat is found just beneath the skin, as opposed to visceral fat, which is found in the peritoneal cavity,[13] and can be measured using body fat calipers to give a rough estimate of total body adiposity.[14]

Clinical significance

[edit]

Injection

[edit]
Main article: Subcutaneous injection

Injection into the subcutaneous tissue is a route of administration used for drugs such as insulin: because it possesses few blood vessels, the tissue absorbs drugs slowly.[10]: 135  Subcutaneous injection is believed to be the most effective manner to administer some drugs, such as human growth hormones. Just as the subcutaneous tissue can store fat, it can also provide good storage space for drugs that need to be released gradually because of limited blood flow. "Skin popping" is a slang term that includes this method of administration and is usually used in association with recreational drugs.

Disease

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c TA A16.0.03.001
  2. ^ "hypodermis lumenlearning".
  3. ^ Mosby's Medical, Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary (4th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby. 1994. pp. 998, 774, 1497. ISBN 978-0801672255.
  4. ^ McMinn, R.M.H. (2003). Lasts Anatomy: Regional and Applied. Churchill Livingstone. p. 3. ISBN 0729537528.
  5. ^ a b c "The hypodermis". An Organ Revealed. L'Oréal. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
  6. ^ Tamarkin, Dawn A. "Unit 4: Skin & Bone Structure". Springfield Technical Community College. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
  7. ^ a b O'Rahilly, Ronan; Müller, Fabiola; Carpenter, Stanley; Swenson, Rand; Dartmouth Medical School. "Chapter 4: The skin, hair and nails". Basic Human Anatomy: A Regional Study of Human Structure. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
  8. ^ Fischer, Josef E.; Bland, Kirby I.; Callery, Mark P. (18 December 2006). Mastery of Surgery. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 482. ISBN 078177165X.
  9. ^ Krstic, Radivoj V. (18 March 2004). Human Microscopic Anatomy: An Atlas for Students of Medicine and Biology. Springer. p. 466. ISBN 9783540536666.
  10. ^ a b c Kenneth, Saladin (2007). Human Anatomy. Rex Bookstore, Inc. pp. 135, 478, 602. ISBN 978-0071259712.
  11. ^ Goldsmith, Lowell A.; Katz, Stephen I.; Gilchrest, Barbara A.; Paller, Amy S.; Leffell, David J.; Wolff, Klaus (10 April 2012). Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine (8 ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 64. ISBN 978-0071669047.
  12. ^ "Subcutaneous Tissue". Medical Subject Headings (MeSH). National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
  13. ^ "Abdominal fat and what to do about it". Harvard Health Publications. Harvard Medical School. 2006. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
  14. ^ Orphanidou, C; McCargar, L; Birmingham, C; Mathieson, J; Goldner, E (August 1994). "Accuracy of subcutaneous fat measurement: comparison of skinfold calipers, ultrasound, and computed tomography". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 94 (8): 855–858. doi:10.1016/0002-8223(94)92363-9. ISSN 0002-8223. PMID 8046177.
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