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{{Short description|Species of conifer}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
| name = European black pine
| name = European black pine
| image = Forest in Bulgaria near Dundukovo dam.jpg
| image = Świerklaniec pinus nigra 12.06.2010 p.jpg
| image_caption = ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. '' nigra'', Bulgaria
| image_caption = ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. '' nigra'',
| status = LC
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{Cite iucn | author = Farjon, A. | title = ''Pinus nigra'' | volume = 2013 | page = e.T42386A2976817 | date = 2013 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42386A2976817.en }}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Farjon, A. |date=2013 |title=''Pinus nigra'' |volume=2013 |page=e.T42386A2976817 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42386A2976817.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Pinus
| genus = Pinus
| display_parents = 3
| display_parents = 3
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| authority = J.F.Arnold
| authority = J.F.Arnold
| range_map = Pinus nigra map.png
| range_map = Pinus nigra map.png
| range_map_caption = 1: ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' (1a: var. ''nigra'', 1b: var. ''pallasiana'', 1c: var. ''caramanica'').<br/>2: ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' (2a: var. ''salzmannii'', 2b: var. ''corsicana'', 2c: var. ''mauretanica'')
| range_map_caption = 1: ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' (1a: var. ''nigra'', 1b: var. ''pallasiana'', 1c: var. ''caramanica'').<br />2: ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' (2a: var. ''salzmannii'', 2b: var. ''corsicana'', 2c: var. ''mauretanica'')
}}
}}


'''''Pinus nigra''''', the '''Austrian pine'''<ref>{{PLANTS|id=PINI|taxon=Pinus nigra|accessdate=4 October 2015}}</ref> or '''black pine''', is a moderately variable species of [[pine]], occurring across southern Mediterranean Europe from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean, on the Anatolian peninsula of Turkey on Corsica and Cyprus as well as Crimea and in the high mountains of the [[Maghreb]] in North Africa.
'''''Pinus nigra''''', the '''Austrian pine'''<ref>{{PLANTS|id=PINI|taxon=Pinus nigra|access-date=4 October 2015}}</ref> or '''black pine''', is a moderately variable species of [[pine]], occurring across [[Southern Europe]] from the [[Iberian Peninsula]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jb.utad.pt/especie/Pinus_nigra|title = Jardim Botânico UTAD &#124; Espécie Pinus nigra|website=Jb.utad.pt}}</ref> to the eastern Mediterranean, on the Anatolian peninsula of Turkey, Corsica and Cyprus, as well as Crimea and in the high mountains of Northwest Africa.
The world's oldest black pine, located in the Banaz district of Uşak, Türkiye, is estimated to be 1000 years old. This makes it significant in the country, which is known for a very dry climate, inhospitable for most trees. It has a length of 11 meters, a diameter of 3 meters and a circumference of 9.60 meters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.haber7.com/yasam/haber/1313339-dunyanin-en-yasli-agaci-turkiyede |title=Dünyanın en yaşlı ağacı Türkiye'de }}</ref>

[[File:En Yaşlı Karaçam Ağacı “Anıt Ağaç” Uşak'ta! (Banaz-Bahadır Köyü-Tepedelen Mevkii).jpg|thumb|upright|The world's oldest black pine tree is about 1000 years old and is in Turkey]]
⚫
==Distribution==
⚫
''Pinus nigra'' is a tree of the [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]] [[biome]].
⚫
The majority of the range is in Turkey. It is found in the higher elevations of the [[South Apennine mixed montane forests]] [[ecoregion]] in southern Italy and the [[Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests]] ecoregion in Sicily. There are remnant populations in the [[Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests]] ecoregion, and in the higher [[Atlas Mountains]] in Morocco and Algeria.

⚫
It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to {{convert|2000|m|ft}}, most commonly from {{convert|250|-|1600|m|ft}}. Several of the varieties have distinct English names.<ref name=rushforth>Rushforth, K. (1987). ''Conifers''. Helm {{ISBN|0-7470-2801-X}}.</ref>

⚫
It has naturalized in parts of the midwestern states of the U.S, normally south of the normal native ranges of native pines.


==Description==
==Description==
''Pinus nigra'' is a large [[pinophyta|coniferous]] [[evergreen]] [[tree]], growing to {{convert|20|-|55|m|ft}} high at maturity and spreading to 20 to 40 feet wide. The bark is grey to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The leaves ("needles") are thinner and more flexible in western populations (see 'Taxonomy' section below).
''Pinus nigra'' is a large [[conifer]]ous [[evergreen]] [[tree]], growing to {{convert|20|-|55|m|abbr=off}} high at maturity and spreading to {{Convert|6 to 12|m|abbr=on}} wide. The [[Bark (botany)|bark]] is gray to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The [[leaves]] ('needles') are thinner and more flexible in western populations.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are 5–10&nbsp;cm (rarely to 11&nbsp;cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale grey-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark grey, 6–8&nbsp;mm long, with a yellow-buff wing 20–25&nbsp;mm long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.
The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are {{Convert|5–10|cm|abbr=off|frac=4}} (rarely to 11&nbsp;cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale gray-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark gray, {{Convert|6–8|mm|frac=16}} long, with a yellow-buff wing {{Convert|20–25|mm|abbr=on|frac=8}} long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


''Pinus nigra'' is moderately fast growing, at about {{convert|30|-|70|cm|in}} per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long-lived, with some trees over 500 years old. It needs full sun to grow well, is intolerant of shade, and is resistant to snow and ice damage.
''Pinus nigra'' is moderately fast growing, at about {{convert|30|-|70|cm|abbr=on}} per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long-lived, with some trees over 500 years old. Multiple pests can damage ''P. nigra'', including ''[[Tomicus piniperda|T. piniperda]].''


{{Gallery
{{Gallery
|File:2021-05-07 12 50 37 Pollen cones on an Austrian Pine within Franklin Glen Park in the Franklin Glen section of Chantilly, Fairfax County, Virginia.jpg|Pollen cones
|File:Borovicová šiška.jpg|Foliage and cone of subsp. ''nigra''
|File:Borovicová šiška.jpg|Foliage and cone of subsp. ''nigra''
|File:Austrian Pine Pinus nigra Bark Closeup 2000px.jpg|Bark of subsp. ''laricio''
|File:Austrian Pine Pinus nigra Bark Closeup 2000px.jpg|Bark of subsp. ''laricio''
|File:Pinus nigra MHNT.2022.4.3.jpg|''Pinus nigra''
}}
}}


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*** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''laricio'' Koekelare <ref name="Belgische Dendrologie Belge">Belgische Dendrologie Belge [http://dendrologie.be/nl/content/2390 ''Pinus Nigra Laricio Koekelare'']</ref>
*** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''laricio'' Koekelare <ref name="Belgische Dendrologie Belge">Belgische Dendrologie Belge [http://dendrologie.be/nl/content/2390 ''Pinus Nigra Laricio Koekelare'']</ref>
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' var. ''mauretanica'' (Atlas Mountains black pine): Morocco, Algeria.
** ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' var. ''mauretanica'' (Atlas Mountains black pine): Morocco, Algeria.

==Ecology==
[[File:Pin_laricio_Corse.jpg|thumb|upright|''Pinus nigra'' var. ''corsicana''—Corsican pine, in [[Corsica]].]]
[[File:Pin_laricio_Corse.jpg|thumb|upright|''Pinus nigra'' var. ''corsicana''—Corsican pine, in [[Corsica]].]]
⚫
== Distribution and habitat ==
⚫
[[File:Crepuscular rays in the woods of Kasterlee, Belgium.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Pinus nigra'' var. ''corsicana''—Corsican pine plantation, in [[Belgium]].]]
⚫
''Pinus nigra'' is a tree of the [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub]] [[biome]].
⚫
In Mediterranean Europe and the [[Anatolian Peninsula]] ([[Asia Minor]]), trees usually associated with this species include [[Scots pine]] (''Pinus sylvestris''), [[Serbian spruce]] (''Picea omorika''), [[Bosnian pine]] (''Pinus heldreichii''), [[Norway spruce]] (''Picea abies''), Taurus cedar (''[[Cedrus libani]]''), [[European silver fir]] (''Abies alba'') and related [[fir]]s. Several species of [[juniper]] (''Juniperus'' spp.), and various [[broadleaf]] trees are associates.
⚫
The majority of the range is in Turkey. It is found in the higher elevations of the [[South Apennine mixed montane forests]] [[ecoregion]] in southern Italy and the [[Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests]] ecoregion in Sicily. There are remnant populations in the [[Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests]] ecoregion, and in the higher [[Atlas Mountains]] in Morocco and Algeria.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


⚫
It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}}, most commonly from {{convert|250|-|1600|m|abbr=on}}. Several of the varieties have distinct English names.<ref name="rushforth">Rushforth, K. (1987). ''Conifers''. Helm {{ISBN|0-7470-2801-X}}.</ref>
⚫
;Climate and provenance
It needs full sun to grow well, is [[Shade tolerance|intolerant of shade]], and is resistant to snow and ice damage.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
⚫
''Pinus nigra'' is a light-demanding species, intolerant of shade but resistant to wind and drought.<ref>{{citation |author1=Isajev, V. |author2=Fady, B. |author3=Semerci, H. |author4=Andonovski, V. |title=European Black pine - ''Pinus nigra'': Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use|date=2004|url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/1035_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_European_black_pine__Pinus_nigra_.pdf |publisher=[[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]]}}</ref>
⚫
The eastern ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30&nbsp;°C) than the western ''P. nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' (hardy to about −25&nbsp;°C).<ref name=Gymnosperm/>


⚫
It has naturalized in parts of the midwestern states of the United States, {{clarify|text=normally south of the normal native ranges of native pines.|Normally normal native native what?|date=November 2022}}{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
⚫
Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on [[limestone]], while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on [[podzol]]ic soils.


==Uses==
== Ecology ==
[[File:Bonsai Crni bor na izložbi u Čakovcu.jpg|thumb|upright|Bonsai ''Pinus nigra'']]
⚫
In Mediterranean Europe and the [[Anatolian Peninsula]] ([[Asia Minor]]), trees usually associated with this species include [[Scots pine]] (''Pinus sylvestris''), [[Serbian spruce]] (''Picea omorika''), [[Bosnian pine]] (''Pinus heldreichii''), [[Norway spruce]] (''Picea abies''), Taurus cedar (''[[Cedrus libani]]''), [[European silver fir]] (''Abies alba'') and related [[fir]]s. Several species of [[juniper]] (''Juniperus'' spp.), and various [[broadleaf tree]]s are associates.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

⚫
=== Climate and provenance ===
⚫
''Pinus nigra'' is a light-demanding species, intolerant of shade but resistant to wind and drought.<ref>{{citation |author1=Isajev, V. |author2=Fady, B. |author3=Semerci, H. |author4=Andonovski, V. |title=European Black pine - ''Pinus nigra'': Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use|date=2004|url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin//templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Technical_guidelines/1035_Technical_guidelines_for_genetic_conservation_and_use_for_European_black_pine__Pinus_nigra_.pdf |publisher=[[European Forest Genetic Resources Programme]]}}</ref>
⚫
The eastern ''P.&nbsp;nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30&nbsp;°C) than the western ''P.&nbsp;nigra'' subsp. ''salzmannii'' (hardy to about −25&nbsp;°C).<ref name="Gymnosperm" />

⚫
Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on [[limestone]], while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on [[podzol]]ic soils.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


=== As an invasive species ===
⚫
[[File:Crepuscular rays in the woods of Kasterlee, Belgium.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Pinus nigra'' var. ''corsicana''—Corsican pine plantation, in [[Belgium]].]]
⚫
''Pinus nigra'' has become [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] in a few areas of the US. In [[New Zealand]] it is considered an [[invasive species]] and [[noxious weed]], along with [[lodgepole pine]] (''P.&nbsp;contorta'') and Scots pine (''P.&nbsp;sylvestris''), due to their habitat conversion nature in [[bunch grass|tussock]] [[grassland]] plant communities, shading out the native bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}

==Uses==
===Lumber===
===Lumber===
The timber of European black pine or nigra pinus is similar to that of [[Scots pine]] (''Pinus sylvestris'') and indian pinus [[red pine]] (''Pinus resinosa''), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel, and in paper manufacture.
The timber of European black pine is similar to that of Scots pine (''P.&nbsp;sylvestris'') and [[red pine]] (''P.&nbsp;resinosa''), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel, and in paper manufacture.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


In the United Kingdom, ''Pinus nigra'' is important both as a timber tree and in [[plantation]]s (primarily Corsican pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the [[fungus]] ''[[Dothistroma septosporum]]'', resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there.<ref>Forestry Commission: [http://www.forestry.gov.uk/website/forestry.nsf/byunique/infd-74jjfk Red band needle blight]</ref> In the United States it is of low importance as a [[timber]] species.
In the United Kingdom, ''Pinus nigra'' is important both as a timber tree and in [[plantation]]s (primarily Corsican pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the [[fungus]] ''[[Dothistroma septosporum]]'', resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there.<ref>Forestry Commission: [http://www.forestry.gov.uk/website/forestry.nsf/byunique/infd-74jjfk Red band needle blight]</ref> In the United States it is of low importance as a [[timber]] species.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


In regard to Austrian pine, the fungus ''[[Dothistroma septosporum]]'' is widespread and rapidly spreading out of control throughout the United States. All now growing Austrian pine are expected to be killed by this disease. It is out of control and not recommended for landscaping, especially in groups or rows. {{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}
In regard to Austrian pine, the fungus ''[[Dothistroma septosporum]]'' is widespread and rapidly spreading out of control throughout the United States. It is out of control and not recommended for landscaping, especially in groups or rows.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}}


=== Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal usage ===
=== Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal use ===
In Turkey, this pine (subsp. pallasiana) was and is used in various ways, both topically and internally, as well as for construction and for livestock. Among its uses are curing [[acne]], [[common cold]], [[osteomyelitis]], and [[Viral disease|viral infections]]; acting as an [[Mouthwash|oral antiseptic]]; treating cracked hands and feet in the winter; and sealing wooden roofs.
In Turkey, this pine (subsp. pallasiana) was and is used in various ways, both topically and internally, as well as for construction and for livestock. Among its uses are curing [[acne]], [[common cold]], [[osteomyelitis]], and [[Viral disease|viral infections]]; acting as an [[Mouthwash|oral antiseptic]]; treating cracked hands and feet in the winter; and sealing wooden roofs.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


===Ornamental usage===
===Ornamental use===
In the US and Canada, the European black pine is planted as a street tree, and as an [[ornamental tree]] in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road de-icing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including [[ozone]]), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the UK the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens. It is planted with great success as far north as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. [http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/showimage/386874/]
In the US and Canada, the European black pine is planted as a street tree, and as an [[ornamental tree]] in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road de-icing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including [[ozone]]), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the UK the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens. It is planted with great success as far north as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/showimage/386874/|title=PlantFiles Pictures: Pinus Species, Austrian Pine, Black Pine, Corsican Pine, European Black Pine (Pinus nigra)|website=Davesgarden.com|access-date=24 March 2022}}</ref>


In both the US and UK most of the """specimens""" planted are from nigra pinuses from all over the Austrian continent, the ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' and ''Pinus nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' variations of ''nigra'' seed selections. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when demand for nigra pinus was extremely high, its rapid growth, deep green color and low cost made it briefly a popular Christmas tree, but the extreme length of the needles (making it very difficult to decorate) soon led to its fall from favor, and it has long since been abandoned in the US for that purpose.
In both the US and UK most of the specimens planted are from Austrian sources, the ''P.&nbsp;nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' and ''P.&nbsp;nigra'' subsp. ''nigra'' var. ''nigra'' seed selections. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when demand for natural trees was extremely high, its rapid growth, deep green color and low cost made it briefly a popular Christmas tree, but the extreme length of the needles (making it very difficult to decorate) soon led to its fall from favor, and it has long since been abandoned in the US for that purpose.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


''P. nigra'' is planted for [[windbreak]]s and [[shelterbelt]]s in the US, recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to deep """moist""" or upland soils.
''P. nigra'' is planted for [[windbreak]]s and [[shelterbelt]]s in the US, recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to deep moist or upland soils.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}


====Invasive species====
==See also==
* [[Austrian Resin Extraction]]
⚫
''nigra pinus'' has become [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]] common in a few areas of the United States, In [[New Zealand]] it is considered an [[invasive species]] and [[noxious weed]], along with """lodgepole""" pine (''Pinus contorta'') and [[Scots pine]] (''Pinus sylvestris''), due to their habitat conversion nature in [[bunch grass|tussock]] [[grassland]] plant communities, shading out the [[native plant|native]] bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.


==References==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


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*[http://www.euforgen.org/species/pinus-nigra/ EUFORGEN species page: ''Pinus nigra''. Information, distribution and related resources.]
*[http://www.euforgen.org/species/pinus-nigra/ EUFORGEN species page: ''Pinus nigra''. Information, distribution and related resources.]


{{Commons category|nigra pinus|position=left}}
{{Commons category|Pinus nigra|position=left}}


{{Taxonbar|from=Q145954}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q145954}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Pinus|nigra]]
[[Category:Pinus|nigra]]
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[[Category:Flora of Western Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Western Asia]]
[[Category:Least concern plants]]
[[Category:Least concern plants]]
[[Category:Invasive plant species in New Zealand]]
[[Category:Trees of Mediterranean climate]]
[[Category:Trees of Mediterranean climate]]
[[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]]
[[Category:Trees of mild maritime climate]]

Latest revision as of 22:20, 3 November 2024

European black pine
Pinus nigra subsp. nigra,
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Pinales
Family: Pinaceae
Genus: Pinus
Subgenus: P. subg. Pinus
Section: P. sect. Pinus
Subsection: P. subsect. Pinus
Species:
P. nigra
Binomial name
Pinus nigra
J.F.Arnold
1: Pinus nigra subsp. nigra (1a: var. nigra, 1b: var. pallasiana, 1c: var. caramanica).
2: Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii (2a: var. salzmannii, 2b: var. corsicana, 2c: var. mauretanica)

Pinus nigra, the Austrian pine[2] or black pine, is a moderately variable species of pine, occurring across Southern Europe from the Iberian Peninsula[3] to the eastern Mediterranean, on the Anatolian peninsula of Turkey, Corsica and Cyprus, as well as Crimea and in the high mountains of Northwest Africa. The world's oldest black pine, located in the Banaz district of Uşak, Türkiye, is estimated to be 1000 years old. This makes it significant in the country, which is known for a very dry climate, inhospitable for most trees. It has a length of 11 meters, a diameter of 3 meters and a circumference of 9.60 meters.[4]

The world's oldest black pine tree is about 1000 years old and is in Turkey

Description

[edit]

Pinus nigra is a large coniferous evergreen tree, growing to 20–55 metres (66–180 feet) high at maturity and spreading to 6 to 12 m (20 to 39 ft) wide. The bark is gray to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The leaves ('needles') are thinner and more flexible in western populations.[citation needed]

The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are 5–10 centimetres (2–4 inches) (rarely to 11 cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale gray-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark gray, 6–8 millimetres (1⁄4–5⁄16 in) long, with a yellow-buff wing 20–25 mm (3⁄4–1 in) long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.[citation needed]

Pinus nigra is moderately fast growing, at about 30–70 cm (12–28 in) per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long-lived, with some trees over 500 years old. Multiple pests can damage P. nigra, including T. piniperda.

  • Pollen cones
    Pollen cones
  • Foliage and cone of subsp. nigra
    Foliage and cone of subsp. nigra
  • Bark of subsp. laricio
    Bark of subsp. laricio
  • Pinus nigra
    Pinus nigra

Taxonomy

[edit]

The species is divided into two subspecies, each further subdivided into three varieties.[5][6] Some authorities (e.g. Flora Europaea) treat several of the varieties at subspecific rank, but this reflects tradition rather than sound taxonomy, as the distinctions between the taxa are small.[7]

Subspecies
  • P. nigra subsp. nigra in the east of the range, from Austria, northeast and central Italy, east to the Crimea and Turkey. Needles stout, rigid, 1.5–2 mm diameter, with 3–6 layers of thick-walled hypodermal cells.
    • P. nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra (syn. Pinus nigra var. austriaca, Pinus nigra subsp. dalmatica) (Austrian pine): Austria, Balkans (except southern Greece).
    • P. nigra subsp. nigra var. caramanica (Turkish black pine): Turkey, Cyprus, southern Greece.
    • P. nigra subsp. nigra var. italica (Italian black pine): central Italy (Villetta Barrea, in Abruzzo National Park)
    • P. nigra subsp. nigra var. pallasiana (syn. Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana) (Crimean pine): Crimea, Cyprus.
  • P. nigra subsp. salzmannii in the west of the range, from southern Italy to southern France, Spain and North Africa. Needles slender, more flexible, 0.8–1.5 mm diameter, with 1–2 layers of thin-walled hypodermal cells.
    • P. nigra subsp. salzmannii var. salzmannii (Pyrenean pine): Pyrenees, Southern France, Northern Spain.
    • P. nigra subsp. salzmannii var. corsicana (syn. Pinus nigra subsp. laricio, Pinus nigra var. maritima) (Corsican pine): Corsica, Sicily, Southern Italy.
      • P. nigra subsp. laricio Koekelare [8]
    • P. nigra subsp. salzmannii var. mauretanica (Atlas Mountains black pine): Morocco, Algeria.
Pinus nigra var. corsicana—Corsican pine, in Corsica.

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Pinus nigra is a tree of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. The majority of the range is in Turkey. It is found in the higher elevations of the South Apennine mixed montane forests ecoregion in southern Italy and the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion in Sicily. There are remnant populations in the Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests ecoregion, and in the higher Atlas Mountains in Morocco and Algeria.[citation needed]

It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to 2,000 m (6,600 ft), most commonly from 250–1,600 m (820–5,250 ft). Several of the varieties have distinct English names.[9] It needs full sun to grow well, is intolerant of shade, and is resistant to snow and ice damage.[citation needed]

It has naturalized in parts of the midwestern states of the United States, normally south of the normal native ranges of native pines.[clarification needed][citation needed]

Ecology

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Bonsai Pinus nigra

In Mediterranean Europe and the Anatolian Peninsula (Asia Minor), trees usually associated with this species include Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), Serbian spruce (Picea omorika), Bosnian pine (Pinus heldreichii), Norway spruce (Picea abies), Taurus cedar (Cedrus libani), European silver fir (Abies alba) and related firs. Several species of juniper (Juniperus spp.), and various broadleaf trees are associates.[citation needed]

Climate and provenance

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Pinus nigra is a light-demanding species, intolerant of shade but resistant to wind and drought.[10] The eastern P. nigra subsp. nigra exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30 °C) than the western P. nigra subsp. salzmannii (hardy to about −25 °C).[5]

Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on limestone, while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on podzolic soils.[citation needed]

As an invasive species

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Pinus nigra var. corsicana—Corsican pine plantation, in Belgium.

Pinus nigra has become naturalised in a few areas of the US. In New Zealand it is considered an invasive species and noxious weed, along with lodgepole pine (P. contorta) and Scots pine (P. sylvestris), due to their habitat conversion nature in tussock grassland plant communities, shading out the native bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.[citation needed]

Uses

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Lumber

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The timber of European black pine is similar to that of Scots pine (P. sylvestris) and red pine (P. resinosa), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel, and in paper manufacture.[citation needed]

In the United Kingdom, Pinus nigra is important both as a timber tree and in plantations (primarily Corsican pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the fungus Dothistroma septosporum, resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there.[11] In the United States it is of low importance as a timber species.[citation needed]

In regard to Austrian pine, the fungus Dothistroma septosporum is widespread and rapidly spreading out of control throughout the United States. It is out of control and not recommended for landscaping, especially in groups or rows.[citation needed]

Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal use

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In Turkey, this pine (subsp. pallasiana) was and is used in various ways, both topically and internally, as well as for construction and for livestock. Among its uses are curing acne, common cold, osteomyelitis, and viral infections; acting as an oral antiseptic; treating cracked hands and feet in the winter; and sealing wooden roofs.[citation needed]

Ornamental use

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In the US and Canada, the European black pine is planted as a street tree, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road de-icing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including ozone), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the UK the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens. It is planted with great success as far north as Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.[12]

In both the US and UK most of the specimens planted are from Austrian sources, the P. nigra subsp. nigra and P. nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra seed selections. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when demand for natural trees was extremely high, its rapid growth, deep green color and low cost made it briefly a popular Christmas tree, but the extreme length of the needles (making it very difficult to decorate) soon led to its fall from favor, and it has long since been abandoned in the US for that purpose.[citation needed]

P. nigra is planted for windbreaks and shelterbelts in the US, recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to deep moist or upland soils.[citation needed]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Pinus nigra". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42386A2976817. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42386A2976817.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ NRCS. "Pinus nigra". PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 4 October 2015.
  3. ^ "Jardim Botânico UTAD | Espécie Pinus nigra". Jb.utad.pt.
  4. ^ "Dünyanın en yaşlı ağacı Türkiye'de".
  5. ^ a b Gymnosperm Database: Pinus nigra
  6. ^ Christensen, K. I. (1993). Comments on the earliest validly published varietal name for the Corsican Pine. Taxon 42: 649-653.
  7. ^ Farjon, A. (2005). Pines Drawings and Descriptions of the Genus Pinus 2nd ed. Brill ISBN 90-04-13916-8.
  8. ^ Belgische Dendrologie Belge Pinus Nigra Laricio Koekelare
  9. ^ Rushforth, K. (1987). Conifers. Helm ISBN 0-7470-2801-X.
  10. ^ Isajev, V.; Fady, B.; Semerci, H.; Andonovski, V. (2004), European Black pine - Pinus nigra: Technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use (PDF), European Forest Genetic Resources Programme
  11. ^ Forestry Commission: Red band needle blight
  12. ^ "PlantFiles Pictures: Pinus Species, Austrian Pine, Black Pine, Corsican Pine, European Black Pine (Pinus nigra)". Davesgarden.com. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
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