Roman Syria: Difference between revisions

Provincia Syria Phoenice
Provincia Syria Phoenice
Province of the Roman Empire
198–end of 4th century
	; Roman Empire in 210
Capital	Tyre
History
• Established	198
• Disestablished	end of 4th century
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Syria (Roman province)
	Syria Palaestina
Phoenice Paralia
Phoenice Libanensis

Provincia Coele Syria
ἐπαρχία Κοίλης Συρίας
Provincia Coele Syria; ἐπαρχία Κοίλης Συρίας
Province of the Roman Empire
198–end of 4th century
	; Roman Empire in 210
Capital	Antioch
History
• Established	198
• Disestablished	end of 4th century
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Syria (Roman province)
Syria Prima
Syria Secunda
Today part of	Syria; Turkey;

Provincia Syria
ἐπαρχία Συρίας
*eparchía Syrías*
Provincia Syria; ἐπαρχία Συρίας; eparchía Syrías
Province of the Roman Empire
64 BC–198 AD
	; Roman Syria highlighted in 125 AD
Capital	Antioch; (modern-day Antakya, Hatay, Turkey)
History
• Conquest of Coele-Syria by Pompey	64 BC
• Province divided into Coele Syria and Phoenice	198 AD
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Seleucis of Syria
	Coele-Syria
	Herodian Tetrarchy; ∟Iturea; ∟Trachonitis
Coele Syria (Roman province)
Phoenice (Roman province)
Today part of	Syria; Lebanon; Turkey;

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Roman Syria was an early Roman province annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC by Pompey in the Third Mithridatic War following the defeat of King of Armenia Tigranes the Great, who had become the protector of the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria.^[1]

Following the partition of the Herodian Kingdom of Judea into a tetrarchy in 4 BC, it was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea and Trachonitis. By the late 2nd century AD, the province was divided into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice.

Provincia Syria

Syria was annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, when Pompey the Great had the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus executed and deposed his successor Philip II Philoromaeus. Pompey appointed Marcus Aemilius Scaurus to the post of governor of Syria.

Following the fall of the Roman Republic and its transformation into the Roman Empire, Syria became a Roman imperial province, governed by a Legate. During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries who defended the border with Parthia.

In 6 AD, Emperor Augustus deposed the ethnarch Herod Archelaus and united Judea, Samaria and Idumea into the Roman province of Judea; such province was placed under the direct authority of the Legate of Syria Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, who appointed Coponius as Prefect of Judea. Following the death of Herod Philip II (34 AD) and the removal of Herod Antipas (39 AD) Ituraea, Trachonitis, Galilee and Perea were also transferred under the jurisdiction of the province of Syria.

From 37 to 41 AD, much of the southern region was separated from Syria and transformed into a client kingdom under Herod Agrippa I. After Agrippa's death, his kingdom was gradually re-absorbed into the Roman Empire, until it was officially transformed into a Roman province following the death of Herod Agrippa II.

Syrian province forces were directly engaged in the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, Cestius Gallus, legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on Legio XII Fulminata, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order in Judaea and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The future emperor Vespasian was then put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, launched his bid to become Roman emperor. He defeated his rival Vitellius and ruled as emperor for ten years when he was succeeded by his son Titus.

Based on an inscription recovered from Dor in 1948, Gargilius Antiquus was known to have been the governor of a province in the eastern part of the Empire, possibly Syria, between his consulate and governing Asia.^[2] In November 2016, an inscription in Greek was recovered off the coast of Dor by Haifa University underwater archaeologists, which attests that Antiquus was governor of the province of Judea between 120 and 130, possibly prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt.^[3]

As related by Theodor Mommsen,

The governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. [...] It was only in the course of the second century that a diminution of his prerogatives occurred, when Hadrian took one of the four legions from the governor of Syria and handed it over to the governor of Palestine.^[4]

Aftermath

Division into Coele Syria and Syria Phoenice

Septimius Severus divided the province of Syria proper into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice,^[5]^[6] with Antioch and Tyre as their respective provincial capitals.

As related by Theodor Mommsen,

It was Severus who at length withdrew the first place in the Roman military hierarchy from the Syrian governor. After having subdued the province—which had wished at that time to make Niger emperor, as it had formerly done with its governor Vespasian—amidst resistance from the capital Antioch in particular, he ordained its partition into a northern and a southern half, and gave to the governor of the former, which was called Coele-Syria, two legions, to the governor of the latter, the province of Syro-Phoenicia, one [legion].^[4]

From the later 2nd century, the Roman Senate included several notable Syrians, including Claudius Pompeianus and Avidius Cassius.

Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the Crisis of the Third Century. In 244 AD, Rome was ruled by a native Syrian from Philippopolis (modern day Shahba) in the province of Arabia Petraea. The emperor was Marcus Iulius Philippus, more commonly known as Philip the Arab. Philip became the 33rd emperor of Rome upon its millennial celebration.

Roman Syria was invaded in 252/253 (the date is disputed) after a Roman field army was destroyed in the Battle of Barbalissos by the King of Persia Shapur I which left the Euphrates river unguarded and the region was pillaged by the Persians. In 259/260 a similar event happened when Shapur I again defeated a Roman field army and captured the Roman emperor, Valerian, alive at the Battle of Edessa. Again, Roman Syria suffered as cities were captured, sacked and pillaged.

From 268 to 273, Syria was part of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire.

The 'Orient' in the time of Septimius Severus c. 200 AD^[7]
Coele Syria	Provincia Syria Coele
Phoenicia	Provincia Syria Phoenice
Palaestina	Provincia Syria Palaestina
Arabia	Provincia Arabia Petraea

Dominate reform

Following the reforms of Diocletian, Syria Coele became part of the Diocese of the East.^[8] Sometime between 330 and 350 (likely c. 341), the province of Euphratensis was created out of the territory of Syria Coele along the western bank of the Euphrates and the former Kingdom of Commagene, with Hierapolis as its capital.^[9]

Syria in the Byzantine Empire

After c. 415, Syria Coele was further subdivided into Syria I (or Syria Prima), with its capital remaining at Antioch, and Syria II (Syria Secunda) or Syria Salutaris, with its capital at Apamea on the Orontes. In 528, Justinian I carved out the small coastal province Theodorias out of territory from both provinces.^[8]

The region remained one of the most important provinces of the Byzantine Empire. It was occupied by the Sasanians between 609 and 628, then reconquered by the emperor Heraclius, but lost again to the advancing Muslims after the Battle of Yarmouk and the fall of Antioch.^[8]^[10]^[11] The city of Antioch was reconquered by Nikephorus Phocas in 963, along with other parts of the country, at that time under the Hamdanids, although still under the official suzerainty of the Abbasid caliphs and also claimed by the Fatimid caliphs. After emperor John Kurkuas failed to conquer Syria up to Jerusalem, a Muslim reconquest of Syria followed in the late 970s undertaken by the Fatimid Caliphate that resulted in the ousting of the Byzantines from most parts of Syria. However, Antioch and other northern parts of Syria remained in the empire and other parts were under the protection of the emperors through their Hamdanid, Mirdasid, and Marwanid proxies, until the Seljuk arrival, who after three decades of incursions, conquered Antioch in 1084. Antioch was captured again during the 12th century by the revived armies of the Comnenii. However, by that time the city was regarded as part of Asia Minor and not of Syria.

Demographics

Provinicia Syria had a diverse demographic distribution. The rural inland was mostly populated by Aramaic speakers descended from various West Semitic peoples who inhabited Syria. Arabs were settled throughout Hauran, Trachonitis and Emesa which they controlled. Arabs were also part of Palmyra's composition, which included Aramaeans, Arabs and Amorites.^[12] The Phoenician coast maintained a Phoenician-speaking majority well into the end of 2nd century, and their main urban centers included Tyre, Sidon and Berytus.

On the other hand, Greeks comprised a majority in Hellenistic urban centers such Antioch, Apamea, Cyrrhus and the Decapolis, which had been settled by Greeks under Seleucid patronage.^[13]

Estimates for the population of the entire Levant in the 1st century vary from 3.5–4 million to 6 million, levels only matched even by 19th century levels. Urban centers peaked and so did population density in the rural settlements. Antioch and Palmyra reached a peak of 200,000–250,000 inhabitants, while Apamea counted 117,000 'free citizens' circa AD 6. Combined with their dependancies and villages, Apamea and Cyrrhus may have counted as high as 500,000 each. The Syrian Coastal Mountain Range, marginal hill country, were less densely settled and had a population of around 40–50,000.^[14]

Identity

The inhabitants of Syria adopted Greek customs while maintaining elements of Near Eastern culture. The continuity of pre-Hellenistic cultures was inconsistent across different regions, and where it existed, it varied, including Aramean, Phoenician, and neo-Hittite influences. However, many areas documented exclusively Greek elements.^[15]

In contrast to Jews, who shared collective historical memories, Syrians lacked a unified cultural or social identity. The unifying aspects in Roman Syria were Greek civic structures and narratives promoted by Roman imperial rule, suggesting that Syrian culture was largely defined through Greek and Roman influences. The term 'Syrian' therefore primarily functioned as a geographical designation.^[15]

Episcopal sees

Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Prima (I) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:^[16]

Anasartha (Khanasir)
Barcusus (Baquza or Banqusa)
Beroea (Aleppo)
Chalcis in Syria (Qinnasrin)
Gabala (Jableh)
Gabula (at the marsh of Al-Jabbul)
Gindarus (Jandairis)
Laodicea in Syria (Latakia)
Salamias (Salamiyah)
Seleucia Pieria

Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of Syria Secunda (II) listed in the Annuario Pontificio as titular sees:^[16]

Apamea in Syria, the Metropolitan Archdiocese
Arethusa (Al-Rastan)
Balanea (Baniyas)
Epiphania in Syria (Hama)
Larissa in Syria (Shaizar)
Mariamme (Maryamin)
Raphanea
Seleucobelus (Seleucopolis)

References

^ Sicker, Martin (2001). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-275-97140-3.
^ Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, "A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria", Israel Exploration Journal, 41 (1991), pp. 258–66
^ Divers Find Unexpected Roman Inscription From the Eve of Bar-Kochba Revolt Haaretz.com (Last accessed 6 June 2017)
^ ^a ^b Mommsen 1886, pp. 117–118.
^ Marquardt 1892, p. 373: "Tandis que la Judée ou Syria Palaestina demeurait ainsi séparée de la Syrie depuis l'an 66 après J.-C., la Syrie elle-même fut plus tard divisée en deux provinces : la Syria magna ou Syria Coele, et la Syria Phoenice".
^ Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 121: "Septimius Severus divided the remaining province into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice".
^ Cohen, Getzel M. (3 October 2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. p. 40, note 63. ISBN 978-0-520-93102-2. In 194 A.D. The emperor Septimus Severus divided the province of Syria and made the northern part into a separate province called Coele Syria.
^ ^a ^b ^c Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 1999. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
^ Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 748. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.
^ Howard-Johnson, James D. (2006). East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-86078-992-5.
^ Antony, Sean (2006). Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam. University of California Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-520-34041-1.
^ Stoneman, Richard (1994) [1992]. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08315-2.
^ Cohen, Getzel M. (2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520931022.
^ Kennedy, David L. (January 2006). "Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus". Academia.
^ ^a ^b Andrade, Nathanael J., ed. (2013), "Introduction", Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World, Greek Culture in the Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 10–11, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511997808.003, ISBN 978-0-511-99780-8, retrieved 2024-02-04
^ ^a ^b Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013

Sources

Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oup USA. ISBN 978-0-19-512332-6.
Marquardt, Joachim (1892). L'organisation de l'Empire romain.
Mommsen, Theodor (1886). The History of Rome. R. Bentley.

External links

Bagnall, R., J. Drinkwater, A. Esmonde-Cleary, W. Harris, R. Knapp, S. Mitchell, S. Parker, C. Wells, J. Wilkes, R. Talbert, M. E. Downs, M. Joann McDaniel, B. Z. Lund, T. Elliott, S. Gillies (30 January 2018). "Places: 981550 (Syria)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

36°12′N 36°09′E / 36.200°N 36.150°E / 36.200; 36.150

[Books.google.co.uk-1] Sicker, Martin (2001). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-275-97140-3.

[Gera-Cotton-2] Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, "A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria", Israel Exploration Journal, 41 (1991), pp. 258–66

[3] Divers Find Unexpected Roman Inscription From the Eve of Bar-Kochba Revolt Haaretz.com (Last accessed 6 June 2017)

[Mommsen_1886_117–118-4] Mommsen 1886, pp. 117–118.

[5] Marquardt 1892, p. 373: "Tandis que la Judée ou Syria Palaestina demeurait ainsi séparée de la Syrie depuis l'an 66 après J.-C., la Syrie elle-même fut plus tard divisée en deux provinces : la Syria magna ou Syria Coele, et la Syria Phoenice".

[6] Adkins & Adkins 1998, p. 121: "Septimius Severus divided the remaining province into Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice".

[7] Cohen, Getzel M. (3 October 2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. p. 40, note 63. ISBN 978-0-520-93102-2. In 194 A.D. The emperor Septimus Severus divided the province of Syria and made the northern part into a separate province called Coele Syria.

[ODB1999-8] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 1999. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.

[9] Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 748. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6.

[10] Howard-Johnson, James D. (2006). East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-86078-992-5.

[11] Antony, Sean (2006). Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam. University of California Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-520-34041-1.

[12] Stoneman, Richard (1994) [1992]. Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08315-2.

[13] Cohen, Getzel M. (2006). The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520931022.

[14] Kennedy, David L. (January 2006). "Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus". Academia.

[:0-15] Andrade, Nathanael J., ed. (2013), "Introduction", Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World, Greek Culture in the Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 10–11, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511997808.003, ISBN 978-0-511-99780-8, retrieved 2024-02-04

[AP-16] Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Roman province located in modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon}}
 {{other uses|Syria (disambiguation)}}
-{{Expand Italian|topic=hist}}
+{{Expand Italian|topic=hist|date=February 2024}}
 {{Infobox Former Subdivision
-|native_name = {{aut|Provincia Syria}}<br />{{lang|grc|ἐπαρχία Συρίας}}
+|native_name = {{aut|Provincia Syria}}<br />{{lang|grc|ἐπαρχία Συρίας}}{{br}}<small>''eparchía Syrías''</small>
 |common_name = Syria
 |image_map   = Roman Empire - Syria (125 AD).svg
@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 *[[Turkey]]}}
 |p1          = Seleucis of Syria
-|flag_p1     = SeleucosCoin.jpg
 |p2          = Coele-Syria
-|flag_p2     = SeleucosCoin.jpg
 |p3          = Herodian Tetrarchy{{!}}Herodian Tetrarchy<br/> &nbsp;'''∟'''Iturea<br/> &nbsp;'''∟'''Trachonitis
-|flag_p3     = Menora Titus.png
 |s1          = Coele Syria (Roman province)
-|flag_s1     = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
 |s2          = Phoenice (Roman province)
-|flag_s2     = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
 |capital     = [[Antioch]]<br />(modern-day [[Antakya]], [[Hatay Province|Hatay]], [[Turkey]])
 |event_start = Conquest of [[Coele-Syria]] by [[Pompey]]
@@ Line 33: / Line 28: @@
 '''Roman Syria''' was an early [[Roman province]] annexed to the [[Roman Republic]] in 64 BC by [[Pompey]] in the [[Third Mithridatic War]] following the defeat of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|King of Armenia]] [[Tigranes the Great]], who had become the protector of the Hellenistic kingdom of [[Seleucid Empire|Syria]].<ref name="Books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|last=Sicker|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Sicker|title=Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKK4ge9FD14C&pg=PA39|year=2001|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97140-3|page=39}}</ref>
-Following the partition of the [[Herodian Kingdom of Judea]] into a [[Herodian Tetrarchy|tetrarchy]] in 4 BC, it was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing [[Iturea and Trachonitis (tetrarchy)|Iturea and Trachonitis]].
+Following the partition of the [[Herodian Kingdom of Judea]] into a [[Herodian Tetrarchy|tetrarchy]] in 4 BC, it was gradually absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing [[Iturea and Trachonitis (tetrarchy)|Iturea and Trachonitis]]. By the late 2nd century AD, the province was divided into [[Coele Syria (Roman province)|Coele Syria]] and [[Phoenice (Roman province)|Syria Phoenice]].
 == Provincia Syria ==
 [[File:The Scene of the Theater in Palmyra.JPG|thumb|The ancient city of [[Palmyra]] was an important trading center and possibly Roman Syria's most prosperous city|alt=]]
 [[File:Roman Empire 125.png|thumb|250px|The Roman empire in the time of [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117–138 AD), showing, in western Asia, the [[imperial province]] of Syria (Syria/Lebanon), with four [[Roman legion|legions]] deployed in 125 AD. (During the Principate)]]
-Syria was annexed to the [[Roman Republic]] in 64 BC, when [[Pompey|Pompey the Great]] had the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid king]] [[Antiochus XIII Asiaticus]] executed and deposed his successor [[Philip II Philoromaeus]]. Pompey appointed [[Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Scaurus]] to the post of [[Proconsul]] of Syria.
+Syria was [[Pompey's Eastern Settlement|annexed]] to the [[Roman Republic]] in 64 BC, when [[Pompey|Pompey the Great]] had the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid king]] [[Antiochus XIII Asiaticus]] executed and deposed his successor [[Philip II Philoromaeus]]. Pompey appointed [[Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC)|Marcus Aemilius Scaurus]] to the post of governor of Syria.
 Following the [[fall of the Roman Republic]] and its transformation into the [[Roman Empire]], Syria became a Roman imperial province, governed by a [[Legatus|Legate]]. During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries who defended the border with [[Parthia]].
@@ Line 44: / Line 39: @@
 In 6 AD, Emperor [[Augustus]] deposed the [[ethnarch]] [[Herod Archelaus]] and united [[Judea]], [[Samaria]] and [[Idumea]] into the [[Judea (Roman province)|Roman province of Judea]]; such province was placed under the direct authority of the Legate of Syria [[Publius Sulpicius Quirinius]], who appointed [[Coponius]] as [[Prefect]] of Judea. Following the death of [[Philip the Tetrarch|Herod Philip II]] (34 AD) and the removal of [[Herod Antipas]] (39 AD) [[Iturea|Ituraea]], [[Trachonitis]], [[Galilee]] and [[Perea]] were also transferred under the jurisdiction of the province of Syria.
-From 37 to 41 AD, much of Palestine was separated from Syria and transformed into a [[client kingdom]] under [[Herod Agrippa|Herod Agrippa I]]. After Agrippa's death, his kingdom was gradually re-absorbed into the Roman Empire, until it was officially transformed into a Roman province following the death of [[Herod Agrippa II]].
+From 37 to 41 AD, much of the southern region was separated from Syria and transformed into a [[client kingdom]] under [[Herod Agrippa|Herod Agrippa I]]. After Agrippa's death, his kingdom was gradually re-absorbed into the Roman Empire, until it was officially transformed into a Roman province following the death of [[Herod Agrippa II]].
 Syrian province forces were directly engaged in the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, [[Cestius Gallus]], legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on [[Legio XII Fulminata]], reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order in Judaea and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|Battle of Beth Horon]], a result that shocked the Roman leadership. The future emperor [[Vespasian]] was then put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, launched his bid to become Roman emperor. He defeated his rival [[Vitellius]] and ruled as emperor for ten years when he was succeeded by his son [[Titus]].
-Based on an inscription recovered from [[Tel Dor|Dor]] in 1948, Gargilius Antiquus was known to have been the governor of a province in the eastern part of the Empire, possibly Syria, between his consulate and governing Asia.<ref name=Gera-Cotton>Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, [http://dor.huji.ac.il/Download/Article/QedemReports2_Ch14.pdf "A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria"], ''Israel Exploration Journal'', 41 (1991), pp. 258–66</ref> In November 2016, an inscription in Greek was recovered off the coast of Dor by [[Haifa University]] underwater archaeologists, which attests that Antiquus was governor of the province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] between 120 and 130, possibly prior to the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]].<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.756193 Divers Find Unexpected Roman Inscription From the Eve of Bar-Kochba Revolt] Haaretz.com (Last accessed 6 June 2017)</ref>
+Based on an inscription recovered from [[Tel Dor|Dor]] in 1948, [[Quintus Coredius Gallus Gargilius Antiquus|Gargilius Antiquus]] was known to have been the governor of a province in the eastern part of the Empire, possibly Syria, between his consulate and governing Asia.<ref name=Gera-Cotton>Dov Gera and Hannah M. Cotton, [http://dor.huji.ac.il/Download/Article/QedemReports2_Ch14.pdf "A Dedication from Dor to a Governor of Syria"], ''Israel Exploration Journal'', 41 (1991), pp. 258–66</ref> In November 2016, an inscription in Greek was recovered off the coast of Dor by [[Haifa University]] underwater archaeologists, which attests that Antiquus was governor of the province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] between 120 and 130, possibly prior to the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]].<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.756193 Divers Find Unexpected Roman Inscription From the Eve of Bar-Kochba Revolt] Haaretz.com (Last accessed 6 June 2017)</ref>
 As related by [[Theodor Mommsen]],
 {{blockquote|The governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. [...] It was only in the course of the second century that a diminution of his prerogatives occurred, when [[Hadrian]] took [[Legio III Gallica|one of the four legions]] from the governor of Syria and handed it over to the governor of [[Syria Palaestina|Palestine]].<ref name="Mommsen 1886 117–118">{{harvnb|Mommsen|1886|pp=117–118}}.</ref>}}
-"Hadrian stationed [[Legio III Gallica|an extra legion]] in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judaea]], renaming it Syria Palaestina."<ref name="Adkins & Adkins">{{harvnb|Adkins|Adkins|1998|p=121}}.</ref> This was following the defeat of the [[Bar Kokhba Revolt]] in 135 AD. The Syria-based legion, [[Legio III Gallica]], took part in the quelling of the revolt in 132–136, and in the aftermath, the emperor [[Hadrian]] renamed the greatly depopulated province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] and its extra legion ''Syria Palaestina''.
 ==Aftermath==
@@ Line 131: / Line 125: @@
 ===Syria in the Byzantine Empire===
-{{see|History of the Byzantine Empire}}
+{{further|History of the Byzantine Empire}}
 [[File:Mosaic of the Female Musicians.jpg|thumb|20 square meter [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era mosaic found in [[Maryamin, Homs|Maryamin]], [[Syria]], currently located in the Hama museum|alt=]]
 After c. 415, ''Syria Coele'' was further subdivided into ''Syria I'' (or ''[[Syria Prima]]''), with its capital remaining at [[Antioch]], and ''Syria II'' (''Syria Secunda'') or ''Syria Salutaris'', with its capital at [[Apamea on the Orontes]]. In 528, [[Justinian I]] carved out the small coastal province ''[[Theodorias (province)|Theodorias]]'' out of territory from both provinces.<ref name="ODB1999"/>
 [[File:Church of Saint Simeon Stylites 17.jpg|thumb|[[Church of Saint Simeon Stylites]], one of the oldest surviving churches in the world]]
 The region remained one of the most important provinces of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. It was [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|occupied]] by the [[Sasanians]] between 609 and 628, then reconquered by the emperor [[Heraclius]], but lost again to the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|advancing Muslims]] after the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] and the [[Battle of the Iron Bridge|fall of Antioch]].<ref name="ODB1999"/><ref>{{Cite book |title=East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity |last=Howard-Johnson |first=James D. |author-link1= James Howard-Johnson|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-86078-992-5 |pages=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&pg=RA2-PA6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam |last=Antony |first=Sean |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-34041-1 |pages=184 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSzJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184}}</ref>
-The city of [[Antioch]] was reconquered by [[Nikephoros II Phokas|Nikephorus Phocas]] in 963, along with other parts of the country, at that time under the [[Hamdanids]], although still under the official suzerainty of the [[Abbasids|Abbasid]] caliphs and also claimed by the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] caliphs. After emperor [[John I Tzimiskes|John Kurkuas]] failed to conquer Syria up to Jerusalem, a Muslim "reconquest" of Syria followed in the late 970s undertaken by the Fatimid Caliphate that resulted in the ouster of the Byzantines from most parts of Syria. However, Antioch and other northern parts of Syria remained in the empire and other parts were under the protection of the [[Macedonian dynasty|emperors]] through their Hamdanid, [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasid]], and [[Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)|Marwanid]] proxies, until the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]] arrival, who after three decades of incursions, conquered Antioch in 1084. Antioch was captured again during the 12th century by the revived armies of the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Comnenii]]. However, by that time the city was regarded as part of Asia Minor and not of Syria.
+The city of [[Antioch]] was reconquered by [[Nikephoros II Phokas|Nikephorus Phocas]] in 963, along with other parts of the country, at that time under the [[Hamdanids]], although still under the official suzerainty of the [[Abbasids|Abbasid]] caliphs and also claimed by the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] caliphs. After emperor [[John I Tzimiskes|John Kurkuas]] failed to conquer Syria up to Jerusalem, a Muslim reconquest of Syria followed in the late 970s undertaken by the Fatimid Caliphate that resulted in the ousting of the Byzantines from most parts of Syria. However, Antioch and other northern parts of Syria remained in the empire and other parts were under the protection of the [[Macedonian dynasty|emperors]] through their Hamdanid, [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasid]], and [[Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)|Marwanid]] proxies, until the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]] arrival, who after three decades of incursions, conquered Antioch in 1084. Antioch was captured again during the 12th century by the revived armies of the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Comnenii]]. However, by that time the city was regarded as part of Asia Minor and not of Syria.
 == Demographics ==
-Provinicia Syria had a diverse demographic distribution. The rural inland was mostly populated by [[Aramaic]] speakers descended from various [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] peoples who inhabited Syria. [[History of the Arabs|Arabs]] were settled throughout [[Hauran]], [[Trachonitis]] and [[Homs]] which they controlled. Arabs were also part of [[Palmyra|Tadmor]]'s composition, which included Aramaeans, Arabs and [[Amorites]].<ref>{{cite book|first= Richard |last=Stoneman|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome |orig-year=1992 | year=1994| publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-08315-2}}</ref> The [[Phoenicia]]n coast mainatained a [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]-speaking majority well into the end of 2nd century, and their main urban centers included [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]] and [[Berytus]].
+Provinicia Syria had a diverse demographic distribution. The rural inland was mostly populated by [[Aramaic]] speakers descended from various [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] peoples who inhabited Syria. [[History of the Arabs|Arabs]] were settled throughout [[Hauran]], [[Trachonitis]] and [[Homs|Emesa]] which they controlled. Arabs were also part of [[Palmyra]]'s composition, which included Aramaeans, Arabs and [[Amorites]].<ref>{{cite book|first= Richard |last=Stoneman|title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome |orig-year=1992 | year=1994| publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-08315-2}}</ref> The [[Phoenicia]]n coast maintained a [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]-speaking majority well into the end of 2nd century, and their main urban centers included [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]] and [[Berytus]].
-On the other hand, [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] comprised a majority in Hellenistic urban centers such [[Antioch]], [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]], [[Cyrrhus]] and the [[Decapolis]], which had been settled by Greeks under [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] patronage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Getzel M. |title=The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa |date=2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520931022 |url=https://www.google.com.lb/books/edition/The_Hellenistic_Settlements_in_Syria_the/RqdPcxuNthcC}}</ref>
+On the other hand, [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] comprised a majority in Hellenistic urban centers such [[Antioch]], [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]], [[Cyrrhus]] and the [[Decapolis]], which had been settled by Greeks under [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] patronage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Getzel M. |title=The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa |date=2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520931022 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqdPcxuNthcC}}</ref>
-Estimates for the population of the entire [[Levant]] in the 1st century vary from 3.5–4 million to 6 million, levels only matched even by 19th century levels. Urban centers peaked and so did population density in the rural settlements. [[Antioch]] and [[Palmyra]] reached a peak of 200,000–250,000 inhabitants, while Apamea counted 117,000 'free citizens' circa AD 6. Combined with their dependancies and villages, Apamea and Cyrrhus may have counted as high as 500,000 each. The [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range]], marginal hill country, were less densely settled and had a population of around 40–50,000.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kennedy |first1=David L. |title=Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus |url=https://www.academia.edu/11730357/Demography_the_Population_of_Syria_and_the_Census_of_Q_Aemilius_Secundus |website=Academia}}</ref>
+Estimates for the population of the entire [[Levant]] in the 1st century vary from 3.5–4 million to 6 million, levels only matched even by 19th century levels. Urban centers peaked and so did population density in the rural settlements. [[Antioch]] and [[Palmyra]] reached a peak of 200,000–250,000 inhabitants, while Apamea counted 117,000 'free citizens' circa AD 6. Combined with their dependancies and villages, Apamea and Cyrrhus may have counted as high as 500,000 each. The [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range]], marginal hill country, were less densely settled and had a population of around 40–50,000.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kennedy |first1=David L. |title=Demography, the Population of Syria and the Census of Q. Aemilius Secundus |url=https://www.academia.edu/11730357 |website=Academia|date=January 2006 }}</ref>
+== Identity ==
+The inhabitants of Syria adopted [[Hellenization|Greek customs]] while maintaining elements of [[Ancient Near East|Near Eastern]] culture. The continuity of pre-Hellenistic cultures was inconsistent across different regions, and where it existed, it varied, including [[Arameans|Aramean]], [[Phoenicia]]n, and [[neo-Hittite]] influences. However, many areas documented exclusively Greek elements.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Introduction |date=2013 |work=Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World |pages=10–11 |editor-last=Andrade |editor-first=Nathanael J. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/syrian-identity-in-the-grecoroman-world/introduction/DEE9846C22F1E9B064D4AF9EFD008C0A |access-date=2024-02-04 |series=Greek Culture in the Roman World |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511997808.003 |isbn=978-0-511-99780-8}}</ref>
+In contrast to [[Jews]], who shared collective historical memories, Syrians lacked a unified cultural or social identity. The unifying aspects in Roman Syria were Greek civic structures and narratives promoted by Roman imperial rule, suggesting that Syrian culture was largely defined through Greek and Roman influences. The term 'Syrian' therefore primarily functioned as a geographical designation.<ref name=":0" />
 == Episcopal sees ==
@@ Line 159: / Line 158: @@
 Ancient episcopal sees of the late Roman province of '''Syria Secunda (II)''' listed in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' as [[titular see]]s:<ref name=AP/>
-* '''[[Apamea, Syria|Apamea in Syria]], the Metropolitan Archdiocese
+* '''[[Apamea, Syria|Apamea in Syria]], the Metropolitan Archdiocese'''
 * [[Arethusa (see)|Arethusa]] (Al-Rastan)
 * [[Balanea]] (Baniyas)
@@ Line 178: / Line 177: @@
 ==Sources==
-* {{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy A.|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-512332-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JJdqJ8YGH8C}}
+* {{cite book|last1=Adkins|first1=Lesley|last2=Adkins|first2=Roy A.|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome|year=1998|publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-512332-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JJdqJ8YGH8C}}
 * {{cite book|last=Marquardt|first=Joachim|title=L'organisation de l'Empire romain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_uOAtKJ3qcC|year=1892}}
 * {{cite book|last=Mommsen|first=Theodor|author-link=Theodor Mommsen|title=The History of Rome|year=1886|publisher=R. Bentley|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924071192458}}
@@ Line 196: / Line 195: @@
 [[Category:Ancient Levant]]
 [[Category:Seleucid Empire successor states]]
-[[Category:Former countries in Western Asia]]
+[[Category:Former countries in West Asia]]
 [[Category:60s BC establishments]]
 [[Category:1st-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic]]
@@ Line 202: / Line 201: @@
 [[Category:198 disestablishments]]
 [[Category:190s disestablishments in the Roman Empire]]
-[[Category:1st-century BC establishments]]
-[[Category:2nd-century disestablishments]]
 [[Category:Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire]]

v t e Journeys of Paul the Apostle
First journey	1. Antioch 2. Seleucia 3. Cyprus 3a. Salamis 3b. Paphos 4. Perga 5. Antioch of Pisidia 6. Iconium 7. Derbe 8. Lystra 9. Attalea 10. Antioch (returns to beginning of journey)
Second journey	1. Cilicia 2. Derbe 3. Lystra 4. Phrygia 5. Galatia 6. Mysia (Alexandria Troas) 7. Samothrace 8. Neapolis 9. Philippi 9. Amphipolis 10. Apollonia 11. Thessalonica 12. Beroea 13. Athens 14. Corinth 15. Cenchreae 16. Ephesus 17. Syria 18. Caesarea 19. Jerusalem 20. Antioch
Third journey	1. Galatia 2. Phrygia 3. Ephesus 4. Macedonia 5. Corinth 6. Cenchreae 7. Macedonia (again) 8. Troas 9. Assos 10. Mytilene 11. Chios 12. Samos 13. Miletus 14. Cos 15. Rhodes 16. Patara 17. Tyre 18. Ptolemais 19. Caesarea 20. Jerusalem