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==Crime==
==Crime==
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{{Further|Dark figure of crime}}

Various estimates have been provided in relation to under-reporting of crimes across the world. According to the [[American Medical Association]] (1995), sexual violence, and rape in particular, is considered the most under-reported violent crime.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors293.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110314171826/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors293.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-03-14 |title=A gap or a chasm? Attrition in reported rape cases |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> Common reasons for individuals not reporting crime include fear of not being believed, insecurity, and fear of getting into trouble. These reasons are most common for not reporting rape.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.surrey.ac.uk/mediacentre/press/2009/16532_between_7090_rapes_thought_to_go_unreported_and_94_of_reported_cases_dont_end_in_a_conviction.htm |title=Between 70-90% rapes thought to go unreported …and 94% of reported cases don't end in a conviction - University of Surrey - Guildford |publisher=Surrey.ac.uk |access-date=2014-02-04 |archive-date=2013-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702231752/http://surrey.ac.uk/mediacentre/press/2009/16532_between_7090_rapes_thought_to_go_unreported_and_94_of_reported_cases_dont_end_in_a_conviction.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is commonly assumed that most of the rape cases go unreported;<ref>{{cite news|author=Nina Lakhani |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/unreported-rapes-the-silent-shame-7561636.html |title=Unreported rapes: the silent shame - Crime - UK |work=The Independent |date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> some estimates go up to or above 90%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://well.wvu.edu/articles/rape_myths_and_facts |title=Rape Myths and Facts &#124; wellwvu &#124; West Virginia University |publisher=Well.wvu.edu |date=2013-09-24 |access-date=2014-02-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420122045/http://well.wvu.edu/articles/rape_myths_and_facts |archive-date=2017-04-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hmic.gov.uk/media/without-consent-20061231.pdf |title=15642_Report |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> (See also [[Rape#Reporting|Rape reporting]].) Non-recognition of [[domestic violence]] may lead to under-reporting.
Various estimates have been provided in relation to under-reporting of crimes across the world. According to the [[American Medical Association]] (1995), sexual violence, and rape in particular, is considered the most under-reported violent crime.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors293.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110314171826/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors293.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-03-14 |title=A gap or a chasm? Attrition in reported rape cases |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> Common reasons for individuals not reporting crime include fear of not being believed, insecurity, and fear of getting into trouble. These reasons are most common for not reporting rape.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.surrey.ac.uk/mediacentre/press/2009/16532_between_7090_rapes_thought_to_go_unreported_and_94_of_reported_cases_dont_end_in_a_conviction.htm |title=Between 70-90% rapes thought to go unreported …and 94% of reported cases don't end in a conviction - University of Surrey - Guildford |publisher=Surrey.ac.uk |access-date=2014-02-04 |archive-date=2013-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702231752/http://surrey.ac.uk/mediacentre/press/2009/16532_between_7090_rapes_thought_to_go_unreported_and_94_of_reported_cases_dont_end_in_a_conviction.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is commonly assumed that most of the rape cases go unreported;<ref>{{cite news|author=Nina Lakhani |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/unreported-rapes-the-silent-shame-7561636.html |title=Unreported rapes: the silent shame - Crime - UK |work=The Independent |date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> some estimates go up to or above 90%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://well.wvu.edu/articles/rape_myths_and_facts |title=Rape Myths and Facts &#124; wellwvu &#124; West Virginia University |publisher=Well.wvu.edu |date=2013-09-24 |access-date=2014-02-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420122045/http://well.wvu.edu/articles/rape_myths_and_facts |archive-date=2017-04-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hmic.gov.uk/media/without-consent-20061231.pdf |title=15642_Report |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> (See also [[Rape#Reporting|Rape reporting]].) Non-recognition of [[domestic violence]] may lead to under-reporting.

Murders are sometimes not reported,<ref>{{cite web|author=John Esterbrook |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/millions-of-crimes-go-unreported/ |title=Millions Of Crimes Go Unreported |publisher=CBS News |date=2002-09-09 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> due to the fear of the alleged murderer's connection with another murderer, or because of a settlement.

⚫
In 2012, the universities of [[Leicester]] and [[Westminster]], while collaborating with [[Serious Organised Crime Agency]], estimated that 200,000 people had been victims of online dating fraud. The report included instances of under-reported frauds.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/docs/news_20131206_ecc-report-cross-border-e-commerce_en.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-02-26 |archive-date=2014-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304043305/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/docs/news_20131206_ecc-report-cross-border-e-commerce_en.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

⚫
The reported murder rates in [[China]] have been criticized for under-reporting unsolved murders due to police salaries being based on the rate of solved cases.<ref>June Cheng. [https://world.wng.org/2018/10/the_puzzle_of_china_s_low_crime_rates The puzzle of China’s low crime rates.] 2018-10-25. Accessed 2019-09-05</ref>

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===Child Abuse===

⚫
According to the National Children's Alliance, over 600,000 children in the US were victims of abuse and neglect in 2021, the most recent year for which there was national data, with the actual number likely under-reported because of the ongoing [[COVID-19 pandemic]] in 2021. An estimated 1.8 million children received prevention services.<ref>[https://www.nationalchildrensalliance.org/media-room/national-statistics-on-child-abuse/ ''National Statistics on Child Abuse'']. National Children's Alliance.</ref><ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/639375/number-of-child-abuse-cases-in-the-us/ 'Total number of victims of child abuse in the United States from 2012 to 2021 ']. Society > Crime & Law Enforcement[[Statista]].</ref> Lack of [[mandatory reporting]] of [[child abuse]]<ref>[https://www.nspcc.org.uk/what-is-child-abuse/ ''What is child abuse?'']. [[NSPCC]].</ref> in certain countries has contributed to under-reporting. [[Child_abuse#Germany|27 EU countries]] currently do not have mandatory reporting of child abuse,<ref>[http://fra.europa.eu/en/content/provisions-professionals-legal-obligation-report-cases-child-abuse-neglect-and-violence ''Provisions on professionals' legal obligation to report cases of child abuse, neglect and violence'']. [[Fundamental Rights Agency]]. [[European Union]]</ref> while child abuse that has occurred in religious institutions such as [[Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases#Failure_to_disclose|in the Catholic Church]] has been under-reported through concealment by church authorities.<ref>[[Ephrat Livni|Livni, Ephrat]]. (15 August 2018).[https://qz.com/1356796/how-the-catholic-church-concealed-priests-sexual-abuse-of-children ''The Catholic Church’s seven-point system for covering up abuse'']. [[Quartz (publication)]].</ref> Children themselves may feel unable to report abuse because of fear of [[revenge]] by their abuser, or embarrassment, humiliation, or thinking they would not be believed. Moreover, a child may be too young to have the words to explain what is happening to them. If the abuser has introduced the child to drugs or pornography, the child may fear getting into trouble. Fear and guilt thus play a role in making the child think they have done something wrong. An abuser may also manifest overt generosity to their victim by showering them with gifts and affection, so the child may irrationally come to [[Stockholm Syndrome|love their abuser]].<ref>[https://www.parentsprotect.co.uk/why-children-do-not-tell-about-abuse.htm ''Why children do not tell about abuse.'']. ''parentsprotect.co.uk'' website.</ref>


===Anti-LGBT+ crime===
===Anti-LGBT+ crime===
Under-reporting of [[violence against LGBT people]] including [[Gay gang murders|homicide]] is widespread, and is more likely to arise in countries that [[LGBT rights by country or territory|criminalise same-sex relationships]], especially [[Islamism|regimes]] that impose the [[Capital punishment for homosexuality|death penalty]].<ref>Max Bearak and Darla Cameron.
Under-reporting of [[violence against LGBT people]] including [[Gay gang murders|homicide]] is widespread, and is more likely to arise in countries that [[LGBT rights by country or territory|criminalise same-sex relationships]], especially [[Islamism|regimes]] that impose the [[Capital punishment for homosexuality|death penalty]] for them.<ref>Max Bearak and Darla Cameron.
(16 June 2016). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ ''Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death'']. [[Washington Post]].</ref> Even under democratic [[rule of law]] governance where there are [[LGBT rights by country or territory|LGBT rights protections]], under-reporting occurs. A US investigation by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] in collaboration with [[ProPublica]] and [[News21]] found that violent crimes and other [[hate crimes]] against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Americans "are consistently not reported and prosecuted because of chronic distrust between the LGBTQ community and police":
(16 June 2016). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ ''Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death'']. [[Washington Post]].</ref> Even under democratic [[rule of law]] governance where there are [[LGBT rights by country or territory|LGBT rights protections]], under-reporting occurs. A US investigation by the [[Center for Public Integrity]] in collaboration with [[ProPublica]] and [[News21]] found that violent attacks and other [[hate crimes]] against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Americans "are consistently not reported and prosecuted because of chronic distrust between the LGBTQ community and police":


{{blockquote|Nearly 300,000 crimes may have been committed against people across the United States because of their sexual orientation from 2012 to 2016, according to a News21 analysis of data from the federal [[National Crime Victimization Survey]], which tens of thousands of American households fill out each year.<ref>Emma Keith, Katie Gagliano and [[News21]] Staff. (24 August 2018). [https://publicintegrity.org/politics/lack-of-trust-in-law-enforcement-hinders-reporting-of-lbgtq-crimes/ ''Lack of trust in law enforcement hinders reporting of LBGTQ crimes'']. [[Center for Public Integrity]].</ref>}}
{{blockquote|Nearly 300,000 crimes may have been committed against people across the United States because of their sexual orientation from 2012 to 2016, according to a News21 analysis of data from the federal [[National Crime Victimization Survey]], which tens of thousands of American households fill out each year.<ref>Emma Keith, Katie Gagliano and [[News21]] Staff. (24 August 2018). [https://publicintegrity.org/politics/lack-of-trust-in-law-enforcement-hinders-reporting-of-lbgtq-crimes/ ''Lack of trust in law enforcement hinders reporting of LBGTQ crimes'']. [[Center for Public Integrity]].</ref>}}
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{{blockquote|It is of concern that of 37 students reporting incidents of verbal or physical harassment, 31 had not reported the most serious incidents to school authorities. (Submission 43). In two submissions to the Committee from school students, little sympathy was expressed for victims of this form of violence (Submissions 20 and 58). It was suggested to the Committee that 46% of young people involved in an anti-homophobia workshop in one school were not aware that it was illegal to bash homosexuals. A group of ten students, charged with the murder of a Sydney man at a park near their High School, expressed genuine surprise upon their arrest (in camera evidence). The Committee also heard that school personnel have demonstrated homophobic attitudes.<ref name ="Youth Violence">''A Report into Youth Violence in New South Wales''. Report No 8, P.92, Para. 3.10: 'Violence Against Homosexuals and Lesbians': Standing Committee on Social Issues, [[New South Wales Legislative Council]].</ref>}}
{{blockquote|It is of concern that of 37 students reporting incidents of verbal or physical harassment, 31 had not reported the most serious incidents to school authorities. (Submission 43). In two submissions to the Committee from school students, little sympathy was expressed for victims of this form of violence (Submissions 20 and 58). It was suggested to the Committee that 46% of young people involved in an anti-homophobia workshop in one school were not aware that it was illegal to bash homosexuals. A group of ten students, charged with the murder of a Sydney man at a park near their High School, expressed genuine surprise upon their arrest (in camera evidence). The Committee also heard that school personnel have demonstrated homophobic attitudes.<ref name ="Youth Violence">''A Report into Youth Violence in New South Wales''. Report No 8, P.92, Para. 3.10: 'Violence Against Homosexuals and Lesbians': Standing Committee on Social Issues, [[New South Wales Legislative Council]].</ref>}}

⚫
===Child Abuse===
⚫
According to the [[Child_advocacy#Child advocacy centers|National Children's Alliance]], over 600,000 children in the US were [[child abuse|victims of abuse]] and neglect in 2021, the most recent year for which there was national data, with the actual number likely under-reported because of the ongoing [[COVID-19 pandemic]] in that year. An estimated 1.8 million children received prevention services.<ref>[https://www.nationalchildrensalliance.org/media-room/national-statistics-on-child-abuse/ 'National Statistics on Child Abuse']. National Children's Alliance.</ref><ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/639375/number-of-child-abuse-cases-in-the-us/ 'Total number of victims of child abuse in the United States from 2012 to 2021 ']. Society > Crime & Law Enforcement: [[Statista]].</ref> Lack of [[mandatory reporting]] of child abuse<ref>[https://www.nspcc.org.uk/what-is-child-abuse/ 'What is child abuse?']. [[NSPCC]].</ref> in certain countries has contributed to under-reporting. In 2024, [[Child_abuse#Germany|27 EU countries]] did not have mandatory reporting,<ref>[http://fra.europa.eu/en/content/provisions-professionals-legal-obligation-report-cases-child-abuse-neglect-and-violence ''Provisions on professionals' legal obligation to report cases of child abuse, neglect and violence'']. [[Fundamental Rights Agency]]. [[European Union]]</ref> while child abuse that has occurred in religious institutions such as [[Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases#Failure_to_disclose|in the Catholic Church]] has been under-reported through [[Cover-up|concealment]] by church authorities.<ref>[[Ephrat Livni|Livni, Ephrat]]. (15 August 2018).[https://qz.com/1356796/how-the-catholic-church-concealed-priests-sexual-abuse-of-children 'The Catholic Church’s seven-point system for covering up abuse']. ''[[Quartz (publication)| Quartz]]''.</ref> This practice also happens in [[Mormon abuse cases|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-04 |title=Recordings show how the Mormon church protects itself from child sex abuse claims |url=https://apnews.com/article/mormon-church-investigation-child-sex-abuse-9c301f750725c0f06344f948690caf16 |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> and other like intuitions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Ronald V. |last2=Jr. |date=2024-05-01 |title=Sex Abuse Lawsuits Against LDS Church |url=https://www.lawsuit-information-center.com/sex-abuse-lawsuits-against-lds-church.html |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=Lawsuit Information Center |language=en-US}}</ref> Children themselves may feel unable to report abuse because of fear of [[revenge]] by their abuser, or embarrassment, humiliation, or thinking they would not be believed. Moreover, a child may be [[Child_development#Development of language and communication|too young to have the words]] to explain what is happening to them. If the abuser has introduced the child to drugs or pornography, the child may fear getting into trouble. Fear and guilt thus play a role in making the child think they have done something wrong. An abuser may also manifest overt generosity to their victim by showering them with gifts and affection, so the child may irrationally come to [[Stockholm Syndrome|love their abuser]] and not want to report them.<ref>[https://www.parentsprotect.co.uk/why-children-do-not-tell-about-abuse.htm 'Why children do not tell about abuse.']. ''parentsprotect.co.uk'' website.</ref>

===Fraud===
⚫
In 2012, the universities of [[Leicester]] and [[Westminster]], while collaborating with [[Serious Organised Crime Agency]], estimated that 200,000 people had been victims of online dating fraud. The report included instances of under-reported frauds.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/docs/news_20131206_ecc-report-cross-border-e-commerce_en.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-02-26 |archive-date=2014-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304043305/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/health_consumer/docs/news_20131206_ecc-report-cross-border-e-commerce_en.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Murder===
Murders are sometimes not reported,<ref>{{cite web|author=John Esterbrook |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/millions-of-crimes-go-unreported/ |title=Millions Of Crimes Go Unreported |publisher=CBS News |date=2002-09-09 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> due to the fear of the alleged murderer's connection with another murderer, or because of a settlement. [[Honor killing#Forced suicide as a substitute|Forced suicide]] has led to [[honour killings]] going unreported.<ref>Gorar, M. (2022). 'Honour Suicide and Forced Suicide in the UK.' [[Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology|The Journal of Criminal Law]], 86(5), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220183221115294.</ref><ref>R Reddy, 'Domestic Violence or Cultural Tradition? Approaches to "Honour Killing" as Species and Subspecies in English Legal Practice' in AK Gill et al. 'Honour' Killing & Violence (Palgrave MacMillan 2014) 29.</ref>
⚫
The reported murder rates in [[China]] have been criticized for under-reporting unsolved murders due to police salaries being based on the rate of solved cases.<ref>June Cheng. [https://world.wng.org/2018/10/the_puzzle_of_china_s_low_crime_rates The puzzle of China’s low crime rates.] 2018-10-25. Accessed 2019-09-05</ref>


==Disease==
==Disease==
⚫
Under-reported [[Dengue fever|dengue]] in [[India]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Manish Kakkar |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e8574 |title=Dengue fever is massively under-reported in India, hampering our response |publisher=BMJ |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> polio in [[Pakistan]],<ref>Haroon Shabbir, Sajeel Saeed, Muhammad Farhan, Khawar Abbas, Mohammad Ebad ur Rehman, Fahad Gul, and Jawad Basita. (31 July 2022). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9422308/ ''Poliomyelitis in Pakistan: Challenges to polio eradication and future prospects'']. [[National Library of Medicine]].</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Khattak |first=Jehangir |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/534215/why-pakistan-is-losing-war-against-polio/ |title=Why Pakistan is losing the war against polio – The Express Tribune |publisher=Tribune.com.pk |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> disability in [[Malaysia]],<ref>{{cite web|author=ian mcintyre |url=http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Community/2013/09/16/The-number-of-disabled-people-underreported-says-don.aspx/ |title=The number of disabled people under-reported, says don - Community &#124; The Star Online |publisher=Thestar.com.my |date=2013-09-16 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> and [[COVID-19]] in many countries remain a problem. In the [[United States]], it was estimated in 1989 that 40% of the AIDS cases in [[South Carolina]] went unreported, largely due to [[Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS|social stigma]] in the early days of the epidemic.<ref>{{cite news|author=AP |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/28/science/40-of-aids-cases-go-unreported-in-carolina.html |title=40% of AIDS Cases Go Unreported in Carolina - New York Times |location=South Carolina |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=1989-11-28 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> In 2008, out of 2,460 deaths from AIDS-related illnesses during a six-year period in [[Washington, DC]], an estimated of 1,337 had not been reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poz.com/articles/aids_deaths_washington_1_14759.shtml |title=Newsfeed : AIDS Deaths Go Unreported in Washington, DC |publisher=Poz.com |date=2008-06-16 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> On the basis of national surveys and excess death statistics it was estimated that Covid-19 mortality through September 2021 has been under-reported in India by a factor of as much as 6 or 7.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jha |first1=Prabhat |last2=Deshmukh |first2=Yashwant |last3=Tumbe |first3=Chinmay |last4=Suraweera |first4=Wilson |last5=Bhowmick |first5=Aditi |last6=Sharma |first6=Sankalp |last7=Novosad |first7=Paul |last8=Fu |first8=Sze Hang |last9=Newcombe |first9=Leslie |last10=Gelband |first10=Hellen |last11=Brown |first11=Patrick |title=COVID mortality in India: National survey data and health facility deaths |journal=Science |date=6 January 2022 |volume=375 |issue=6581 |pages=667–671 |doi=10.1126/science.abm5154|pmid=34990216 |pmc=9836201 |bibcode=2022Sci...375..667J |s2cid=246801325 }}</ref>


==Adverse events of injection==
⚫
Under-reported [[Dengue fever|dengue]] in [[India]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Manish Kakkar |url=http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e8574 |title=Dengue fever is massively under-reported in India, hampering our response |publisher=BMJ |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> polio in [[China]]{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}} and [[Pakistan]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Khattak |first=Jehangir |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/534215/why-pakistan-is-losing-war-against-polio/ |title=Why Pakistan is losing the war against polio – The Express Tribune |publisher=Tribune.com.pk |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> disability in [[Malaysia]],<ref>{{cite web|author=ian mcintyre |url=http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Community/2013/09/16/The-number-of-disabled-people-underreported-says-don.aspx/ |title=The number of disabled people under-reported, says don - Community &#124; The Star Online |publisher=Thestar.com.my |date=2013-09-16 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> and [[COVID-19]] in many countries remain a problem. In the [[United States]], it was estimated in 1989 that 40% of the AIDS cases in [[South Carolina]] went unreported.<ref>{{cite news|author=AP |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/28/science/40-of-aids-cases-go-unreported-in-carolina.html |title=40% of AIDS Cases Go Unreported in Carolina - New York Times |location=South Carolina |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=1989-11-28 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> In 2008, out of 2,460 deaths from AIDS-related illnesses during a six-year period in [[Washington, DC]], an estimated of 1,337 had not been reported.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poz.com/articles/aids_deaths_washington_1_14759.shtml |title=Newsfeed : AIDS Deaths Go Unreported in Washington, DC |publisher=Poz.com |date=2008-06-16 |access-date=2014-02-04}}</ref> On the basis of national surveys and excess death statistics it was estimated that Covid-19 mortality through September 2021 has been under-reported in India by a factor of as much as 6 or 7.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jha |first1=Prabhat |last2=Deshmukh |first2=Yashwant |last3=Tumbe |first3=Chinmay |last4=Suraweera |first4=Wilson |last5=Bhowmick |first5=Aditi |last6=Sharma |first6=Sankalp |last7=Novosad |first7=Paul |last8=Fu |first8=Sze Hang |last9=Newcombe |first9=Leslie |last10=Gelband |first10=Hellen |last11=Brown |first11=Patrick |title=COVID mortality in India: National survey data and health facility deaths |journal=Science |date=6 January 2022 |volume=375 |issue=6581 |pages=667–671 |doi=10.1126/science.abm5154|pmid=34990216 |pmc=9836201 |bibcode=2022Sci...375..667J |s2cid=246801325 }}</ref>
In July 2024, former director of [[CDC]] (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) Robert Redfield commented that [[FDA]] underreported adverse events of [[Covid-19 vaccine]] to delude the public that the vaccine was effective and safe. He added that Joe Biden Administration's decision to mandate the Covid vaccine was the biggest mistake of all.
<ref>{{Cite web
|url=https://kleanindustries.com/resources/market-analysis-research/former-cdc-director-says-fda-underreported-adverse-side-effects-of-covid-injections-to-prevent-vaccine-hesitancy/
|title=Former CDC Director Says FDA Underreported Adverse Side Effects of COVID Injections to Prevent Vaccine Hesitancy
|date=23 July 2024
|author=KleanIndustries
|publisher=KleanIndustries
}}</ref>


==Population==
==Population==
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Under-reporting of births and infant deaths in countries such as China has been documented.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/655953 | jstor=655953 | title=Underreporting of Births and Infant Deaths in Rural China: Evidence from Field Research in One County of Northern China | last1=Merli | first1=M. Giovanna | journal=The China Quarterly | date=1998 | volume=155 | issue=155 | pages=637–655 | doi=10.1017/S0305741000050025 }}</ref>

⚫
Under-reporting of population in countries such as China<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/655953?uid=3738256&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21103453308473 Underreporting of Births and Infant Deaths in Rural China]: Evidence from Field Research in One County of Northern China, No. 155 (Sep., 1998), pp. 637-655</ref> has been documented.


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Fear of crime]]
*[[Institute for Public Accuracy]]
*[[Institute for Public Accuracy]]
⚫
*[[Dark figure of crime]]


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 15:33, 1 December 2024

Under-reporting usually refers to some issue, incident, statistic, etc., that individuals, responsible agencies, or news media have not reported, or have reported as less than the actual level or amount. Under-reporting of crimes, for example, makes it hard to figure the actual incidence of crimes.

Under-reporting is a failure in data reporting.

Crime

[edit]
Further information: Dark figure of crime

Various estimates have been provided in relation to under-reporting of crimes across the world. According to the American Medical Association (1995), sexual violence, and rape in particular, is considered the most under-reported violent crime.[1] Common reasons for individuals not reporting crime include fear of not being believed, insecurity, and fear of getting into trouble. These reasons are most common for not reporting rape.[2] It is commonly assumed that most of the rape cases go unreported;[3] some estimates go up to or above 90%.[4][5] (See also Rape reporting.) Non-recognition of domestic violence may lead to under-reporting.

Anti-LGBT+ crime

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Under-reporting of violence against LGBT people including homicide is widespread, and is more likely to arise in countries that criminalise same-sex relationships, especially regimes that impose the death penalty for them.[6] Even under democratic rule of law governance where there are LGBT rights protections, under-reporting occurs. A US investigation by the Center for Public Integrity in collaboration with ProPublica and News21 found that violent attacks and other hate crimes against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Americans "are consistently not reported and prosecuted because of chronic distrust between the LGBTQ community and police":

Nearly 300,000 crimes may have been committed against people across the United States because of their sexual orientation from 2012 to 2016, according to a News21 analysis of data from the federal National Crime Victimization Survey, which tens of thousands of American households fill out each year.[7]

In Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council Standing Committee on Social Issues A Report into Youth Violence in New South Wales, published September 1995 noted significant under-reporting of LGBT bullying by victims out of fear of reprisals, and outing to their families and peers, that had led the Department of Education to underestimate its prevalence:[8]

It is of concern that of 37 students reporting incidents of verbal or physical harassment, 31 had not reported the most serious incidents to school authorities. (Submission 43). In two submissions to the Committee from school students, little sympathy was expressed for victims of this form of violence (Submissions 20 and 58). It was suggested to the Committee that 46% of young people involved in an anti-homophobia workshop in one school were not aware that it was illegal to bash homosexuals. A group of ten students, charged with the murder of a Sydney man at a park near their High School, expressed genuine surprise upon their arrest (in camera evidence). The Committee also heard that school personnel have demonstrated homophobic attitudes.[9]

Child Abuse

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According to the National Children's Alliance, over 600,000 children in the US were victims of abuse and neglect in 2021, the most recent year for which there was national data, with the actual number likely under-reported because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in that year. An estimated 1.8 million children received prevention services.[10][11] Lack of mandatory reporting of child abuse[12] in certain countries has contributed to under-reporting. In 2024, 27 EU countries did not have mandatory reporting,[13] while child abuse that has occurred in religious institutions such as in the Catholic Church has been under-reported through concealment by church authorities.[14] This practice also happens in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[15] and other like intuitions.[16] Children themselves may feel unable to report abuse because of fear of revenge by their abuser, or embarrassment, humiliation, or thinking they would not be believed. Moreover, a child may be too young to have the words to explain what is happening to them. If the abuser has introduced the child to drugs or pornography, the child may fear getting into trouble. Fear and guilt thus play a role in making the child think they have done something wrong. An abuser may also manifest overt generosity to their victim by showering them with gifts and affection, so the child may irrationally come to love their abuser and not want to report them.[17]

Fraud

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In 2012, the universities of Leicester and Westminster, while collaborating with Serious Organised Crime Agency, estimated that 200,000 people had been victims of online dating fraud. The report included instances of under-reported frauds.[18]

Murder

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Murders are sometimes not reported,[19] due to the fear of the alleged murderer's connection with another murderer, or because of a settlement. Forced suicide has led to honour killings going unreported.[20][21] The reported murder rates in China have been criticized for under-reporting unsolved murders due to police salaries being based on the rate of solved cases.[22]

Disease

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Under-reported dengue in India,[23] polio in Pakistan,[24][25] disability in Malaysia,[26] and COVID-19 in many countries remain a problem. In the United States, it was estimated in 1989 that 40% of the AIDS cases in South Carolina went unreported, largely due to social stigma in the early days of the epidemic.[27] In 2008, out of 2,460 deaths from AIDS-related illnesses during a six-year period in Washington, DC, an estimated of 1,337 had not been reported.[28] On the basis of national surveys and excess death statistics it was estimated that Covid-19 mortality through September 2021 has been under-reported in India by a factor of as much as 6 or 7.[29]

Adverse events of injection

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In July 2024, former director of CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) Robert Redfield commented that FDA underreported adverse events of Covid-19 vaccine to delude the public that the vaccine was effective and safe. He added that Joe Biden Administration's decision to mandate the Covid vaccine was the biggest mistake of all. [30]

Population

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Under-reporting of births and infant deaths in countries such as China has been documented.[31]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "A gap or a chasm? Attrition in reported rape cases" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-14. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  2. ^ "Between 70-90% rapes thought to go unreported …and 94% of reported cases don't end in a conviction - University of Surrey - Guildford". Surrey.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  3. ^ Nina Lakhani (2012-03-12). "Unreported rapes: the silent shame - Crime - UK". The Independent. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  4. ^ "Rape Myths and Facts | wellwvu | West Virginia University". Well.wvu.edu. 2013-09-24. Archived from the original on 2017-04-20. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  5. ^ "15642_Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  6. ^ Max Bearak and Darla Cameron. (16 June 2016). Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death. Washington Post.
  7. ^ Emma Keith, Katie Gagliano and News21 Staff. (24 August 2018). Lack of trust in law enforcement hinders reporting of LBGTQ crimes. Center for Public Integrity.
  8. ^ Maslen, Geoff. (11 April 1997). Teenage gays sue over gang attacks. TES (magazine). United Kingdom.
  9. ^ A Report into Youth Violence in New South Wales. Report No 8, P.92, Para. 3.10: 'Violence Against Homosexuals and Lesbians': Standing Committee on Social Issues, New South Wales Legislative Council.
  10. ^ 'National Statistics on Child Abuse'. National Children's Alliance.
  11. ^ 'Total number of victims of child abuse in the United States from 2012 to 2021 '. Society > Crime & Law Enforcement: Statista.
  12. ^ 'What is child abuse?'. NSPCC.
  13. ^ Provisions on professionals' legal obligation to report cases of child abuse, neglect and violence. Fundamental Rights Agency. European Union
  14. ^ Livni, Ephrat. (15 August 2018).'The Catholic Church’s seven-point system for covering up abuse'. Quartz.
  15. ^ "Recordings show how the Mormon church protects itself from child sex abuse claims". AP News. 2023-12-04. Retrieved 2024-06-19.
  16. ^ Miller, Ronald V.; Jr. (2024-05-01). "Sex Abuse Lawsuits Against LDS Church". Lawsuit Information Center. Retrieved 2024-06-19.
  17. ^ 'Why children do not tell about abuse.'. parentsprotect.co.uk website.
  18. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-04. Retrieved 2014-02-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  19. ^ John Esterbrook (2002-09-09). "Millions Of Crimes Go Unreported". CBS News. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  20. ^ Gorar, M. (2022). 'Honour Suicide and Forced Suicide in the UK.' The Journal of Criminal Law, 86(5), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220183221115294.
  21. ^ R Reddy, 'Domestic Violence or Cultural Tradition? Approaches to "Honour Killing" as Species and Subspecies in English Legal Practice' in AK Gill et al. 'Honour' Killing & Violence (Palgrave MacMillan 2014) 29.
  22. ^ June Cheng. The puzzle of China’s low crime rates. 2018-10-25. Accessed 2019-09-05
  23. ^ Manish Kakkar. "Dengue fever is massively under-reported in India, hampering our response". BMJ. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  24. ^ Haroon Shabbir, Sajeel Saeed, Muhammad Farhan, Khawar Abbas, Mohammad Ebad ur Rehman, Fahad Gul, and Jawad Basita. (31 July 2022). Poliomyelitis in Pakistan: Challenges to polio eradication and future prospects. National Library of Medicine.
  25. ^ Khattak, Jehangir. "Why Pakistan is losing the war against polio – The Express Tribune". Tribune.com.pk. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  26. ^ ian mcintyre (2013-09-16). "The number of disabled people under-reported, says don - Community | The Star Online". Thestar.com.my. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  27. ^ AP (1989-11-28). "40% of AIDS Cases Go Unreported in Carolina - New York Times". The New York Times. South Carolina. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  28. ^ "Newsfeed : AIDS Deaths Go Unreported in Washington, DC". Poz.com. 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  29. ^ Jha, Prabhat; Deshmukh, Yashwant; Tumbe, Chinmay; Suraweera, Wilson; Bhowmick, Aditi; Sharma, Sankalp; Novosad, Paul; Fu, Sze Hang; Newcombe, Leslie; Gelband, Hellen; Brown, Patrick (6 January 2022). "COVID mortality in India: National survey data and health facility deaths". Science. 375 (6581): 667–671. Bibcode:2022Sci...375..667J. doi:10.1126/science.abm5154. PMC 9836201. PMID 34990216. S2CID 246801325.
  30. ^ KleanIndustries (23 July 2024). "Former CDC Director Says FDA Underreported Adverse Side Effects of COVID Injections to Prevent Vaccine Hesitancy". KleanIndustries.
  31. ^ Merli, M. Giovanna (1998). "Underreporting of Births and Infant Deaths in Rural China: Evidence from Field Research in One County of Northern China". The China Quarterly. 155 (155): 637–655. doi:10.1017/S0305741000050025. JSTOR 655953.
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