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==Early life==
==Early life==


He was born to a Torodbe family who are clan of [[Fula people|Fulani]] as stated by [[Abdullahi dan Fodio]], brother of [[Usman dan Fodio]] .<ref>{{cite book|last=Abubakar|first=Aliyu|title=The Torankawa Danfodio Family|year=2005|publisher=Fero Publishers|location=Kano,Nigeria}}</ref. Prior to the beginning of the 1804 Jihad the category Fulani was not important for the Torankawa (Torodbe), their literature reveals the ambivalence they had defining Torodbe-Fulani relationships. They adopted the language of the Fulbe and much ethos while maintaining a separate identity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ibrahim|first=Muhammad|title=The Hausa-Fulani Arabs: A Case Study of the Genealogy of Usman Danfodio|year=1987|publisher=Kadawa Press}}</ref> The Toronkawa clan at first recruited members from all levels of Sūdānī society, particularly the poorer people.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3239264 |title=The Torodbe Clerisy: A Social View |last=Willis|first=John Ralph |access-date=2013-02-13 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19|issue=2|date=April 1978 |page=195 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/s0021853700027596 |jstor=181598|s2cid=162817107 }}</ref>
He was born to a Torodbe family who are clan of [[Fula people|Fulani]] as stated by [[Abdullahi dan Fodio]], brother of [[Usman dan Fodio]] .<ref>{{cite book|last=Abubakar|first=Aliyu|title=The Torankawa Danfodio Family|year=2005|publisher=Fero Publishers|location=Kano,Nigeria}}</ref>. Prior to the beginning of the 1804 Jihad the category Fulani was not important for the Torankawa (Torodbe), their literature reveals the ambivalence they had defining Torodbe-Fulani relationships. They adopted the language of the Fulbe and much ethos while maintaining a separate identity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ibrahim|first=Muhammad|title=The Hausa-Fulani Arabs: A Case Study of the Genealogy of Usman Danfodio|year=1987|publisher=Kadawa Press}}</ref> The Toronkawa clan at first recruited members from all levels of Sūdānī society, particularly the poorer people.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3239264 |title=The Torodbe Clerisy: A Social View |last=Willis|first=John Ralph |access-date=2013-02-13 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=19|issue=2|date=April 1978 |page=195 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/s0021853700027596 |jstor=181598|s2cid=162817107 }}</ref>
Toronkawa clerics included people whose origin was [[Fula people|Fula]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Mandé peoples|Mande]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]] and [[Berber people|Berber]].
Toronkawa clerics included people whose origin was [[Fula people|Fula]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Mandé peoples|Mande]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]] and [[Berber people|Berber]].
However, they spoke the [[Fula language]], married into Fulbe families, and became the Fulbe scholarly caste.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ajayi|first=Jacob F. Ade|title=Africa in the Nineteenth Century Until the 1880s|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMpMuJalFKoC&pg=PA541|access-date=2013-02-13
However, they spoke the [[Fula language]], married into Fulbe families, and became the Fulbe scholarly caste.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ajayi|first=Jacob F. Ade|title=Africa in the Nineteenth Century Until the 1880s|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMpMuJalFKoC&pg=PA541|access-date=2013-02-13

Revision as of 01:59, 10 July 2022

Muhammad Bello
محمد بلُّو
Amir al-Mu'minin
2nd Caliph of the Sokoto Caliphate
Reign1817-1837
Coronation22 April 1817
PredecessorUsman dan Fodio
SuccessorAbu Bakr Atiku, a brother
Born3 November 1781
Died25 October 1837
Wurno
FatherUsman dan Fodio
ReligionIslam[1]

Muhammad Bello (Template:Lang-ar) was a Fulani political and religious leader, who ruled as the second caliph of the Sokoto Caliphate, from 1817 until his death in 1837.[2] He succeeded his father Usman dan Fodio, the founder and the first caliph of the Sokoto Caliphate.[3]

Bello was also an active writer of history, poetry, and Islamic studies. During his reign, he encouraged the spread of Islam throughout the region, increasing education for both men and women, and the establishment of Islamic courts. He died on October 25, 1837, and was succeeded by his brother Abu Bakr Atiku and then his son, Aliyu Babba.[4]

Early life

He was born to a Torodbe family who are clan of Fulani as stated by Abdullahi dan Fodio, brother of Usman dan Fodio .[5]. Prior to the beginning of the 1804 Jihad the category Fulani was not important for the Torankawa (Torodbe), their literature reveals the ambivalence they had defining Torodbe-Fulani relationships. They adopted the language of the Fulbe and much ethos while maintaining a separate identity.[6] The Toronkawa clan at first recruited members from all levels of Sūdānī society, particularly the poorer people.[7] Toronkawa clerics included people whose origin was Fula, Wolof, Mande, Hausa and Berber. However, they spoke the Fula language, married into Fulbe families, and became the Fulbe scholarly caste.[8]

Muhammed Bello was born to the fourth wife of Usman dan Fodio, known as Hauwa or Inna Garka, in 1781[9] Similar to all his siblings, he was involved in studies directed by his father in Degel until the family and some followers were exiled in 1804. In 1809, Bello was responsible for the founding of Sokoto which would become the key capital for his father's conquest of Hausa lands in the Fulani War (1804-1810).[9]

Many of his siblings dedicated significant time to scholastic efforts and became well known in this regard. Notable amongst these were his sister Nana Asma’u, a poet and teacher,[10] and Abu Bakr Atiku, who would become his successor as Sultan.[11]

Caliphate

Following the Fulani War, the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest states in Africa and included large populations of both Fulani and Hausa. Usman dan Fodio tried to largely suppress Hausa systems, including traditional leadership, education, and language.[11] Usman retired from administration of the state in 1815 and put Muhammed Bello in charge of some of the western Emirates of the Caliphate. Bello Presided over this Emirates from the city of Wurno close to Sokoto.

Upon the Death of Dan-Fodio, the Caliphate was thrown into disarray when the supporters of Bello encircled and sealed the gates of Sokoto, preventing other notable contenders to the office of Caliph ( including Bello's uncle Abdullahi Ibn Fodio ) from entering the city. The Caliphate eventually fractured into four Self-governing parts of which only the parts ruled by Bello's uncle; Abdullahi Ibn Fodio were to recognize and pay allegiance to Bello.[12]

Caliph Bello faced early challenges from dissident leaders and the aristocracy of both Fulani and Hausa populations. In contrast with his father, his administration was more permissive of many Hausa systems that had existed prior to the caliphate.[13][9] For Fulani populations, who had been largely pastoral prior to this point, Bello encourages permanent settlement around designed ribats with schools, mosques, fortifications, and other buildings.[14] Although these moves ended much opposition, some dissident leaders such as 'Abd al-Salam and Dan Tunku continued to cause early resistance to his rule. Dan Tunku remained a significant dissident leader as the head of the Emirate of Kazaure. Although Dan Tunku had fought on the side of his father in the Fulani War, when Bello named Ibrahim Dado the Emir of Kano in 1819, Dan Tunku organized oppositional forces in revolution. Bello assisted Ibrahim Dado in defeating the forces of Dan Tunku and building significant fortresses throughout the region where Dan Tunku had drawn his power.[14]

After ending some early opposition, the Sultan focused on consolidating his administration throughout the empire with significant construction, settlement, and uniform systems of justice.[11] One significant aspect that he expanded from his father was greatly expanded education of both men and women. His sister, Nana Asma’u, became a crucial part of expanding education to women becoming an important teacher and liaison to rural women to encourage education.[15]

During Muhammad Bello's rule, El Hadj Umar Tall, future founder of the Toucouleur empire, settled in Sokoto on his return from Mecca in 1822. Umar Tall was greatly influenced by Sultan Muhammad Bello as evidenced by the praise Tall lavished upon the Sultan in his own writings.[16] To affirm a permanent alliance, Sultan Bello married one of his daughters to Hajj Umar [17] who remained in Sokoto as a judge (qadi), and as a commanding officer in the Sultan's infantry until Bello's death.

Hugh Clapperton visited the court of Bello in 1824 and wrote a lot about the generosity and intelligence of the Sultan. Clapperton was very impressed at the writing works by Bello and his exhaustive knowledge regarding British exploration in India.[18] In 1826, Clapperton returned for a second visit, but Bello would not let him cross the border because of warfare with the Bornu Empire and Clapperton became ill and died.[18]

In 1836, the kingdom of Gobir revolted against Sokoto rule. Sultan Muhammed Bello gathered his forces and crushed the rebellion on 9 March 1836 at the Battle of Gawakuke.[19]

While ruling, he continued with significant educational pursuits, mainly history and poetry. His Infaku'l Maisuri (The Wages of the Fortunate) is often considered a definitive history of the Fulani Wars and his father's empire.[20] He wrote hundreds of texts on history, Islamic studies, and poetry during his lifetime.[11]

He died of natural causes, at the age of 58, on October 25, 1837, in Wurno[21] and was succeeded by his brother Abu Bakr Atiku as Sultan.[11]

References

  1. ^ ISLAMIC CULTURE - AN ENGLISH QUARTERLY: "And say: My Lord! Increase me in knowledge – Qur’an" Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Vol. LIV No.4 - OCTOBER 1980
  2. ^ Wilks,Ivor. Wangara, Akan, and Portuguese in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (1997). Bakewell, Peter (ed.). Mines of Silver and Gold in the Americas. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing Limited. p. 17.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ "Log In - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 2020-05-26.
  4. ^ "History Atlas". www.historyatlas.com. Retrieved 2020-05-26.
  5. ^ Abubakar, Aliyu (2005). The Torankawa Danfodio Family. Kano,Nigeria: Fero Publishers.
  6. ^ Ibrahim, Muhammad (1987). The Hausa-Fulani Arabs: A Case Study of the Genealogy of Usman Danfodio. Kadawa Press.
  7. ^ Willis, John Ralph (April 1978). "The Torodbe Clerisy: A Social View". The Journal of African History. 19 (2). Cambridge University Press: 195. doi:10.1017/s0021853700027596. JSTOR 181598. S2CID 162817107. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
  8. ^ Ajayi, Jacob F. Ade (1989). Africa in the Nineteenth Century Until the 1880s. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03917-9. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
  9. ^ a b c Boyd, Jean (1986). Mahdi Adamu (ed.). Pastoralists of the West African Savanna. Manchester, UK: International African Institute.
  10. ^ John H. Hanson (2012). Elias Kifon (ed.). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to African Religion. West Sussex: Blackwell. pp. 365–376.
  11. ^ a b c d e Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
  12. ^ "Muhammed Bello biography, net worth, age, family, contact & picture". www.manpower.com.ng. Retrieved 2022-05-23.
  13. ^ Last, Murray (1967). "A Note on Attitudes to the Supernatural in the Sokoto Jihad". Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria. 4 (1): 3–13. JSTOR 41971197. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  14. ^ a b Salau, Mohammed Bashir (2006). "Ribats and the Development of Plantations in the Sokoto Caliphate: A Case Study of Fanisau". African Economic History. 34 (34): 23–43. doi:10.2307/25427025. JSTOR 25427025.
  15. ^ Boyd, Jean (2005). Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
  16. ^ Shareef, Muhammad. "The Revival of the Sunna and Destruction of Innovation" (PDF). siiasi.org. Sankore Institute of Islamic African Studies International (SIIASI). Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  17. ^ Roberts, Richard L (1987). Warriors, Merchants, and Slaves. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804766135.
  18. ^ a b Kemper, Steven (2012). A Labyrinth of Kingdoms: 10,000 Miles Through Islamic Africa. New York: W.W. Norton.
  19. ^ Last, Murray (1967). The Sokoto Caliphate. New York: Humanities Press. pp. 74–5.
  20. ^ Adebayo, A.G. (1991). "Of Man and Cattle: A Reconsideration of the Traditions of Origin of Pastoral Fulani of Nigeria". History in Africa. 18: 1–21. doi:10.2307/3172050. JSTOR 3172050. S2CID 162291547.
  21. ^ John Renard, ed. (2009). Tales of God's Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520258969.
Preceded by 2nd Sokoto Caliph
1815–1837 		Succeeded by
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