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'''Food biodiversity''' is defined as "the diversity of plants, animals, and other organisms used for food, covering the [[genetic resources]] within species, between species and provided by ecosystems."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Card fr |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/fr?details=5d2034ff-a949-482a-801c-44b7b675f1dd/ |access-date=2023-10-15 |website=FAODocuments |language=fr}}</ref>
'''Food biodiversity''' is defined as "the diversity of plants, animals, and other organisms used for food, covering the [[genetic resources]] within species, between species and provided by ecosystems."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Card fr |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/fr?details=5d2034ff-a949-482a-801c-44b7b675f1dd/ |access-date=2023-10-15 |website=FAODocuments |language=fr}}</ref>


Food biodiversity can be considered from two main perspectives: production and consumption. From a consumption perspective, food biodiversity describes the diversity of foods in human diets and their contribution to [[dietary diversity]], cultural identity, and good [[nutrition]]. Production of food biodiversity looks at the thousands of food products, such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, meat, and condiments sourced from agriculture and the wild (e.g. forests, uncultivated fields, water bodies). Food biodiversity covers the diversity ''between species,'' for example, different animal and crop species, including those considered [[Neglected and underutilized crop|neglected and underutilized species]]. Food biodiversity also comprises the diversity ''within species,'' for example, different varieties of fruit and vegetables or different breeds of animals.
Food biodiversity can be considered from two main perspectives: production and consumption. From a consumption perspective, food biodiversity describes the diversity of foods in human diets and their contribution to [[dietary diversity]], cultural identity, and good [[nutrition]]. Production of food biodiversity looks at the thousands of food products, such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, meat, and condiments sourced from agriculture and the wild (e.g. forests, uncultivated fields, water bodies). Food biodiversity covers the diversity ''between species,'' such as different animal and crop species, including those considered [[Neglected and underutilized crop|neglected and underutilized species]]. Food biodiversity also comprises the diversity ''within species,'' for example, different varieties of fruit and vegetables or other breeds of animals.


Food diversity, diet diversity, and nutritional diversity are also terms used in the new diet culture spawned by Brandon Eisler, in the study known as Nutritional Diversity. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Nutritional Diversity Optimal Performance Diet Sciences |url=https://nutritionaldiversity.com/ |access-date=2023-10-15 |website=Nutritional Diversity |language=en-US}}</ref>
Food diversity, diet diversity, and nutritional diversity are also terms used in the new diet culture spawned by Brandon Eisler, in the study known as Nutritional Diversity. <ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Nutritional Diversity Optimal Performance Diet Sciences |url=https://nutritionaldiversity.com/ |access-date=2023-10-15 |website=Nutritional Diversity |language=en-US}}</ref>
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=== Food biodiversity in consumption[edit] ===
=== Food biodiversity in consumption[edit] ===
Promoting diversity of foods and species consumed in human diets in particular has potential co-benefits for public health as well as [[sustainable food systems]] perspective. Food biodiversity provides necessary nutrients for quality diets and is an essential part of local food systems, cultures and [[food security]]. '''“'''Promoting diversity of foods and species consumed in human diets in particular has potential co-benefits for sustainable food systems. From a conservation point of view, diets based on a wide variety of species place less pressure on single species. According to the FAO, 75% of the worlds food comes from 12 plant species and 5 from animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Agrobiodiversity? |url=https://www.fao.org/3/y5609e/y5609e02.htm |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>
Promoting diversity of foods and species consumed in human diets, in particular, has potential co-benefits for public health and [[sustainable food systems]] perspective. Food biodiversity provides necessary nutrients for quality diets and is an essential part of local food systems, cultures, and [[food security]]. Promoting diversity of foods and species consumed in human diets has potential co-benefits for sustainable food systems. From a conservation point of view, diets based on a wide variety of species place less pressure on a single species. According to the FAO, 75% of the world's food comes from 12 plant species and five from animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Agrobiodiversity? |url=https://www.fao.org/3/y5609e/y5609e02.htm |access-date=2023-11-03 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>


=== Affects on nutrition and health ===
=== Affects on nutrition and health ===
A method of measurement for dietary diversity is the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS). HDDS add sums up the number of food groups digested in a day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) {{!}} INDDEX Project |url=https://inddex.nutrition.tufts.edu/data4diets/indicator/household-dietary-diversity-score-hdds#:~:text=The%20most%20common%20method%20of,foods%20consumed%20is%20not%20gathered. |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=inddex.nutrition.tufts.edu |language=en}}</ref>
A method of measurement for dietary diversity is the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS). HDDS sums up the number of food groups digested in a day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) {{!}} INDDEX Project |url=https://inddex.nutrition.tufts.edu/data4diets/indicator/household-dietary-diversity-score-hdds#:~:text=The%20most%20common%20method%20of,foods%20consumed%20is%20not%20gathered. |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=inddex.nutrition.tufts.edu |language=en}}</ref>


Nutritionally, diversity in food is associated with higher micronutrient adequacy of diets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lachat |first=Carl |last2=Raneri |first2=Jessica E. |last3=Smith |first3=Katherine Walker |last4=Kolsteren |first4=Patrick |last5=Van Damme |first5=Patrick |last6=Verzelen |first6=Kaat |last7=Penafiel |first7=Daniela |last8=Vanhove |first8=Wouter |last9=Kennedy |first9=Gina |last10=Hunter |first10=Danny |last11=Odhiambo |first11=Francis Oduor |last12=Ntandou-Bouzitou |first12=Gervais |last13=De Baets |first13=Bernard |last14=Ratnasekera |first14=Disna |last15=Ky |first15=Hoang The |date=2018-01-02 |title=Dietary species richness as a measure of food biodiversity and nutritional quality of diets |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5776793/ |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=127–132 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1709194115 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=5776793 |pmid=29255049}}</ref> In some case diverse diets have been proven to have benefits on ones health. For instance, the introduction of a wide variety of foods and food allergens during the first year of life can lead to a heightened intake of central nutrients and contribute to positive changes in the structure and function of the gut microbiome. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=D'Auria E |last2=Peroni DG |last3=Sartorio MUA |last4=Verduci E |last5=Zuccotti GV and Venter C |date=09-15-2020 |title=The Role of Diet Diversity and Diet Indices on Allergy Outcomes |journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics |pages=8:545}}</ref> The diversification of species distributes quantities of micronutrients, macronutrients, and calories to the human diet. Among micronutrients, the nutrients for humans that are imperative to survive are A, eight types of B vitamins, C, D, E, and K. Their functions range from fighting infections, strengthening bones, healing wounds, and regulating hormones.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Services |first=Department of Health & Human |title=Vitamins and minerals |url=http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/Vitamins-and-minerals |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> When species that provide superior macro and micronutrient densities are consumed less compared to more commonly consumed species, humans don’t achieve nearly the same benefits. For instance, rice and wheat represent staple foods in most cultures; however, teff and minor millets have larger concentrations of protein, fat, and iron.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Gina Kennedy |last2=Zeyuan Wang |last3=Patrick Maundu |last4=Danny Hunter |date=2022 |title=The role of traditional knowledge and food biodiversity to transform modern food systems |journal=Trends in Food Science and Technology |volume=130 |pages=32-41}}</ref>
Nutritionally, diversity in food is associated with higher micronutrient adequacy of diets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lachat |first=Carl |last2=Raneri |first2=Jessica E. |last3=Smith |first3=Katherine Walker |last4=Kolsteren |first4=Patrick |last5=Van Damme |first5=Patrick |last6=Verzelen |first6=Kaat |last7=Penafiel |first7=Daniela |last8=Vanhove |first8=Wouter |last9=Kennedy |first9=Gina |last10=Hunter |first10=Danny |last11=Odhiambo |first11=Francis Oduor |last12=Ntandou-Bouzitou |first12=Gervais |last13=De Baets |first13=Bernard |last14=Ratnasekera |first14=Disna |last15=Ky |first15=Hoang The |date=2018-01-02 |title=Dietary species richness as a measure of food biodiversity and nutritional quality of diets |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5776793/ |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=127–132 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1709194115 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=5776793 |pmid=29255049}}</ref> In some cases diverse diets have been proven to have benefits on one's health. For instance, the introduction of a wide variety of foods and food allergens during the first year of life can lead to a heightened intake of central nutrients and contribute to positive changes in the structure and function of the gut microbiome. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=D'Auria E |last2=Peroni DG |last3=Sartorio MUA |last4=Verduci E |last5=Zuccotti GV and Venter C |date=09-15-2020 |title=The Role of Diet Diversity and Diet Indices on Allergy Outcomes |journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics |pages=8:545}}</ref> The diversification of species distributes quantities of micronutrients, macronutrients, and calories to the human diet. Among micronutrients, the nutrients for humans that are imperative to survive are A, eight types of B vitamins, C, D, E, and K. Their functions range from fighting infections, strengthening bones, healing wounds, and regulating hormones.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Services |first=Department of Health & Human |title=Vitamins and minerals |url=http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/Vitamins-and-minerals |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au |language=en}}</ref> When species that provide superior macro and micronutrient densities are consumed less compared to more commonly consumed species, humans don’t achieve nearly the same benefits. For instance, rice and wheat represent staple foods in most cultures; however, teff and minor millets have more significant concentrations of protein, fat, and iron.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Gina Kennedy |last2=Zeyuan Wang |last3=Patrick Maundu |last4=Danny Hunter |date=2022 |title=The role of traditional knowledge and food biodiversity to transform modern food systems |journal=Trends in Food Science and Technology |volume=130 |pages=32-41}}</ref>


Considering the profound impact food biodiversity has on health food variaties can have potential risks. Wild foods (fish, plants, tree foods, wild meat, insects and fungi) serve as a crucial source of dietary diversity and essential micronutrients, especially in rural communities, those foods can occasionally pose health and food safety risks. Additionally, plants and animals carry diseases that are anthropogenically passed or are zoonotic. In the U.S. there are 31 known pathogens, of the known pathogens 9.4 million people become ill from food borne illness, 55,961 people are hospitalized from illness, and 1,351 deaths.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-15 |title=Burden of Foodborne Illness: Findings {{!}} Estimates of Foodborne Illness {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/foodborneburden/2011-foodborne-estimates.html |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> On a global scale, decline in genetic diversity weakens the resilience of food systems leaving them vulnerable to various challenges, encompassing pests, pathogens, and severe weather. This poses a significant risk to global food security.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Benton, Bieg, Harwatt, Pudasaini, and Wellesley. |first=Tim, Carling, Helen,
Considering the profound impact food biodiversity has on health, food varieties can have potential risks. Wild foods (fish, plants, tree foods, wild meat, insects and fungi) serve as a crucial source of dietary diversity and essential micronutrients, especially in rural communities, foods can occasionally pose health and food safety risks. Additionally, plants and animals carry diseases that are anthropogenically passed or are zoonotic. In the U.S., there are 31 known pathogens, of the known pathogens 9.4 million people become ill from food-borne illness, 55,961 people are hospitalized from illness, and 1,351 deaths.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-15 |title=Burden of Foodborne Illness: Findings {{!}} Estimates of Foodborne Illness {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/foodborneburden/2011-foodborne-estimates.html |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> On a global scale, the decline in genetic diversity weakens the resilience of food systems, leaving them vulnerable to various challenges, encompassing pests, pathogens, and severe weather. This poses a significant risk to global food security.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Benton, Bieg, Harwatt, Pudasaini, and Wellesley. |first=Tim, Carling, Helen,
Roshan, and Laura |title=Food system impacts
Roshan, and Laura |title=Food system impacts
on biodiversity loss
on biodiversity loss
Three levers for food
Three levers for food
system transformation
system transformation
in support of nature |isbn=ISBN 978 1 78413 433 4 |pages=6}}</ref> Furthermore, food biodiversity, as measured by the absolute number of biological species in the usual diet, was negatively associated with total mortality rate and cause-specific deaths due to cancer, heart disease, respiratory disease, and digestive disease among ~450,000 adults from nine European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hanley-Cook |first=Giles T. |last2=Huybrechts |first2=Inge |last3=Biessy |first3=Carine |last4=Remans |first4=Roseline |last5=Kennedy |first5=Gina |last6=Deschasaux-Tanguy |first6=Mélanie |last7=Murray |first7=Kris A. |last8=Touvier |first8=Mathilde |last9=Skeie |first9=Guri |last10=Kesse-Guyot |first10=Emmanuelle |last11=Argaw |first11=Alemayehu |last12=Casagrande |first12=Corinne |last13=Nicolas |first13=Geneviève |last14=Vineis |first14=Paolo |last15=Millett |first15=Christopher J. |date=2021-10-18 |title=Food biodiversity and total and cause-specific mortality in 9 European countries: An analysis of a prospective cohort study |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559947/ |journal=PLoS Medicine |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=e1003834 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003834 |issn=1549-1277 |pmc=8559947 |pmid=34662340}}</ref>
in support of nature |isbn=ISBN 978 1 78413 433 4 |pages=6}}</ref> Furthermore, food biodiversity, as measured by the absolute number of biological species in the usual diet, was negatively associated with the total mortality rate and cause-specific deaths due to cancer, heart disease, respiratory disease, and digestive disease among ~450,000 adults from nine European countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hanley-Cook |first=Giles T. |last2=Huybrechts |first2=Inge |last3=Biessy |first3=Carine |last4=Remans |first4=Roseline |last5=Kennedy |first5=Gina |last6=Deschasaux-Tanguy |first6=Mélanie |last7=Murray |first7=Kris A. |last8=Touvier |first8=Mathilde |last9=Skeie |first9=Guri |last10=Kesse-Guyot |first10=Emmanuelle |last11=Argaw |first11=Alemayehu |last12=Casagrande |first12=Corinne |last13=Nicolas |first13=Geneviève |last14=Vineis |first14=Paolo |last15=Millett |first15=Christopher J. |date=2021-10-18 |title=Food biodiversity and total and cause-specific mortality in 9 European countries: An analysis of a prospective cohort study |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559947/ |journal=PLoS Medicine |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=e1003834 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003834 |issn=1549-1277 |pmc=8559947 |pmid=34662340}}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
A string of historical events have molded agricultural practices and food systems, influencing the diversity of crops and livestock cultivated in consumed globally. Ultimately, the world has continued to change the ways of obtaining food leading to continuing changes in global food systems.
A string of historical events have molded agricultural practices and food systems, influencing the diversity of crops and livestock cultivated in consumed globally. Ultimately, the world has continued to change the ways of obtaining food, leading to continuing changes in global food systems.


Food biodiversity in the Neolithic era represented a shift from hunting and scavenging to agriculture where people started to herding animals and cultivating plants. These tactics led to production of things like wheat, barley, dogwood fruits, grapes, and hazelnuts. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nunn |first=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2010-06 |title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=163–188 |doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |issn=0895-3309}}</ref>The Green Revolution represented the beginning of a new revolution and modernization. The beginning of the Green Revolution created the development of large yields of diversity in specific species. This resulted in new strains of rice and wheat and an increased food supply from the 1940s to the 1960s, but consequently led to the reduction of land used in agriculture. Early techniques utilized pesticides and fertilizers to gain productivity. The approaches of modernization led to techniques used today to increase food biodiversity within a single species.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Green Revolution - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/green-revolution |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> The colonization and trade amongst resources pioneered the future of food diversity in diets. From a food biodiversity point of view, the Columbian Exchange represented the movement of species and ideas from the Old World to the New World. Foods like potatoes variety, maize, and cassava were among a few species introduced. The event was an early result of the globalization of food where the sharing of knowledge about food was shared.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nunn |first=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2010-06 |title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=163–188 |doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |issn=0895-3309}}</ref>
Food biodiversity in the Neolithic era represented a shift from hunting and scavenging to agriculture where people started to herding animals and cultivating plants. These tactics led to production of things like wheat, barley, dogwood fruits, grapes, and hazelnuts. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nunn |first=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2010-06 |title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=163–188 |doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |issn=0895-3309}}</ref>The Green Revolution represented the beginning of a new revolution and modernization. The beginning of the Green Revolution created the development of large yields of diversity in specific species. This resulted in new strains of rice and wheat and an increased food supply from the 1940s to the 1960s, but consequently led to the reduction of land used in agriculture. Early techniques utilized pesticides and fertilizers to gain productivity. The approaches of modernization led to techniques used today to increase food biodiversity within a single species.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Green Revolution - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/green-revolution |access-date=2023-11-02 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> The colonization and trade amongst resources pioneered the future of food diversity in diets. From a food biodiversity point of view, the Columbian Exchange represented the movement of species and ideas from the Old World to the New World. Foods like potatoes variety, maize, and cassava were among a few species introduced. The event was an early result of the globalization of food where the sharing of knowledge about food was shared.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nunn |first=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2010-06 |title=The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=163–188 |doi=10.1257/jep.24.2.163 |issn=0895-3309}}</ref>
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=== Role of biodiversity in production systems ===
=== Role of biodiversity in production systems ===
Conservation and management of broad-based [[genetic diversity]] within the domesticated species have been improving agricultural production for 10,000 years. However, diverse natural populations have been providing food and other products for much longer. High biodiversity can maximize production levels, which are sustained through beneficial impact of [[ecosystem services]] for agricultural, modified, and natural ecosystems. Conversely, reliance on a narrow portfolio of crops or crop varieties can jeopardize food production systems. This is illustrated by the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]]. Potatoes were introduced into Ireland from the New World in about 1600 and they became the major food source of most Irish people. The wind-borne Potato blight fungus spread throughout the country In 1845-1847 and caused almost complete failure of the potato crop. It is estimated that 1 million people died of starvation, cholera and typhoid.<ref>{{Cite web |title=VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY |url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120117203030/http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/lec11/b65lec11.htm#Food_Supplies |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=wayback.archive-it.org}}</ref>
Conservation and management of broad-based [[genetic diversity]] within the domesticated species have improved agricultural production for 10,000 years. However, diverse natural populations have provided food and other products for much longer. High biodiversity can maximize production levels, which are sustained through the beneficial impact of [[ecosystem services]] for agricultural, modified, and natural ecosystems. Conversely, reliance on a narrow portfolio of crops or crop varieties can jeopardize food production systems. This is illustrated by the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]]. Potatoes were introduced into Ireland from the New World in about 1600 and they became the major food source of most Irish people. The wind-borne Potato blight fungus spread throughout the country In 1845-1847 and caused almost complete failure of the potato crop. It is estimated that 1 million people died of starvation, cholera, and typhoid.<ref>{{Cite web |title=VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY |url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120117203030/http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/lec11/b65lec11.htm#Food_Supplies |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=wayback.archive-it.org}}</ref>


=== Affects on climate change ===
=== Affects on climate change ===
Human food biodiversity between species is put at risk when there are severe alterations to the climates surrounding crops. Extreme or abnormal weather events can cause unfavorable effects on crop yields, poor communities, rural farmers, and food sellers. Due to these events, it becomes increasingly difficult for poor populations to absorb global commodity price changes. After droughts in Russia and China, and floods in Australia, India, Pakistan, and Europe in (time) the World Bank in 2011 concluded that 44 million people returned to poverty. However, when crops are produced in biodiverse multi-functional landscapes, farmers can accommodate changing conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sunderland, T.C.H |year=2011-09-01 |title=Food Security: why is biodiversity important? |journal=International Forest Review |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=265-274}}</ref> In 2010-12 above average heat temperature caused premature budding of cherries and in lower yields of corn across the U.S. Corn Belt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply {{!}} Climate Change Impacts {{!}} US EPA |url=https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply#:~:text=%5B3%5D%20Meanwhile,%20warmer%20water,have%20done%20in%20the%20past |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=climatechange.chicago.gov |language=en}}</ref> Since the U.S. Corn Belt makes up a third of the world's global supply, climate prevention tactics are put into play to protect the plant from future negative catastrophes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roesch-McNally |first=Gabrielle E. |last2=Gordon Arbuckle |first2=J. |last3=Tyndall |first3=John Charles |date=2017-06-01 |title=What would farmers do? Adaptation intentions under a Corn Belt climate change scenario |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-016-9719-y |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=333–346 |doi=10.1007/s10460-016-9719-y |issn=1572-8366}}</ref>
Human food biodiversity between species is put at risk when there are severe alterations to the climates surrounding crops. Extreme or abnormal weather events can cause unfavorable effects on crop yields, poor communities, rural farmers, and food sellers. Due to these events, it becomes increasingly difficult for poor populations to absorb global commodity price changes. After droughts in Russia and China, and floods in Australia, India, Pakistan, and Europe in (time) the World Bank in 2011 concluded that 44 million people returned to poverty. However, when crops are produced in biodiverse multi-functional landscapes, farmers can accommodate changing conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sunderland, T.C.H |year=2011-09-01 |title=Food Security: why is biodiversity important? |journal=International Forest Review |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=265-274}}</ref> In 2010-12, above-average heat temperatures caused premature budding of cherries and in lower yields of corn across the U.S. Corn Belt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply {{!}} Climate Change Impacts {{!}} US EPA |url=https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-agriculture-and-food-supply#:~:text=%5B3%5D%20Meanwhile,%20warmer%20water,have%20done%20in%20the%20past |access-date=2023-10-16 |website=climatechange.chicago.gov |language=en}}</ref> Since the U.S. Corn Belt makes up a third of the world's global supply, climate prevention tactics used to protect the plant from future damaging catastrophes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roesch-McNally |first=Gabrielle E. |last2=Gordon Arbuckle |first2=J. |last3=Tyndall |first3=John Charles |date=2017-06-01 |title=What would farmers do? Adaptation intentions under a Corn Belt climate change scenario |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-016-9719-y |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=333–346 |doi=10.1007/s10460-016-9719-y |issn=1572-8366}}</ref>


=== Affects of technology and agricultural practices ===
=== Affects of technology and agricultural practices ===

Revision as of 14:01, 3 November 2023

Food Biodiversity

Food biodiversity is defined as "the diversity of plants, animals, and other organisms used for food, covering the genetic resources within species, between species and provided by ecosystems."[1]

Food biodiversity can be considered from two main perspectives: production and consumption. From a consumption perspective, food biodiversity describes the diversity of foods in human diets and their contribution to dietary diversity, cultural identity, and good nutrition. Production of food biodiversity looks at the thousands of food products, such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, meat, and condiments sourced from agriculture and the wild (e.g. forests, uncultivated fields, water bodies). Food biodiversity covers the diversity between species, such as different animal and crop species, including those considered neglected and underutilized species. Food biodiversity also comprises the diversity within species, for example, different varieties of fruit and vegetables or other breeds of animals.

Food diversity, diet diversity, and nutritional diversity are also terms used in the new diet culture spawned by Brandon Eisler, in the study known as Nutritional Diversity. [2]

Consumption of food biodiversity[edit]

Food biodiversity in consumption[edit]

Promoting diversity of foods and species consumed in human diets, in particular, has potential co-benefits for public health and sustainable food systems perspective. Food biodiversity provides necessary nutrients for quality diets and is an essential part of local food systems, cultures, and food security. Promoting diversity of foods and species consumed in human diets has potential co-benefits for sustainable food systems. From a conservation point of view, diets based on a wide variety of species place less pressure on a single species. According to the FAO, 75% of the world's food comes from 12 plant species and five from animals.[3]

Affects on nutrition and health

A method of measurement for dietary diversity is the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS). HDDS sums up the number of food groups digested in a day.[4]

Nutritionally, diversity in food is associated with higher micronutrient adequacy of diets.[5] In some cases diverse diets have been proven to have benefits on one's health. For instance, the introduction of a wide variety of foods and food allergens during the first year of life can lead to a heightened intake of central nutrients and contribute to positive changes in the structure and function of the gut microbiome. [6] The diversification of species distributes quantities of micronutrients, macronutrients, and calories to the human diet. Among micronutrients, the nutrients for humans that are imperative to survive are A, eight types of B vitamins, C, D, E, and K. Their functions range from fighting infections, strengthening bones, healing wounds, and regulating hormones.[7] When species that provide superior macro and micronutrient densities are consumed less compared to more commonly consumed species, humans don’t achieve nearly the same benefits. For instance, rice and wheat represent staple foods in most cultures; however, teff and minor millets have more significant concentrations of protein, fat, and iron.[8]

Considering the profound impact food biodiversity has on health, food varieties can have potential risks. Wild foods (fish, plants, tree foods, wild meat, insects and fungi) serve as a crucial source of dietary diversity and essential micronutrients, especially in rural communities, foods can occasionally pose health and food safety risks. Additionally, plants and animals carry diseases that are anthropogenically passed or are zoonotic. In the U.S., there are 31 known pathogens, of the known pathogens 9.4 million people become ill from food-borne illness, 55,961 people are hospitalized from illness, and 1,351 deaths.[9] On a global scale, the decline in genetic diversity weakens the resilience of food systems, leaving them vulnerable to various challenges, encompassing pests, pathogens, and severe weather. This poses a significant risk to global food security.[10] Furthermore, food biodiversity, as measured by the absolute number of biological species in the usual diet, was negatively associated with the total mortality rate and cause-specific deaths due to cancer, heart disease, respiratory disease, and digestive disease among ~450,000 adults from nine European countries.[11]

History

A string of historical events have molded agricultural practices and food systems, influencing the diversity of crops and livestock cultivated in consumed globally. Ultimately, the world has continued to change the ways of obtaining food, leading to continuing changes in global food systems.

Food biodiversity in the Neolithic era represented a shift from hunting and scavenging to agriculture where people started to herding animals and cultivating plants. These tactics led to production of things like wheat, barley, dogwood fruits, grapes, and hazelnuts. [12]The Green Revolution represented the beginning of a new revolution and modernization. The beginning of the Green Revolution created the development of large yields of diversity in specific species. This resulted in new strains of rice and wheat and an increased food supply from the 1940s to the 1960s, but consequently led to the reduction of land used in agriculture. Early techniques utilized pesticides and fertilizers to gain productivity. The approaches of modernization led to techniques used today to increase food biodiversity within a single species.[13] The colonization and trade amongst resources pioneered the future of food diversity in diets. From a food biodiversity point of view, the Columbian Exchange represented the movement of species and ideas from the Old World to the New World. Foods like potatoes variety, maize, and cassava were among a few species introduced. The event was an early result of the globalization of food where the sharing of knowledge about food was shared.[14]

Impacts on food biodiversity

Factors influencing food biodiversity

The ability for countries to receive or produce food is dependent the responsiveness to production, climate change, farming practices & technology, and global trade.

Role of biodiversity in production systems

Conservation and management of broad-based genetic diversity within the domesticated species have improved agricultural production for 10,000 years. However, diverse natural populations have provided food and other products for much longer. High biodiversity can maximize production levels, which are sustained through the beneficial impact of ecosystem services for agricultural, modified, and natural ecosystems. Conversely, reliance on a narrow portfolio of crops or crop varieties can jeopardize food production systems. This is illustrated by the Great Famine of Ireland. Potatoes were introduced into Ireland from the New World in about 1600 and they became the major food source of most Irish people. The wind-borne Potato blight fungus spread throughout the country In 1845-1847 and caused almost complete failure of the potato crop. It is estimated that 1 million people died of starvation, cholera, and typhoid.[15]

Affects on climate change

Human food biodiversity between species is put at risk when there are severe alterations to the climates surrounding crops. Extreme or abnormal weather events can cause unfavorable effects on crop yields, poor communities, rural farmers, and food sellers. Due to these events, it becomes increasingly difficult for poor populations to absorb global commodity price changes. After droughts in Russia and China, and floods in Australia, India, Pakistan, and Europe in (time) the World Bank in 2011 concluded that 44 million people returned to poverty. However, when crops are produced in biodiverse multi-functional landscapes, farmers can accommodate changing conditions.[16] In 2010-12, above-average heat temperatures caused premature budding of cherries and in lower yields of corn across the U.S. Corn Belt.[17] Since the U.S. Corn Belt makes up a third of the world's global supply, climate prevention tactics used to protect the plant from future damaging catastrophes.[18]

Affects of technology and agricultural practices

Crop diversification practices and technology are being used to bring safer practices, more food diversity, and richness to food biodiversity. Depending on the geographic region are protection food biodiversity includes practice such as agricultural practices like sustainable agriculture, organic agriculture permaculture, conservation agriculture, agro-ecology, and agroforestry, sustainable soil management, sustainable forest management, agroforestry, diversification of aquaculture, and ecosystem approach to fisheries and ecosystem restoration. Of 91 countries 81% practices these behaviors. [19]For example, inventory management techniques are used in determining the rate of consumption, and 78% of studies indicate that agro-ecological practices provide beneficial outcomes for those in low and middle-income countries. Agro-ecological practice creates comprehensive strategies that integrate ecological, health, social, and economic factors into planning and executing agricultural and food systems.[20] Biotechnology grants farmers the ability to grow crops of desired traits that give plant species biological advantages. These advantages are immunity to diseases, tolerance to drought, heat, cold or salinity, flavor enhancement, and superior growth traits.[21] The Advantages of biotechnology have gone towards less prosperous areas to create better livelihoods. Vietnam farmers have gained an extra income stretching from $6.85 to $12.55 for each additional dollar invested in biotech seeds compared to conventional seeds.[22]

Affects of global trade

Global trade allows people access to a wider variety of foods of different regions and climates, giving them more complex and balanced diets. The global trade model can be used to reflect the impact of trade on food concentrations and nutrition security. [23]Food biodiversity plays a critical role in the livelihood of individual countries. Trade is reliant on quality, demand, cost, and if the food is a staple food. Bhutan is an example of a country whose landscape provides a wide array of nutritional diversity. The nation is made up of 40 species of wild vegetables and 350 species of mushrooms used for food and as a profitable source of revenue.[8] The UNCDAT map 1 represents different basic food needs in countries by calculating the amount of trade balance divided by the total imports.[24] The map indicates that the concentrations of foods needed are different globally because import and export frequencies vary.

Ecosystem services

A wide range of biologically diverse populations in natural ecosystems and in/near agricultural ecosystems maintain essential ecological functions that are critical for food production. Such populations contribute positively to, for example, nutrient cycling, decomposition of organic matter, crusted or degraded soil rehabilitation, pest and disease regulation, water quality maintenance, and pollination. Maintaining species diversity while building on and enhancing ecosystem functions reduces external input requirements by increasing nutrient availability, improving water use, and soil structure, and controlling pests.[25] Heirloom rice varieties in the Philippines' Cordillera Autonomous region hold deep cultural, spiritual, and historical value, showcasing the potential of food biodiversity in preserving cultural heritage. [26]

Traits

Genetic diversity within food species is allows for a wide range minerals, vitamens, and resistance creating various benefits. For example:

  • Wild subspecies of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum chmielewskii) were crossbred with cultivated tomato species. After 10 generations, new tomato strains with larger fruits were produced. There was a marked increase in pigmentation. The content of soluble solids, mainly fructose, glucose and other sugars increased.[27]
  • A barley plant from Ethiopia provides a gene that protects the barley crop from the lethal yellow dwarf virus.[28]

References:

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  2. ^ "Nutritional Diversity Optimal Performance Diet Sciences". Nutritional Diversity. Retrieved 2023-10-15.
  3. ^ "What is Agrobiodiversity?". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-11-03.
  4. ^ "Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) | INDDEX Project". inddex.nutrition.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
  5. ^ Lachat, Carl; Raneri, Jessica E.; Smith, Katherine Walker; Kolsteren, Patrick; Van Damme, Patrick; Verzelen, Kaat; Penafiel, Daniela; Vanhove, Wouter; Kennedy, Gina; Hunter, Danny; Odhiambo, Francis Oduor; Ntandou-Bouzitou, Gervais; De Baets, Bernard; Ratnasekera, Disna; Ky, Hoang The (2018-01-02). "Dietary species richness as a measure of food biodiversity and nutritional quality of diets". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (1): 127–132. doi:10.1073/pnas.1709194115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5776793. PMID 29255049.
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  7. ^ Services, Department of Health & Human. "Vitamins and minerals". www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au. Retrieved 2023-11-02.
  8. ^ a b Gina Kennedy; Zeyuan Wang; Patrick Maundu; Danny Hunter (2022). "The role of traditional knowledge and food biodiversity to transform modern food systems". Trends in Food Science and Technology. 130: 32–41.
  9. ^ "Burden of Foodborne Illness: Findings | Estimates of Foodborne Illness | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2023-06-15. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
  10. ^ Benton, Bieg, Harwatt, Pudasaini, and Wellesley., Tim, Carling, Helen, Roshan, and Laura. Food system impacts on biodiversity loss Three levers for food system transformation in support of nature. p. 6. ISBN ISBN 978 1 78413 433 4. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); line feed character in |first= at position 21 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 20 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  13. ^ "Green Revolution - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-11-02.
  14. ^ Nunn, Nathan; Qian, Nancy (2010-06). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 24 (2): 163–188. doi:10.1257/jep.24.2.163. ISSN 0895-3309. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ "VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY". wayback.archive-it.org. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
  16. ^ Sunderland, T.C.H (2011-09-01). "Food Security: why is biodiversity important?". International Forest Review. 13 (10): 265–274.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  17. ^ "Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply | Climate Change Impacts | US EPA". climatechange.chicago.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
  18. ^ Roesch-McNally, Gabrielle E.; Gordon Arbuckle, J.; Tyndall, John Charles (2017-06-01). "What would farmers do? Adaptation intentions under a Corn Belt climate change scenario". Agriculture and Human Values. 34 (2): 333–346. doi:10.1007/s10460-016-9719-y. ISSN 1572-8366.
  19. ^ "FAO - News Article: The biodiversity that is crucial for our food and agriculture is disappearing by the day". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-11-03.
  20. ^ Britwum, Kofi; Demont, Matty (2022-12). "Food security and the cultural heritage missing link". Global Food Security. 35: 100660. doi:10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100660. ISSN 2211-9124. PMC 9720156. PMID 36483217. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ Yuan, Grace Ning; Marquez, Gian Powell B.; Deng, Haoran; Iu, Anastasiia; Fabella, Melisa; Salonga, Reginald B.; Ashardiono, Fitrio; Cartagena, Joyce A. (2022-11-12). "A review on urban agriculture: technology, socio-economy, and policy". Heliyon. 8 (11): e11583. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11583. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 9668687. PMID 36406682.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  26. ^ Bairagi, Subir; Custodio, Marie Claire; Durand-Morat, Alvaro; Demont, Matty (2021). "Preserving cultural heritage through the valorization of Cordillera heirloom rice in the Philippines". Agriculture and Human Values. 38 (1): 257–270. doi:10.1007/s10460-020-10159-w. ISSN 0889-048X. PMC 7884355. PMID 33642679.
  27. ^ H.H.Iltis (1988). "Serendipity in the Exploration of Biodiversity." In: E. O. Wilson, editor. Biodiversity. National Academy Press. 98-105.
  28. ^ M.J.Plotkin. 1988. The Outlook for New Agricultural and Industrial Products from the Tropics. In: E.O. Wilson, Editor. Biodiversity. National Academy Press
  29. ^ Rice Genetics Newsletter, Vol. 20: Evaluation of durable resistance of transgenic hybrid maintainer line IR58025B for bacterial blight disease of rice
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