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==Ecology==
==Ecology==
[[File:Salmo trutta fario - Truite fario - Brown trout.jpg|220px|thumb|right| [[Brown trout]] are found all-over the Clutha River and its nearby streams]]
[[File:Salmo trutta fario - Truite fario - Brown trout.jpg|220px|thumb|right| [[Brown trout]] are found all-over the Clutha River and its nearby streams]]
A 2022 report of the river by the [[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]] (NIWA) indicated a result of 12 species of native fish, and 2 species from its tributaries. With the exception of upland bully, [[common river galaxias]] and [[roundhead galaxias]], all native species are [[diadromous]], meaning that diadromous species recorded from tributaries such as [[giant kōkopu]] and [[Climbing galaxias|kōaro]] likely went through the mainstem while on their way to its tributaries.<ref name="J" /> [[Brown trout]] are the most encountered fish in the Clutha River, they occur throughout the main river, streams, and nearby lakes.<ref name="CR">{{Cite report |title=Water-based recreation on the lower Clutha River |date=1986-01-01 |url=https://docs.niwa.co.nz/library/public/fer61.pdf |last=Whiting |first=R. |access-date=2024-10-29 |publisher=Fisheries Research Division N.Z. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries |location=Roxbrugh, New Zealand |issn=0111-4794}}</ref> [[Rainbow trout]] also appear in the river but in smaller numbers, and they are more common in the lower section of the river compared to the upper streches.<ref name="CR" />
A 2022 report of the river by the [[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research]] (NIWA) indicated a result of 12 species of native fish, and 2 species from its tributaries. With the exception of upland bully, [[common river galaxias]] and [[roundhead galaxias]], all native species are [[diadromous]], meaning that diadromous species recorded from tributaries such as [[giant kōkopu]] and [[Climbing galaxias|kōaro]] likely went through the mainstem while on their way to its tributaries.<ref name="Q" /> [[Brown trout]] are the most encountered fish in the Clutha River, they occur throughout the main river, streams, and nearby lakes.<ref name="CR">{{Cite report |title=Water-based recreation on the lower Clutha River |date=1986-01-01 |url=https://docs.niwa.co.nz/library/public/fer61.pdf |last=Whiting |first=R. |access-date=2024-10-29 |publisher=Fisheries Research Division N.Z. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries |location=Roxbrugh, New Zealand |issn=0111-4794}}</ref> [[Rainbow trout]] also appear in the river but in smaller numbers, and they are more common in the lower section of the river compared to the upper streches.<ref name="CR" />


At the minimum, nine species of freshwater-limited [[Galaxias]] species have been identified in the Clutha River of genetics and [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]].<ref name="J" /> A [[New Zealand Threat Classification System|Nationally Critical]] species of Galaxias called "Clutha flathead species D" occurs in various parts of the catchment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clutha Flathead Galaxias |website=Department of Conservation |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/freshwater-fish/non-migratory-galaxiids/clutha-flathead-galaxias/ |ref={{sfnref|Department of Conservation}} |access-date=28 October 2024}}</ref> Distributions of fish within the catchment have been identified, but because to anthropogenic habitat change, habitat preferences, and localised predation by introduced [[trout]].<ref name="J" />
At the minimum, nine species of freshwater-limited [[Galaxias]] species have been identified in the Clutha River of genetics and [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]].<ref name="J" /><ref name="Q" /> A [[New Zealand Threat Classification System|Nationally Critical]] species of Galaxias called "Clutha flathead species D" occurs in various parts of the catchment.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clutha Flathead Galaxias |website=Department of Conservation |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-animals/freshwater-fish/non-migratory-galaxiids/clutha-flathead-galaxias/ |ref={{sfnref|Department of Conservation}} |access-date=28 October 2024}}</ref> Distributions of fish within the catchment have been identified, but because to anthropogenic habitat change, habitat preferences, and localised predation by introduced [[trout]].<ref name="J" />


Prior to the construction of Roxburgh Dam, salmon could be found traversing the length of the Clutha River and could be found spawning as far upstream as the tributaries of Lakes Wānaka and Hāwea. The Clutha is the most southernmost of the recognised salmon rivers, and salmon continue to arrive each spring and summer, though numbers have decreased since the construction of Roxburgh Dam. [[Common bully|Common bullies]], [[New Zealand smelt|smelt]], and [[perch]] are also found in the river.<ref>{{Cite report |title=Hydrology, water quality and ecology of the lower Clutha |date=2022-07-06 |url=https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/28333-hydrology-water-quality-and-ecology-of-the-lower-clutha |last=Kuczynski |first=Anika |issue=1 |access-date=2024-10-28 |last2=Griffiths |first2=James |publisher=National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd |location=Christchurch, New Zealand |last3=Jellyman |first3=Don}}</ref>
Before the construction of [[Roxburgh Dam]], [[salmon]] could be found traversing the length of the Clutha River and spawning as far upstream as Lakes Hāwea and Wānaka. The Clutha is the most southernmost recognised salmon rivers, salmon continue to arrive each spring and summer, though numbers have decreased since the construction of Roxburgh Dam. [[Common bully|Common bullies]], [[New Zealand smelt|smelt]], and [[perch]] are also found in the river.<ref name="Q">{{Cite report |title=Hydrology, water quality and ecology of the lower Clutha |date=2022-07-06 |url=https://www.mbie.govt.nz/dmsdocument/28333-hydrology-water-quality-and-ecology-of-the-lower-clutha |last=Kuczynski |first=Anika |issue=1 |access-date=2024-10-28 |last2=Griffiths |first2=James |publisher=National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd |location=Christchurch, New Zealand |last3=Jellyman |first3=Don}}</ref>


==Floods==
==Floods==

Revision as of 21:02, 29 October 2024

Clutha River
Mata-Au, Molyneux
Upper Clutha Valley, looking upriver toward the Southern Alps
Clutha River basin (Interactive map)
EtymologyMata-au: current in the water. Clutha: from Cluaidh, the Scots Gaelic name for the River Clyde
Native nameMata-Au (Māori)
Location
Country New Zealand
Region Otago
SettlementsWānaka, Cromwell, Clyde, Alexandra, Roxburgh, Balclutha
Physical characteristics
SourceMount Brewster
 • locationSouthern Alps
 • elevation1,540 metres (5,050 ft)
MouthPacific Ocean
 • coordinates
46°21′S 169°48′E / 46.350°S 169.800°E / -46.350; 169.800
 • elevation
Sea level
Length338 km (210 mi)
Basin sizec. 21,000 km2 (8,100 sq mi)
Discharge 
 • average614 m3/s (21,700 cu ft/s)
Basin features
ProgressionMakarora River → Lake Wānaka → Clutha River → Pacific Ocean
Tributaries 
 • leftHāwea River, Lindis River, Manuherikia River, Beaumont River, Tuapeka River
 • rightCardrona River, Kawarau River, Pomahaka River, Waiwera River
WaterbodiesLake Wānaka, Lake Dunstan, Lake Roxburgh
IslandsInch Clutha

The Clutha River (Template:Lang-mi, officially gazetted as Clutha River / Mata-Au) is the second longest river in New Zealand and the longest in the South Island. It flows south-southeast 338 kilometres (210 mi) through Central and South Otago from Lake Wānaka in the Southern Alps to the Pacific Ocean, 75 kilometres (47 mi) south west of Dunedin. Gold is in abundance in the Clutha River and its surounding areas. It is the highest volume river in New Zealand, and a discharging mean flow of 614 cubic metres per second (21,700 cu ft/s).[1][2]

The Clutha River played a prominent role in both the Māori and European history of the area. Rivers and valleys were the main transport system used by local Māori to access the interior of the South Island. The 1860s Otago gold rush resulted in the production of approximately 240 tonnes of gold, which was found in the Clutha catchment.[3] It has the biggest catchment and outflow in New Zealand. About 6% of all water in the South Island discharged by the Clutha River alone. With a mean discharge of approximately 500 m3 (18,000 cu ft), a catchment area of around 22,000 km2 (8,500 sq mi). An economically significant river for the country. The Clutha River encompasses two hydropower stations, which provides 14% of the country's hydropower generation capacity.

The Clutha River drains the high mountains of the Southern Alps in the west and passes through a complex topographic system of basins and ranges towards the east before reaching into the Pacific Ocean. A majority of the topographical features of the Clutha River catchment area are a direct result of the late Cenozoic and active tectonic processes that are occurring in southern South Island due to deformation along the nearby plate boundary, defined by the Alpine Fault.[3]

The river is known for its scenery, gold-rush history, and swift turquoise waters. A river conservation group, the Clutha Mata-Au River Parkway Group, is working to establish a regional river parkway, with a trail, along the entire river corridor.

Toponomy

The Māori name for the Clutha River is the Mata-Au (sometimes shortened to Matau), meaning 'surface current'.[4][5] However, the first appearance of a European name for the Clutha River / Mata-Au was the Molyneux River (/mɒlɪnˌəʊ/), its mouth was named Captain James Cook after his sailing master; Robert Molineux, the name is also applied to the small settlement of Port Molyneux.[6] Early maps shows Moulineux Harbour in its original spelling, but later maps indicate the harbour was written as "Molyneux", rather than "Moulineux".[a]

It is now commonly known as Clutha, which comes from Cluaidh, the Scots Gaelic name for the River Clyde in Scotland which runs through Glasgow.[9][10] Māori also referred to the Clutha River as Maranuku.[11]

Since 1998, the official name for the river has been Clutha River / Mata-au the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998,[12] a landmark Treaty of Waitangi settlement which added dual names to approximately 90 geographic features throughout the South Island to recognise the "equal and special significance" of both the English and Māori names for the river.[13][14]

History

Māori history

Māori occupation of the Otago Region began in c. 1250–1300. Māori learned to hunt the numerous species of moa and considerably burned a lot of the inland forests. The first iwi in Otago were Waitaha, then Kāti Māmoe; later Kāi Tahu.[15][16] By the end of the fourteenth century, the environment in Otago and Southland (Murihuku) had begun to shift, with podocarp woods retreating and the moa population declining. A few Māori settlements in the region started to lose importance. Although, several settlements still existed in Central Otago.[17] Several locations along the Clutha River retain the names of Kāti Māmoe chiefs. Such as, Taumata-o-Te-Hau, a hill on the north side of the Clutha River, above Balclutha, named after the chief who climbed there and watched for the arrival of a taua for whom he had prepared a trap.[18]

The mouth of Mata-au was heavily populated, with many permanent and temporary Kāi Tahu settlements throughout the lower stretches of the river. Murikauhaka, a settlement near the mouth of the Mata-au, was at one stage home to an estimated two hundred people.[19][20] For Māori trading groups, Cromwell Gorge served as the main thoroughfare to their pounamu and moa-hunting expeditions to the interior of Otago.[21] A number of early Māori archaeological sites are concentrated in the gorge and a considerable number of moa eggshell fragments but no bones were discovered. Although, burned moa bones have been discovered in several other Central Otago sites.[22]

European history

Watson Shennan an early settler of Central Otago (1866)

During early European settlement in the South Island, a whaling station was established close to the Clutha River's mouth at Port Molyneux, and during this period the sea was the source of almost all of the area's economy. The town of Port Molyneux, located on this bay, was a busy harbour during the 19th century. Its location at the mouth of the Clutha made it a good site for trade both from the interior and for coastal and ocean-going shipping. A major flood in 1878 shifted the mouth of the Clutha to the north and silted up the port, after which the town gradually dwindled.[23]

Nathanael Chalmers was the first European to see the South Island of New Zealand inland lakes of Wakatipu, Wānaka and Hāwea as well as the valleys of the Upper Clutha River in 1853.[24] Chalmers was guided by chiefs Reko and Kaikōura. They gathered hundreds of dry flax stems from the shores of Lake Hāwea and bonded them together with flax fibre to create a raft made of bundles of flax and raupō.[25] With this, they would take Chalmers downstream the Clutha River.[26] European "sheepmen" arrived later in the late 1850s, searching for grazing grounds in Otago's interior.[21]

In December 1857, Alexander and Watson Shennan, set off from Milton to Central Otago looking for land to raise sheep. The brothers proceeded farther than the runholders, who had previously acquired territory up to the Waitāhuna River. When they returned to Dunedin after spending several days exploring the Manuherikia Valley, they submitted an application to the Otago Provincial Government to lease two blocks of land on either side of the Manuherikia River. The total land area was 100,000 acres (40,000 hectares). They brought sheep to the district in 1858. Watson Shennan described the area as "well grassed and watered, a very land of promise" which attracted others to the region.[27]

In 1862, gold-rich bars of rocks and gravel were discovered by Christopher Reilly and Horatio Hartley during their winter 1862 expedition up Cromwell Gorge through the waters of the Clutha. They arrived in Dunedin on 15 August, 1862, deposited their 100 oz (2,800 g) of gold, and were rewarded with £2,000.[28]

Gold rush

Main article: Otago gold rush
Construction of a dredge in the Cromwell Gorge, 1890s

A gold rush began in Central Otago in the 1860s. With several settlements quickly established near gold-rich rivers like the Clutha and Kawarau, the rush to Central Otago was the largest in the region's history.[29] A large number of miners huts also existed during this era along the Clutha River. Roxburgh Gorge had a majority of the huts of this type, but they also occurred in Cromwell Gorge. A 1980 archaeological survey in the Roxburgh Gorge indicated a number of 32 huts and 79 rock shelters present in the area.[30]

Around 100 dredges have operated at various times during its history in the river bed and nearby gravels, including the present-day gorge to the east of the Old Man Range. The Clutha River and its tributary Kawarau transported alluvial gold across a distance of 200 km (120 mi) in river bed load. A Middle Pleistocene-age ancestral Clutha River delivered detrital gold across the lower parts of what is presently the Manuherikia Valley near Alexandra.[31]

By Christmas 1861, 14,000 prospectors were on the Tuapeka and Waipori fields. The gold rush was short-lived, with most of the alluvial gold played out by 1863, but prospectors continued to arrive, swelling to a maximum of 18,000 miners in February 1864.[32]

Mining in the Clutha River upstream from Cromwell became significant after 1900, when the area's potential was gradually recognised. Previously, the Kawarau River and the Clutha River running downstream from Cromwell was the primary focus.[33] Māori were aware of gold in the Clutha River but they did not value it.[34]

Geography

Location of the Clutha River and its catchment in the South Island

The Clutha River is the South Island's largest river and has the largest catchment and outflow in New Zealand. About 6% of all water in the South Island is discharged through Clutha River alone. With a mean discharge of approximately 500 m3 (18,000 cu ft), a catchment area of around 22,000 km2 (8,500 sq mi), and a length of about 340 km (210 mi), which makes it one of the longest rivers in New Zealand.[35][36] The major tributaries include the Arrow River, Cardrona River, Lindis River, Manuherikia River, Teviot River, Pomahaka River, and the Waitāhuna River. Towns near the Clutha River include Alexandra, New Zealand, Balclutha, Cromwell, Roxbrugh, and Wānaka.[4][37]

Course

The Clutha River is about 340 km (210 mi), flowing roughly north to south through the Otago Region. The Clutha River's headwaters are located in the Southern Alps, receiving up to 8,000 mm (310 in) of precipitation annually from the west and north west. The Clutha River and its tributaries receive water from three lakes in Otago, Hāwea, Wakatipu, and Wānaka, along with its minor tributaries Arrow, Beaumont, Lindis, Manuherikia, Nevis, Shotover, Talla Burn, Teviot, and Pomahaka.[37][38] The Clutha River may have taken its current course due to glacial advances in the middle to late-Pleistocene advances that nearly reached Cromwell.[39] An economically significant river for the country. The Clutha River encompasses two hydropower stations, which provides 14% of the country's hydropower generation capacity.[37]

Catchment

It drains the largest catchment in New Zealand, which is about 22,000 km2 (8,500 sq mi) in size and an area normalised flow of about 800 mm (31 in). It has an average annual discharge of 530 m3 (19,000 cu ft).[b] Long-standing hydroelectricity commitments and demands for urban water supply and irrigation for horticulture and agriculture increase, meeting the Clutha Catchment's rapidly expanding water needs will become more increasingly challenging in the future. Located at a maximum elevation of approximately 2,800 m (9,200 ft) on the Main Divide of the Southern Alps, the majority of its headwater flows originate from the melting of alpine snow cover and rainfall, with glaciers contributing a minor amount.[40]

In inland basins, annual precipitation totals can be less than 400 mm (16 in), while on the western edge of the catchment, they can surpass 4,000 mm (160 in). The contribution of snowmelt to the annual streamflow of the Clutha River is estimated to be 10% by the time it reaches the Southern Pacific Ocean. This proportion is considerably higher for alpine sub-catchments and large inland basins, this percentage may be as high as 30% to 50%. A number of large tributaries originate in Central Otago's semi-arid basins, where yearly precipitation can be as low as 400 mm (16 in), which is an order of magnitude lower than on the Main Divide.[40]

The discharge of the Clutha is around 614 cubic metres per second (21,700 cu ft/s),[1] comparable to many much larger rivers. This heavy flow, combined with the relatively small size of the river in global terms, makes the Clutha notoriously fast-flowing. It is often listed as one of the world's most swiftly flowing rivers, alongside Australia's Macleay and Fitzroy Rivers, the Amazon and Atrato Rivers in South America, and the Teesta River in the Himalayas. The highest recorded flow on the Clutha was during heavy storms in 1978, peaking at 4,581 cubic metres per second (161,800 cu ft/s).[41]

Ecology

Brown trout are found all-over the Clutha River and its nearby streams

A 2022 report of the river by the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) indicated a result of 12 species of native fish, and 2 species from its tributaries. With the exception of upland bully, common river galaxias and roundhead galaxias, all native species are diadromous, meaning that diadromous species recorded from tributaries such as giant kōkopu and kōaro likely went through the mainstem while on their way to its tributaries.[42] Brown trout are the most encountered fish in the Clutha River, they occur throughout the main river, streams, and nearby lakes.[43] Rainbow trout also appear in the river but in smaller numbers, and they are more common in the lower section of the river compared to the upper streches.[43]

At the minimum, nine species of freshwater-limited Galaxias species have been identified in the Clutha River of genetics and morphology.[3][42] A Nationally Critical species of Galaxias called "Clutha flathead species D" occurs in various parts of the catchment.[44] Distributions of fish within the catchment have been identified, but because to anthropogenic habitat change, habitat preferences, and localised predation by introduced trout.[3]

Before the construction of Roxburgh Dam, salmon could be found traversing the length of the Clutha River and spawning as far upstream as Lakes Hāwea and Wānaka. The Clutha is the most southernmost recognised salmon rivers, salmon continue to arrive each spring and summer, though numbers have decreased since the construction of Roxburgh Dam. Common bullies, smelt, and perch are also found in the river.[42]

Floods

The Clutha passes under the third Balclutha Road Bridge. The first bridge at this site was destroyed during the flood of 1878.

Several major floods have occurred on the Clutha, most notably the "Hundred year floods" of 14–16 October 1878 and 13–15 October 1978. During the October 1878 flood, the bridges at Bannockburn, Roxburgh, and Beaumont were swept away, causing significant damage downstream. The bridge at Clyde gave way to the flow, and its remnants drifted out to the ocean with the rest. Over 21,000 livestock was lost when floodwaters flooded over 12,000 h (43,000 ks).[45]

The 1978 flood breached the banks of rivers from the Ōreti in the south to the Tokomairaro. Over 12,000 hectares (30,000 acres) of land was inundated, with the loss of over 21,000 livestock. Towns and areas affected stretched from Makarora in the north to Invercargill in the south. The town of Wyndham was completely evacuated, and the towns of Balclutha, Milton and Mataura were seriously affected with many residents moved. The small settlement of Kelso on the banks of the Pomahaka River was completely abandoned and was not rebuilt once the waters subsided.[46][47] At its peak, at 6.00 a.m. on the 15th, the Clutha's flow was measured at just over 4,500 cubic metres per second (160,000 cu ft/s).[48]

A major flood in November 1999 seriously damaged river communities, especially Alexandra.[49] The flooding in Alexandra was attributed to a rise in the riverbed, resulting from silt loading in the Roxburgh reservoir behind the Roxburgh Dam downriver from the town. The 1999 flood had significantly higher water levels in Alexandra than the 1878 flood,[50] despite being only 80% of the volume of the latter.

Dams

The Clyde Dam

Currently, there are two hydroelectric power stations on the Clutha River, the 464MW Clyde Dam and the 320MW Roxburgh Dam, provide electricity to the New Zealand power grid. Other dam projects proposed for the river have been cancelled.[51][52]

The Clutha River's first dam was the Nil Desperandum Dam in the Upper Clutha Valley, from 1864–66.[53]

Several Local Authorities along the Clutha River use it as a source for treatment plants to provide communities with potable water.

Recreation

The Clutha provides irrigation for stone fruit orchards and vineyards around Cromwell, Alexandra, and Roxburgh, which grow apples, apricots, nectarines, cherries, peaches and grapes. here are more vineyards in the upper reaches of the river at Bannockburn, Bendigo, Tarras and Wānaka.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Early maps published by Europeans showed the spelling "Moulineux".[7] By the 1840s, it was spelled "Molyneux".[8]
  2. ^ Its catchment area size may differ between high-quality sources. Murray 1975 mentions 22,000 km2 (8,500 sq mi). However, Redpath, Sirguey & Cullen 2019 mentions 20,800 km2 (8,000 sq mi). For now, this article will rely on Murray, 1975.

References

  1. ^ a b NIWA’s use of Hydro2de
  2. ^ "State of New Zealand's Environment 1997 - Chapter 7: Nature of NZ's water environment [Ministry for the Environment]". Archived from the original on 16 April 2005. Retrieved 9 May 2005.
  3. ^ a b c d Upton, Phaedra; Walcott, Rachell; Burridge, Chris; Waters, Jonathon (24 September 2012). "Tectonic controls on the evolution of the Clutha River catchment, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 55 (4). New Zealand: 345–359. doi:10.1080/00288306.2012.709184.
  4. ^ a b McLintock, A. H. (1966). "Clutha River". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  5. ^ Reed, A. W. (1975). Place names of New Zealand. Wellington: A. H. & A. W. Reed. ISBN 0-589-00933-8.
  6. ^ Buckingham & Jones 1985, p. 9.
  7. ^ Cook, James. 1728-1779 :Map of the coast of the New Zealand discovered in the years 1769 and 1770 (Map). London, UK: 1773 – via National Library of New Zealand.
  8. ^ Arrowsmith, John. Map of the Colony of New Zealand (Map). London, UK: 1844.
  9. ^ Otago Witness, 20.3.1923
  10. ^ "New Zealand Spectator, And Cook's Strait Guardian". New Zealand Spectator. Vol. 2, no. 108. 8 August 1864. Retrieved 23 October 2024 – via Papers Past.
  11. ^ Waite 1940, p. 5-6.
  12. ^ "Place name detail: Clutha / Mata-au". New Zealand Gazetteer. New Zealand Geographic Board. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
  13. ^ "Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998".
  14. ^ "Find Māori place names, dual names and alternative names". Land Information New Zealand (LINZ). Retrieved 4 April 2021.
  15. ^ McKinnon, Malcolm (8 May 2009). "Otago Region". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 25 October 2024.
  16. ^ McGlone, M. S; Mark, A. F.; Bell, D. (1995). "Late Pleistocene and Holocene vegetation history, Central Otago, South Island, New Zealand". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 25 (1). Informa UK Limited: 1–22. doi:10.1080/03014223.1995.9517480. ISSN 0303-6758.
  17. ^ Olssen 1984, p. 2.
  18. ^ Beattie, H. (1922). "Traditons and Legends Collected from the Natives of Murihuku (Southland, New Zealand)". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 31 (3): 134–144 – via JSTOR.
  19. ^ Waite 1940, p. 50.
  20. ^ "Mata-au". Kā Huru Manu. Nga Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
  21. ^ a b Laytham 1995, p. 2.
  22. ^ Ritchie, Nevill A. (1982). "The prehistoric role of the Cromwell Gorge, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Archaeology. 4: 21–43. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  23. ^ Waite 1940, p. 64-69; Joyce 2012, p. 11.
  24. ^ Frazer, Roger. "Chalmers, Nathanael". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  25. ^ "Mōkihi". Te Aka - Māori Dictionary. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  26. ^ Temple 1985, p. 108-110.
  27. ^ Joyce 2012, p. 8–9.
  28. ^ Olssen 1984, p. 58.
  29. ^ Olssen 1984, p. 59.
  30. ^ Henderson, Simon (27 December 2019). "Clutha reveals mining huts of past". Otago Daily Times. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  31. ^ Craw, D.; Craw, L.; Burridge, C. P.; Wallis, G. P.; Waters, J. M. (2016). "Evolution of the Taieri River catchment, East Otago, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 59 (2): 257–273. doi:10.1080/00288306.2015.1126621.
  32. ^ McKinnon, M. (ed.), Bradley, B. & Kirkpatrick, R. (1997). New Zealand Historical Atlas: Ko Papatuanuku e Takoto Nei. Auckland: David Bateman Ltd. ISBN 1-86953-335-6.
  33. ^ Barnett, Ross (2022). "Uncertain enterprises: the experience of two gold dredging companies on the Clutha River above Cromwell, New Zealand". Journal of Australasian mining history. 20: 50–72. ASBS12262.
  34. ^ Joyce 2012, p. 6.
  35. ^ Murray, D. L. (1975). "Regional Hydrology of the Clutha River". Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand). 14 (2): 83–98. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  36. ^ Calvert, R. J. (1975). "History and Backgorunf of the Clutha River". Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand). 14 (2). New Zealand Hydrological Society: 76–82. ISSN 0022-1708. JSTOR 43944344. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
  37. ^ a b c Taylor, Malcolm; Bardsley, Earl (2019). "A hydrological drought index for the Clutha catchment, New Zealand". Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand). 58 (1). New Zealand Hydrological Society: 47–56. ISSN 0022-1708. JSTOR 26832290. Retrieved 26 October 2024.
  38. ^ "Clutha River / Mata-Au, Otago". NZ Topo Map. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
  39. ^ Stephens, S; MacKenzie, D; Barth, N; Craw, D (3 July 2015). "Links between orogenic and placer gold on the Old Man Range, Central Otago, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 58 (3). Informa UK Limited: 296–312. doi:10.1080/00288306.2015.1070181. ISSN 0028-8306.
  40. ^ a b Redpath, Todd A. N.; Sirguey, Pascal; Cullen, Nicolas J. (2 August 2019). "Characterising spatio-temporal variability in seasonal snow cover at a regional scale from MODIS data: the Clutha Catchment, New Zealand". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 23 (8). Copernicus GmbH: 3189–3217. doi:10.5194/hess-23-3189-2019. ISSN 1607-7938.
  41. ^ "Clutha River at Balclutha - Flow". Otago Regional Council. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  42. ^ a b c Kuczynski, Anika; Griffiths, James; Jellyman, Don (6 July 2022). Hydrology, water quality and ecology of the lower Clutha (Report). Christchurch, New Zealand: National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd. Retrieved 28 October 2024.
  43. ^ a b Whiting, R. (1 January 1986). Water-based recreation on the lower Clutha River (PDF) (Report). Roxbrugh, New Zealand: Fisheries Research Division N.Z. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. ISSN 0111-4794. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  44. ^ "Clutha Flathead Galaxias". Department of Conservation. Retrieved 28 October 2024.
  45. ^ Joyce 2012, p. 11-12.
  46. ^ Lloyd, K. (1978) Flood disaster 1978. Dunedin.
  47. ^ Jowett, I. G. (1979). "Clutha Flood of October 1978". Journal of Hydrology (New Zealand). 18 (2): 121–140 – via JSTOR.
  48. ^ Lind, C.A. (1978) The 100 year flood - 1978. Invercargill: Craig Printing Co.
  49. ^ Joyce 2012, p. 11.
  50. ^ Kilby, Chris (February 2001). "Alexandra: A Practical Solution for Managing Flood Risk" (PDF). p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2013. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
  51. ^ Ibbotson, Lucy (1 May 2012). "Contact pulls plug on dams". Otago Daily Times. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
  52. ^ Poyck, Suzanne; Handrikx, Jordy; McMilan, Hilary; Hreinsson, Einar Örn; Woods, Ross (2011). "Combined snow- and streamflow modelling to estimate impacts of climate change on water resources in the Clutha River, New Zealand". Journal of Hydrology. 50 (2). Wellington, New Zealand: 293–311 – via ProQuest.
  53. ^ Carpenter, Lloyd (2013). "The Clutha's First Dam: The Nil Desperandum Project at Quartz Reef Point, 1864–66". The International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology. 83 (2). Informa UK Limited: 253–273. doi:10.1179/1758120613z.00000000028. ISSN 1758-1206.

Works cited

  • Buckingham, R.; Jones, John-Hall (1985). The Catlins. ISBN 0477057586.
  • Waite, Fred (1940). Port Molyneux: The Story of Maori and Pakeha in South Otago – a Centennial history. Clutha County Council – via New Zealand Electronic Text Collection.
  • Taylor, W.A (1952). Lore and history of the South Island Māori. Christchurch, New Zealand. ISBN 9781927207024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Beattie, J.H. (1945). Maori Lore of Lake, Alp and Fiord. Dunedin, New Zealand: Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers Company Ltd.
  • Temple, Phillip (1985). New Zealand Explorers: Great Journeys of Discovery. Christchurch, New Zealand: Whitcoulls. ISBN 9780723307433.
  • Olssen, Erik (1984). A History of Otago. Dunedin, New Zealand: J. McIndoe Ltd. ISBN 9780868680583.'
  • Laytham, Pamela (1995). The Cromwell Gorge An Historical Guide. Cromwell, New Zealand: Cromwell and Districts Promotion Group and Rogan McIndoe Print Ltd.
  • Joyce, Lousie (2012). Gold Rush Central Otago 1862. Clyde, New Zealand: Promote Dunstan Inc. ISBN 0473201712.
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