Stroop effect: Difference between revisions
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Revision as of 03:56, 12 January 2010
Green Red Blue
Purple Blue Purple
Blue Purple Red
Green Purple Green
The Stroop effect refers to the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second.
In psychology, the Stroop effect is a demonstration of the reaction time of a task. When the name of a color (e.g., "blue," "green," or "red") is printed in a color not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color. The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop who first published the effect in English in 1935.[1] The effect had previously been published in 1929, but only in German.[2][3][4] The original paper has been one of the most cited papers in the history of experimental psychology, leading to more than 700 replications.[4] The effect has been used to create a psychological test that is widely used in clinical practice and investigation.
Original experiment
Stimulus 1: Purple Brown Red Blue Green
Stimulus 2: Purple Brown Red Blue Green
Stimulus 3: ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀
Examples of the three stimuli and colors used for each of the activities of the original Stroop article.[1]
The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop, who published the effect in English in 1935 in an article entitled Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions which includes three different experiments.[1] However, the effect was first published in 1929 in German, and its roots can be followed back to works of James McKeen Cattell and Wilhelm Wundt in the nineteenth century.[2][3][4]
In his experiments, J. R. Stroop administered several variations of the same test for which three different kind of stimuli were created. In the first one, names of colors appeared in black ink. In the second, names of colors appeared in a different ink than the color named. Finally in the third one, there were squares of a given color.[1]
In the first experiment, stimuli 1 and 2 were used. The task required the participants to read the written color names of the words independently of the color of the ink (for example, they would have to read "purple" no matter what the color of its ink was). In the second experiment, stimulus 2 and 3 were used, and participants were required to say the color of the letters independently of the written word with the second kind of stimulus and also name the color of the dot squares. If the word "purple" was written in red, they would have to say "red," but not "purple"; when the squares were shown, the participant would have to say its color. Stroop, in the third experiment, tested his participants at different stages of practice at the tasks and stimulus used in the first and second experiments, to account for the effects of association.[1]
Stroop identified a large increase in the time taken by participants to complete the color reading in the second task compared to the naming of the color of the squares in experiment 2 while this delay did not appear in the first experiment. Such interference was explained by the automation of reading, where the mind automatically determines the semantic meaning of the word (it reads the word "red" and thinks of the color "red"), and then must override this first impression with the identification of the color of the word (the ink is a color other than red), a process that is not automatized.[1]
Unlike researchers performing the Stroop test that is most commonly used in psychological evaluation,[5] J.R Stroop never compared the time used for reading black words and the time needed for naming colors that conflicted with the written word.
Modifications
As one of the most referenced papers in experimental psychology, the test has also been further modified to investigate very different phenomena.[4]
In the study of interference, the most commonly used procedure has been similar to Stroop's second experiment in which subjects are tested on naming colors of incompatible words and of control patches; however the first experiment (reading words in black versus incongruent colors) has received much less interest. In both cases, the interference score is expressed as the difference between the times needed to read each of the two types of cards.[4] Usually lists of stimulus are used, but time measures for individual words permit more control on research variables.[4] Rather than naming or reading stimuli aloud, subjects have also been asked to sort stimuli into categories.[4] Different characteristics of the stimulus such as ink colors or direction of words have also been systematically varied.[4] None of all these modifications eliminates the effect of interference.[4]
The Stroop task has been employed to study frontal function and attention in brain imaging studies.[6] Speaking is not possible in the scanner because it moves the head, so a number theme is often used instead. For instance, three words may be displayed that read "two" and the participant must press three on their button box.[7]
The test has additionally been modified to include other sensory modalities and variables,[8] to study the effect of bilingualism,[9] or to investigate the effect of emotions on interference.[10] A similar effect has also been observed in individuals with grapheme–color synesthesia, people who perceive colors when seeing certain numbers and letters. If a number or letter is presented to such an individual in a color other than what they would perceive, there is a delay in determining what color the character actually is.[11]
In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, several variations of the Stroop task have been used to study the relations between speed of processing and executive functions with working memory and cognitive development in various domains. This research strongly suggests that changes in these processes with age are very closely associated with development in working memory and various aspects of thought.[12] [13]
Clinical use
The Stroop effect has been used to investigate the psychological capacities of a person since its discovery while during the twentieth century it also became a popular neuropsychological test.[14]
There are different test variants commonly used in clinical settings, with differences between them in the number of subtasks, type and number of stimulus, times for the task, or scoring procedures.[14][15] Regarding the number of subtasks, all versions have at least two: there are written color names differing from the ink used and in the first trial the participant has to say the written word and the ink in the second. However, there can be up to four different subtasks adding in some cases stimulus consisting of groups of letters "X" or dots printed in a given color with the participant having to say the color of the ink, or names of colors printed in black ink that have to be read.[14] The number of stimulus varies between less than twenty items to more than 150, being closely related to the scoring system used. While in some variants the score is the number of items from a subtask read in a given time, in others it is the time that it took to complete each of the trials.[14] The number of errors and different derived punctuations are also taken into account in some versions.[14]
This test is considered to measure selective attention, cognitive flexibility and processing speed, and it is used as a tool in the evaluation of executive functions.[14][15] An increased interference effect is found in disorders such as brain damage, dementias and other neurodegenerative diseases, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, or a variety of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, addictions, and depression.[14][16]
Anatomical basis
EEG and functional neuroimaging studies of the Stroop effect have consistently revealed activation in the frontal lobe and more specifically in the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, two structures hypothesized to be responsible for conflict monitoring and resolution.[15] Accordingly patients with frontal lesions obtain lower punctuations in the Stroop test when compared to those with more posterior lesions. However, these frontal regions are not the only ones implicated in the effect.[15] Stroop performance has also been associated with the correct functioning of the hippocampus or posterior brain areas.[15]
In popular culture
The Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day! software program, produced by Ryūta Kawashima for the Nintendo DS portable video game system, contains an automated Stroop Test administrator module, translated into game form.[17] A Nova episode used the Stroop Effect to illustrate the subtle changes of the mental flexibility of Mount Everest climbers in relation to altitude.[18]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g
Stroop, John Ridley (1935). "Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 18: 643–662. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ a b Jaensch, E.R (1929). Grundformen menschlichen Seins. Berlin: Otto Elsner.
- ^ a b Jensen AR, Rohwer WD (1966). "The Stroop color-word test: a review". Acta psychologica. 25 (1): 36–93. PMID 5328883.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i MacLeod CM (1991). "Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review". Psychological bulletin. 109 (2): 163–203. PMID 2034749.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Golden, CJ (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: A Manual for Clinical and Experimental Uses. Chicago, Illinois: Skoelting. pp. 1–32.
- ^ Pujol J, Vendrell P, Deus J; et al. (2001). "The effect of medial frontal and posterior parietal demyelinating lesions on stroop interference". NeuroImage. 13 (1): 68–75. doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0662. PMID 11133310.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kaufmann L, Ischebeck A, Weiss E; et al. (2008). "An fMRI study of the numerical Stroop task in individuals with and without minimal cognitive impairment". Cortex. 44 (9): 1248–55. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2007.11.009. PMID 18761138.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Roberts KL, Hall DA (2008). "Examining a supramodal network for conflict processing: a systematic review and novel functional magnetic resonance imaging data for related visual and auditory stroop tasks". Journal of cognitive neuroscience. 20 (6): 1063–78. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20074. PMID 18211237.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Rosselli M, Ardila A, Santisi MN; et al. (2002). "Stroop effect in Spanish-English bilinguals". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS. 8 (6): 819–27. PMID 12240746.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kampman M, Keijsers GP, Verbraak MJ, Näring G, Hoogduin CA (2002). "The emotional Stroop: a comparison of panic disorder patients, obsessive-compulsive patients, and normal controls, in two experiments". Journal of anxiety disorders. 16 (4): 425–41. PMID 12213037.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ramachandran, V.S. and Edward M. Hubbard. "More Common Questions about Synesthesia. Scientific American online. April 14, 2003. URL accessed 2007-03-12.
- ^ Demetriou, A., Christou, C., Spanoudis, G., & Platsidou, M. (2002). The development of mental processing: Efficiency, working memory, and thinking. Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development, 67, Serial Number 268.
- ^ Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., & Platsidou, M. (1993). The architecture and dynamics of developing mind: Experien¬tial structuralism as a frame for unifying cognitive developmental theories. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58, Serial Number 234.
- ^ a b c d e f g Howieson, Diane Black; Lezak, Muriel Deutsch; Loring, David W. (2004). "Orientation and attention". Neuropsychological assessment. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 3365–367. ISBN 0-19-511121-4. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e Spreen, Otfried; Strauss, Esther; Elisabeth M. S. Sherman (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and commentary. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 477–499. ISBN 0-19-515957-8. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lansbergen MM, Kenemans JL, van Engeland H (2007). "Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis". Neuropsychology. 21 (2): 251–62. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.2.251. PMID 17402825.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Get the Scoop on Stroop". Retrieved 2009-03-03.
- ^ Gail Rosenbaum (November 2000). "NOVA Online". Retrieved 2008-10-14.
{{cite web}}: Text "Everest" ignored (help); Text "Test Your Brain" ignored (help)