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Malay trade and creole languages

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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Danazach (talk | contribs) at 02:07, 25 April 2023 (→Sabah Malay: This wikitongue clip IS NOTin Sabah Malay but instead is Serimbu Malay dialect which is closer to Pontianak, Kalimantan). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Not to be confused with Malay local varieties.

Malay trade and creole languages
Bahasa-Bahasa Melayu Dagang dan Kreol
بهاس٢ ملايو داݢڠ دان کريول
Native toSoutheast Asia, South Asia and Australia
Ethnicityvarious
Creole
  • Malay trade and creole languages
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
IETFcrp-035

In addition to its classical and literary form, Malay had various regional dialects established after the rise of the Srivijaya empire in Sumatra, Indonesia. Also, Malay spread through interethnic contact and trade across the Malay Archipelago as far as the Philippines. That contact resulted in a lingua franca ("trade language") that was called Bazaar Malay or low Malay and in Malay Melayu Pasar. It is generally believed that Bazaar Malay was a pidgin, influenced by contact among Malay, Hokkien, Portuguese, and Dutch traders.

Besides the general simplification that occurs with pidgins, the Malay lingua franca had several distinctive characteristics. One was that possessives were formed with punya 'its owner'; another was that plural pronouns were formed with orang 'person'. The only Malayic affixes that remained productive were tĕr- and bĕr-.

Other features:

  • Ada became a progressive particle.
  • Reduced forms of ini 'this' and itu 'that' before a noun became determiners.
  • The verb pĕrgi 'go' was reduced, and became a preposition 'towards'.
  • Causative constructions were formed with kasi or bĕri 'to give' or bikin or buat 'to make'.
  • Ini becomes to ni
  • Itu becomes to tu
  • A single preposition, often sama, was used for multiple functions, including direct and indirect object.[1]

For example,[2]

  • Rumah-ku 'my house' becomes Saya punya rumah
  • Saya pukul dia 'I hit him' becomes Saya kasi pukul dia
  • Megat dipukul Robert 'Megat is hit by Robert' becomes Megat dipukul dek Robert

Bazaar Malay is used in a limited extent in Singapore and Malaysia, mostly among the older generation or people with no working knowledge of English.[3] The most important reason that contributed to the decline of Bazaar Malay is that pidgin Malay has creolised and created several new languages.[4] Another reason is due to language shift in both formal and informal contexts, Bazaar Malay in Singapore is gradually being replaced by English, with English and its creole Singlish being the lingua franca among the younger generations.[3]

Baba Malay

Baba Malay
ملايو بابا ڽوڽا
RegionMelaka (in Malaysia) and Singapore
Native speakers
2,000 (2014)[5]
Malay-based creole
Language codes
ISO 639-3mbf
Glottologbaba1267
ELPBaba Malay
Baba Indonesian
Peranakan Indonesian
Bahasa Indonesia Peranakan
Basa Peranakan
بهاس ڤرانقن
RegionEast Java (in Indonesia)
Ethnicity
Native speakers
(20,000 cited 1981)[6]
Malay-based creole
Language codes
ISO 639-3pea
Glottologpera1256

Baba Malay is spoken by the Peranakans. A typical contact language between Hokkien male settlers and local Malay women, it has "more Hokkien grammar and more Malay lexicon".[5] As of 2014, there are 1,000 speakers in Malaysia and another 1,000 in Singapore.[5] It is mostly spoken among the older populations.[7] In 1986, Pakir estimated there were 5,000 speakers in Singapore.[5]

A kind of Baba Malay, called Peranakan, is spoken among Chinese living in East Java. It is a mixture of Malay or Indonesian with local Javanese (East Javanese dialect) and Chinese elements (particularly Hokkien). This particular variety is found only in East Java, especially in Surabaya and surrounding areas. While other Chinese tend to speak the language varieties of the places in which they live (the Chinese of Central Java speak High or Standard Javanese in daily conversation even among themselves; in West Java, they tend to speak Sundanese), in Surabaya younger ethnic Chinese people tend to speak pure Javanese (Surabaya dialect) and learn Mandarin in courses.

Example (spoken in Surabaya):

  • Kamu mbok ojok gitu!: Don't act that way!
  • Yak apa kabarnya si Eli?: How's Eli?
  • Ntik kamu pigio ambek cecemu ae ya.: Go with your sister, okay?
  • Nih, makanen sakadae.: Please have a meal!
  • Kamu cariken bukune koko ndhek rumahe Ling Ling.: Search your brother's book in Ling Ling's house.

Example (spoken in Melaka-Singapore):[8]

  • Dia suka datang sini sembang.: He likes to come here and gossip.
  • Keliap-keliap, dia naik angin.: Slightly provoked, he gets angry.
  • Gua tunggu dia sampai gua k'ee geram.: I waited for him until I got angry.
  • Oo-wa! Kinajeet, dia pasang kuat.: Wow! Today he dresses stylishly!

Betawi Malay

This section is an excerpt from Betawi language.[edit]
Betawi, also known as Betawi Malay, Jakartan Malay, or Batavian Malay (It called also as Jakarta-centric language, Indonesian: Bahasa Jakarta-sentris (Jaktris)), is the spoken language of the Betawi people in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is the native language of perhaps 5 million people; a precise number is difficult to determine due to the vague use of the name.

Malaccan Creole Malay

This section is an excerpt from Malay Chetty creole language.[edit]
The Malay Chetty creole language (also known as Malaccan Creole Malay, Malacca Malay Creole[9] and Chitties/Chetties Malay) is a Malay-based creole spoken by the Chetties (also known as Indian Peranakans), a distinctive group of Tamil people found mainly in Malacca in Malaysia and Singapore, who have adopted Chinese and Malay cultural practices whilst also retaining their Hindu heritage.[10]

Sri Lanka Malay

This section is an excerpt from Sri Lanka Malay language.[edit]
Sri Lankan Malay, also known as Sri Lankan Creole Malay, bahasa Melayu, Ja basawa, or Java mozhi, is a Malay-based creole language spoken in Sri Lanka, formed as a mixture of Sinhala and Shonam (Sri Lankan Muslim Tamil), with Malay being the major lexifier.[11] It is traditionally spoken by the Sri Lankan Malays, Javanese Sri Lankans, and among some Sinhalese in Hambantota.[12] Today, the number of speakers of the language have dwindled considerably but it has continued to be spoken notably in the Hambantota District of Southern Sri Lanka, which has traditionally been home to many Sri Lankan Malays.

Singapore Bazaar Malay

Singapore Bazaar Malay, also known as Bazaar Malay, Pasar Malay, or Market Malay, is a Malay-lexified pidgin, which is spoken in Singapore.[3] Tamil and Hokkien contributed to the development of Bazaar Malay, with Hokkien being the dominant substrate language of Bazaar Malay, with Malay being the lexifier language.[13] However, there are many input languages spoken by immigrants that also contributed to the development of Bazaar Malay, including languages spoken by Malays, Chinese, Indians, Eurasians, and Europeans. Singapore Bazaar Malay emerged along with the opening of Singapore's free trade port in 1819, to overcome barriers in communication and business transactions. Since Singapore has only four official languages (English, Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil), Singapore Bazaar Malay not only is a lingua franca in interethnic communication, it is also used in intra-group communication. Singapore Bazaar Malay is mostly spoken by elders and middle-aged workers today, but its language status is declining due to education policies and language campaigns with less than 10,000 speakers.[3]

Sabah Malay

Sabah Malay
RegionSabah, Sulu Archipelago, Labuan, south Palawan
Native speakers
[14]
3 million L2 speakers (2013)[15]
Malay–based pidgin
Language codes
ISO 639-3msi
Glottologsaba1263

A pidginised variant of standard Malay, Sabah Malay is a local trade language.[16] There are a large number of native speakers in urban areas, mainly children who have a second native language. There are also some speakers in the southernmost parts of the Philippines, particularly in the Sulu Archipelago as a trade language, also spoken in south Palawan.

Makassar Malay

Makassar Malay
Native toIndonesia
RegionMakassar, South Sulawesi
Native speakers
None[17]
Second language: 1.9 million (2000)
Language codes
ISO 639-3mfp
Glottologmaka1305

Makassar Malay is a creole-based mixed language, which is built of Bazaar Malay lexicon, Makassarese inflections, and mixed Malay/Makassarese syntax.[18][19]

It is now widely spoken as the first language in Makassar City and its surrounding areas, especially those who were born after 1980's. It has widely spread to the entire region in southern part of Sulawesi island, including in the provinces of Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tenggara, and Sulawesi Barat as regional lingua franca or as second language due to contact or doing business with people from Makassar City.

Makassar Malay used as a default dialect or neutral language when communicating with people from other tribes or ethnicities whom do not share the same local language to the native local speakers in those three provinces. It appears that Makassar Malay also used as the first language of younger generation who live in the cities or regencies' capital across those three provinces.

Furthermore, apart from those three provinces in the southern part of Sulawesi island, Makassar Malay also used by people in some parts of Sulawesi Tengah Province, especially when communicating with people from those three provinces. It can also be used when communicating with people from other people from other provinces in Eastern Indonesia and in the province of Kalimantan Timur.[20]

Balinese Malay

Balinese Malay
Omong Kampung
Native toIndonesia
RegionBali
Ethnicity
Native speakers
25,000 (2000 census)[21]
Malay-based creole
Language codes
ISO 639-3mhp
Glottologbali1279

Balinese Malay is a dialect of Malay spoken in the island of Bali. It is also known as Omong Kampung ("village speak") by its speakers. Balinese Malay is the primary language of ethnic Malay who live in the northwestern part of the island, mainly in the districts of Melaya and Negara, Jembrana Regency.[22] The current language status is threatened.[23]

Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin

This section is an excerpt from Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin.[edit]

Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin is a pidgin that sprang up in Broome, Western Australia in the early 20th century to facilitate communication between the various groups working in the pearling industry there—Japanese, Malays, Torres Strait Islanders, Koepangers, Hakka Chinese, Filipinos, Sri Lankans of Sinhalese and Tamil descent, a small number of Koreans, and local Indigenous Australians,[24] mainly of the Bardi people but also Nyulnyul, Jabirr Jabirr, Jukun, Yawuru and Karajarri people. The name derives from the boats used for pearling, known as pearling luggers.

Chirikurok -kaa hokurok -kaa peke kriki.
English: "three o'clock" Japanese: "or" English: "four o'clock" Japanese: "or" Malay: "go" English: "creek"
"We will enter the creek at three or four o'clock."

Eastern Indonesian Malay

Main article: Eastern Indonesia Malay

The creoles of eastern Indonesia[25] appear to have formed as Malays and Javanese, using lingua franca Malay, established their monopoly on the spice trade before the European colonial era. They have a number of features in common:

  • ā, ē becomes a, e, or assimilates to the following vowel
  • i, u lower to e, o in some environments
  • there is a loss of final plosives p, t, k, and n the neutralisation of final nasals in part of the lexicon
  • the perfective marker juga reduces to ju or jo
  • the perfective marker lebih reduces to le
  • the perfective marker mau reduces to mo
  • the perfective marker mana reduces to ma (as this only occur on Kupang Malay).
  • the perfective marker dan reduces to deng
  • the perfective marker pun reduces to pung
  • the perfective marker sudah reduces to su or so[1]

For example,[2]

  • makan becomes makang
  • pērgi becomes pigi or pi,pe
  • tērkējut becomes takajo
  • lēmbut becomes lombo
  • dapāt becomes dapa
  • jangan becomes jang
  • pada becomes pa
  • lupa becomes lu

Bacan (next) is perhaps the most archaic, and appears to be closely related to Brunei Malay (which is still a creole).

There is a loss of diphthongs:

  • the diphthong "au" become to "o"
  • the diphthong "ai" reduces to "e"
  • the letter" u" become to "o"

The prefix word with "me","be","te",and"ke" reduces to "ma","ba","ta","ka"

  • The prefix "me" redues to "ma"
  • The prefix "be",reduces to "ba"
  • The prefix "te",reduces to "ta"

For example:

The loss of middle "e" and "h" in the last end of words:

  • terbelah becomes tabla
  • bertengkar becomes batengkar
  • menangis becomes manangis
  • kehidupan becomes kaidopan

Bacanese Malay

Main article: Bacan Malay

Bacanese Malay is a Malayic isolect spoken in Bacan Island and its surroundings, south of Halmahera, North Maluku. Bacanese Malay is considered rather different from other Malay-derived languages in eastern Indonesia because of its archaic lexicon and was used as a supplementary language in the reconstruction of Proto-Malayic.[26]

Dili Malay

Main article: Dili Malay
Dili Malay
Bahasa Melayu Dili
Native toTimor Leste
RegionKampung Alor, Dili
Native speakers
1,000 (2000)
Malay Creole
  • East Indonesian
    • Dili Malay
Language codes
ISO 639-3–

Dili Malay is a creole-based Malay language spoken in Kampung Alor, Dili. This language has a lot of borrowed vocabulary from Tetun and Portuguese language. As of 2000, it was spoken by about 1,000 people.[27]

Manado Malay

This section is an excerpt from Manado Malay.[edit]
Manado Malay, or simply the Manado language, is a creole language spoken in Manado, the capital of North Sulawesi province in Indonesia, and the surrounding area. The local name of the language is bahasa Manado, and the name Minahasa Malay is also used,[28] after the main ethnic group speaking the language. Since Manado Malay is used primarily for spoken communication, there is no standard orthography.

Gorap

Gorap
Native toIndonesia
RegionMorotai Island, central Halmahera
Native speakers
(1,000 cited 1992)[29]
Malay-based creole
  • East Indonesian
    • Gorap
Language codes
ISO 639-3goq
Glottologgora1261
ELPGorap

Gorap is lexically 85% Malay, but has many Ternate words as well, and word order differs from both Austronesian and Halmahera languages. Children no longer acquire the language.

Ternate / North Moluccan Malay

This section is an excerpt from North Moluccan Malay.[edit]
North Moluccan Malay (also known as Ternate Malay) is a Malay-based creole language spoken on Ternate, Tidore, Morotai, Halmahera, and Sula Islands in North Maluku for intergroup communications. The local name of the language is bahasa Pasar (literally 'market language'), and the name Ternate Malay is also used, after the main ethnic group speaking the language. It is commonly written using Indonesian orthography. One of its varieties is Sula Malay, which was formed with the influence of Ambonese Malay.[30]

Kupang Malay

"Kupang language" redirects here. For other language called Kupang, see Helong language.
Kupang Malay
Native toIndonesia
RegionKupang, West Timor
Native speakers
(200,000 cited 1997)[31]
100,000 L2 speakers (no date)[31]
Malay-based creole
  • East Indonesian
    • Kupang Malay
Language codes
ISO 639-3mkn
Glottologkupa1239

Kupang Malay is spoken in Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, on the west end of Timor Island. It is based on archaic Malay which mixed mostly with Dutch, Portuguese and local languages. Similar to Ambonese Malay with several differences in vocabulary and accent. Its grammatical system resembles that of other East Indonesian Malay Creoles.

The pronouns in Kupang Malay differ from Indonesian as shown in the table below:[32]

Pronouns Indonesian Kupang Malay
First person singular
First person plural (inclusive)
First person plural (exclusive)		 aku, saya
kita
kami		 beta
katong
batong
Second person singular
Second person plural		 kamu, engkau
kalian		 lu
basong
Third person singular
Third person plural		 dia
mereka		 dia
dong

Unlike in Indonesian, there is no schwa in Kupang Malay.[32]

Indonesian Kupang Malay English Gloss
sēlamāt salamat 'greetings, safe'
kēliling kaliling, kuliling 'go around'
sēbēntar sabantar 'a moment'
pērut parú 'stomach'

The word order of Kupang Malay is mixed Malay and the Helong Language .

English Indonesian Kupang Malay
Kupang Kota Kupang Kupang kota
Indonesia has already become to most populated country. Indonesia sudah menjadi negara yang teramai Indonesiya su manjadi yang tarame

The "ia ,"ie, "io",and iu,reduces to iya, iye, iyo, iyu or nua, oa, os becomes nuwa, woa, wos.

  • The lack of foreign letters e.g. "z","v",and"q"

For example;

  • Zaman → Saman
  • Video → Fideo
  • Qatar → Katar

Alor Malay

Main article: Alor Malay

Alor Malay is spoken in the Alor archipelago. Speakers perceive Alor Malay to be a different register of standard Indonesian, but both of these are prestige varieties of the archipelago. Many people are able to understand standard Indonesian, but cannot speak it fluently and choose to use Alor Malay on a daily basis.[33]

Alor Malay is based on Kupang Malay; however, Alor Malay differs significantly from Kupang Malay, especially in its pronouns.[34]

Ambonese Malay

This section is an excerpt from Ambonese Malay.[edit]
Ambonese Malay or simply Ambonese is a Malay-based creole language spoken on Ambon Island in the Maluku Islands of Eastern Indonesia. It was first brought by traders from Western Indonesia, then developed when the Dutch Empire colonised the Maluku Islands and was used as a tool by missionaries in Eastern Indonesia. Malay has been taught in schools and churches in Ambon, and because of this it has become a lingua franca in Ambon and its surroundings.

Bandanese Malay

Bandanese Malay
Banda Malay
Native toIndonesia
RegionBanda Islands
Native speakers
3,700 (2000)[35]
Malay-based creole
  • East Indonesian
    • Bandanese Malay
Language codes
ISO 639-3bpq
Glottologband1353

Bandanese Malay is a distinct variant of Moluccan Malay, spoken in Banda Islands, Maluku. Significantly different from Ambonese Malay and for Ambonese, Bandanese Malay tends to be perceived as sounding funny due to its unique features.

Example :

  • Beta : I
  • pane : you
  • katorang : we
  • mir : ants (deviated from Dutch : mier)

Papuan/Irian Malay

This section is an excerpt from Papuan Malay.[edit]
Papuan Malay or Irian Malay is a Malay-based creole language spoken in the Indonesian part of New Guinea. It emerged as a contact language among tribes in Indonesian New Guinea (now Papua, Central Papua, Highland Papua, South Papua, West Papua, and Southwest Papua) for trading and daily communication. Nowadays, it has a growing number of native speakers. More recently, the vernacular of Indonesian Papuans has been influenced by Standard Indonesian, the national standard dialect. It is spoken in Indonesian New Guinea alongside 274 other languages[36] and functions as a lingua franca.

Creole languages based on languages other than Malay

References

  1. ^ a b Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Darrell T., Tryon, eds. (1996). Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas. p. 673.
  2. ^ a b Collins, James T. (1989). "Malay dialect research in Malaysia: the issue of perspective" (PDF). Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 145 (2/3): 235–264. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003253.
  3. ^ a b c d "APiCS Online - Survey chapter: Singapore Bazaar Malay". apics-online.info. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
  4. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Vehicular Malay". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  5. ^ a b c d Lee, Nala Huiying (2014). A Grammar of Baba Malay with Sociophonetic Considerations (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. p. 13, 379. hdl:10125/101107. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2015.
  6. ^ Peranakan Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  7. ^ "Malay, Baba". Ethnologue. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  8. ^ "BABA / PERANAKAN MALAY". The Peranakan Resource Library. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
  9. ^ "Malaccan Malay Creole". Ethnologue. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  10. ^ Paulo 2018.
  11. ^ "APiCS Online - Survey chapter: Sri Lankan Malay". apics-online.info. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
  12. ^ de Silva Jayasuriya, Shihan (2002). "Sri Lankan Malay: A Unique Creole" (PDF). NUSA: Linguistic Studies of Languages in and Around Indonesia. 50: 43–57.
  13. ^ Platt, John; Weber, Heidi (1980). English in Singapore and Malaysia: Status, features, functions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  14. ^ Sabah Malay at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013) Closed access icon
  15. ^ Sabah Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  16. ^ Hoogervorst, Tom G. (2011). "Some introductory notes on the development and characteristics of Sabah Malay". Wacana, Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia. 13 (1): 50–77. doi:10.17510/wjhi.v13i1.9.
  17. ^ Makassar Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  18. ^ Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Darrell T., Tryon, eds. (1996). Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas. p. 682.
  19. ^ "Makassarese Malay". Jakarta Field Station of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
  20. ^ "Malay, Makassar". Ethnologue. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  21. ^ Balinese Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  22. ^ Bagus, I Gusti Ngurah; Denes, I Made; Laksana, I Ketut Darma; Putrini, Nyoman; Ginarsa, I Ketut (1985). Kamus Melayu Bali-Indonesia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa. pp. xi.
  23. ^ "Malay, Balinese". Ethnologue. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  24. ^ "Australian pearling industry". Britannica Kids. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
  25. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Eastern Indonesia Trade Malay". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  26. ^ Adelaar, K. Alexander (1992). Proto Malayic: the reconstruction of its phonology and parts of its lexicon and morphology. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, the Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-C119. hdl:1885/145782. ISBN 0858834081.
  27. ^ Inyo Yos Fernandez. "Beberapa Catatan Tentang Bahasa Melayu Dili: Studi Awal Mengenai Bahasa Melayu Di Timor Timur". jurnal.ugm.ac.id (in Indonesian). Gadjah Mada University. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  28. ^ Stoel 2007, p. 117.
  29. ^ Gorap at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  30. ^ Duwila, Ety; Fernandez, Inyo Yos (2009). Kajian dialektologi diakronis enklave Melayu Bacan, Ternate, dan Sula di Provinsi Maluku Utara. Tesis S2 Linguistik (Thesis) (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Universitas Gadjah Mada.
  31. ^ a b Kupang Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  32. ^ a b Jacob, June; Grimes, Barbara Dix (2006). "Developing a role for Kupang Malay: the contemporary politics of an eastern Indonesian creole". Paper Presented by June Jacob at the Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics Held in Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines.
  33. ^ Baird, Louise (2008). A grammar of Klon: a non-Austronesian language of Alor, Indonesia. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
  34. ^ Klamer, Marion (2014). "The Alor-Pantar languages: Linguistic context, history and typology.". In Klamer, Marian (ed.). Alor Pantar languages: History and Typology. Berlin: Language Sciences Press. pp. 5–53. doi:10.17169/FUDOCS_document_000000020993. ISBN 9783944675602.
  35. ^ Bandanese Malay at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  36. ^ Kluge 2014, p. 2.
  • Lim, Sonny (1988). "Baba Malay: the language of the 'Straits-born' Chinese". In Steinhauer, H. (ed.). Papers in Western Austronesian Linguistics No. 3. Pacific Linguistics Series A - No.78. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University. pp. 1–61. doi:10.15144/PL-A78. hdl:1885/145107. ISBN 0-85883-382-4.
Balinese Malay test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
Betawi test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
Kupang Malay test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
Makassar Malay test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
Manado Malay test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
North Moluccan Malay test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
Papuan Malay test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

Bibliography

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