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For other uses, see Reincarnation (disambiguation).
Reincarnation in Hindu art
See also: Reincarnation in popular culture

Reincarnation is believed to occur when the soul or spirit, after the death of the body, comes back to Earth in a newborn body. This phenomenon is also known as transmigration of the soul. This doctrine is a central tenet within the majority of Indian religious traditions, such as Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism; the Buddhist concept of rebirth is also often referred to as reincarnation.[1] The idea was also fundamental to some Greek philosophers and religions as well as other religions, such as Druidism. It is also found in many small-scale societies around the world, in places such as Siberia, West Africa, North America, and Australia.[2]

While Indian religions have maintained the belief in reincarnation, the majority of Judaism, Christianity and Islam sects have rejected it, though it has regularly been found among local minorities such as the Hassidim, and the Cathars. The historical relations between these sects and the Neoplatonism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism and Gnosticism of the Roman era, as well as the Indian religions, is unclear.

In the modern West just over 20% are reincarnationist. A small number of parapsychologists in academia have claimed evidence that they believe supports reincarnation, however this evidence has been largely ignored or dismissed by mainstream scientists.[3]

Conceptual definitions

The word "reincarnation" derives from Latin, literally, "entering the flesh again". The Greek equivalent metempsychosis (μετεμψύχωσις) roughly corresponds to the common English phrase "transmigration of the soul" and also usually connotes reincarnation after death,[4] as either human, animal, or plant, though emphasising the continuity of the soul, not the flesh. The term has been used by modern philosophers such as Kurt Gödel[5] and has entered the English language. Another Greek term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis, "being born again".[6]

There is no word corresponding exactly to the English terms "rebirth", "metempsychosis", "transmigration" or "reincarnation" in the traditional languages of Pāli and Sanskrit. The entire universal process that gives rise to the cycle of death and rebirth, governed by karma, is referred to as Samsara[7] while the state one is born into, the individual process of being born or coming into the world in any way, is referred to simply as "birth" (jāti). Devas (gods) may also die and live again.[8] Here the term "reincarnation" is not strictly applicable, yet Hindu gods are said to have reincarnated (see Avatar): Lord Vishnu is known for His ten incarnations, the Dashavatars. Celtic religion seems to have had reincarnating gods also. Many Christians regard Jesus as a divine incarnation and they and many Muslims believe he and some prophets may incarnate again. Some extreme Shi'a Muslim sects also regard their founders as in some special sense divine incarnations (hulul).

Philosophical and religious beliefs regarding the existence or non-existence of an unchanging 'self' have a direct bearing on how reincarnation is viewed within a given tradition. The Buddha lived at a time of great philosophical creativity in India when many conceptions of the nature of life and death were proposed. Some were materialist, holding that there was no existence that the self is annihilated upon death. Others believed in a form of cyclic existence, where a being is born, lives, dies and then is re-born, but in the context of a type of determinism or fatalism in which karma played no role. Others were "eternalists", postulating an eternally existent self or soul comparable to that in Judaic monotheism: the ātman survives death andreincarnates as another living being, based on its karmic inheritance. This is the idea that has become dominant (with certain modifications) in modern Hinduism.

The Buddhist concept of reincarnation differs from others in that there is no eternal "soul", "spirit' or self" but only a "stream of consciousness" that links life with life. The actual process of change from one life to the next is called punarbhava (Sanskrit) or punabbhava (Pāli), literally "becoming again", or more briefly bhava, "becoming", and some English-speaking Buddhists prefer the term "rebirth" or "re-becoming" to render this term as they take "reincarnation" to imply a fixed entity that is reborn.[9] Popular Jain cosmology and Buddhist cosmology as well as a number of schools of Hinduism posit rebirth in many worlds and in varied forms. In Buddhist tradition the process occurs across five or six realms of existence,[10] including the human, any kind of animal and several types of supernatural being. It is said in Tibetan Buddhism that it is very rare for a person to be reborn in the immediate next life as a human[11]

Gilgul, Gilgul neshamot or Gilgulei Ha Neshamot(Heb. גלגול הנשמות) refers to the concept of reincarnation in Kabbalistic Judaism, found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. Gilgul means "cycle" and neshamot is "souls." The equivalent Arabic term is tanasukh:[12] the belief is found among Shi'a gulat Muslim sects.

History

Ancient development of beliefs

The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure.[13] Discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of India and Greece in the first millennium BCE. In India the concept was probably associated with the early eremitical (sramana) movement before it was adopted by mainstream Brahmin orthodoxy[14][15] along with the associated concepts of karma, samsara and moksha.[16] The early Upanishads (around the middle of the first millennium BCE), Gautam Buddha (after 500 to between 411 and 400 BCE)[17] and Mahavir the Tirthankar of Jainism (who was older than, but contemporary to the Buddha) continued and developed this reincarnationist tradition in many ways,[18] as did the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (sometime after 200 BCE).

Some scholars have argued that the Indian reincarnationist world-view may have originated in the pre-Aryan non-Vedic culture[19] while others trace links between Druid, ancient Greek and Vedic philosophy and religion, and suggest reincarnation was present in Proto-Indo-European religion.[20][21] However Diodorus Siculus thought the Druids might have been influenced by the teachings of Pythagoras[22] and one modern scholar has speculated that Buddhist missionaries had been sent to Britain by the Indian king Ashoka.[23].

Equally early is found the claim of the possibility of first-hand experience. Several ancient sources affirm that Pythagoras claimed he could remember his past lives.[24] Some scholars suggest Buddha discovered the principle for himself.[25] Plato taught that "all learning is but recollection" because we have innate knowledge of universal ideas and we need only recall our buried memories.

The systematic attempt to attain first-hand knowledge of past lives has been developed in various ways in different places. Tibetan Buddhism has developed a unique 'science' of death and rebirth, a good deal of which is set down in what is popularly known as The Tibetan Book of the Dead. The Hasidic tzadik was believed to know the past lives of each person through his semi-prophetic abilities. In India in the second century BCE the yogic philosopher Patañjali discussed the soul's accumulated impressions of previous lives[26] and proposed a process of past life regression (prati-prasav, "reverse birthing") to address current problems through recalling them. Prati-prasav is still used in some types of yoga.[27][28]

An early Greek thinker known to have considered rebirth is Pherecydes of Syros (active c.540 BCE).[29] His younger contemporary Pythagoras (c. 570-c. 495 BCE[30]), its first famous exponent, instituted societies for its diffusion. Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC) presented accounts of reincarnation in his works, particularly the Myth of Er. Authorities have not agreed on how the notion arose in Greece: sometimes Pythagoras is said to have been Pherecydes' pupil, sometimes to have introduced it with the doctrine of Orphism, a Thracian religion that was to be important in the diffusion of reincarnation, or else to have brought the teaching from India. In the Phaedo Plato makes his teacher Socrates, prior to his death, state; "I am confident that there truly is such a thing as living again, and that the living spring from the dead." However Xenophon does not mention Socrates as believing in reincarnation and Plato may have systematised Socrates' thought with concepts he took directly from Pythagoreanism or Orphism.

Post-Medieval Western ideas

In art and philosophy

While reincarnation has been a matter of faith in some communities from an early date it has also frequently been argued for on principle, as Plato does when he argues that the number of souls must be finite because souls are indestructible,[31] Benjamin Franklin held a similar view.[32] Sometimes such convictions, as in Socrates' case, arise from a more general personal faith, at other times from anecdotal evidence such as Plato makes Socrates offer in the Myth of Er.

During the Renaissance translations of Plato, the Hermetica and other works fostered new European interest in reincarnation. Marsilio Ficino[33] argued that Plato's references to reincarnation were intended allegorically, Shakespeare made fun [34] but Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake by the Inquisition for his teachings.[35] But the Greek philosophical works remained available and, particularly in north Europe, were discussed by groups such as the Cambridge Platonists. By the nineteenth century the philosophers Schopenhauer[36] and Nietzsche[37] could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the American Transcendentalists Henry David Thoreau, Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson and was adapted by Francis Bowen into Christian Metempsychosis.[38]

By the early twentieth century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of psychology, largely due to the influence of William James, who raised aspects of the philosophy of mind, comparative religion, the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism.[39]. James was influential in the founding of the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) in New York City in 1885, three years after the British Society for Psychical Research (SPR) was inaugurated in London,[40] leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena.

American psychologist and philosopher William James (1842 - 1910) was an early psychical researcher.[40]

At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the Theosophical Society's dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like The Golden Dawn. Notable personalities like Annie Besant, W.B.Yeats and Dion Fortune made the subject almost as familiar an element of the popular culture of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children's books.[41]

Studies of past-life reports

Théodore Flournoy was among the first to study a claim of past-life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium Hélène Smith, published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of cryptomnesia in such accounts.[42] Carl Gustav Jung, like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation; "This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one's own...".[38] Hypnosis, used in psychoanalysis for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.

In the later twentieth century Ian Stevenson investigated reports of young children who claimed to remember a past life. He compared their accounts with events that occurred during that of someone who died before the child was born, often someone who had met some sort of violent or untimely death.[43] Stevenson ultimately published more than 2,500 case studies from around the world including North and South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia.[44][43] Stevenson believed that memories of past lives occurred most often between the ages of three and seven years then faded shortly afterwards.[45] He compared the accounts of the people he investigated with reports of people known to the deceased, attempting to do so before any contact between the child and the deceased's family had occurred.[45] He also searched for evidence that could provide alternative explanations for the reports aside from reincarnation, discounting some reports.[46]

Stevenson believed that the best evidence for reincarnation was the existence of birth marks and deformities on children corresponding to fatal wounds of the deceased. He also claimed that unusual behaviors, such as phobias for the thing that killed the deceased, and in some cases the mother having a dream in which the deceased announces their intention to reincarnate in the child, were also evidence of reincarnation.[43][47] Stevenson's work tended to polarize opinion: While supporters see him as a misunderstood genius, skeptics found him to be gullible and superstitious.[48] Stevenson drew praise for his methods,[49][50][51][43] but he was unsuccessful in getting the scientific community to consider reincarnation a serious possibility.[3]

Belief in the West

Recent studies have indicated that some Westerners accept the idea of reincarnation[52] including certain contemporary Christians,[53], modern Neopagans, followers of Spiritism, Theosophists and students of esoteric philosophies such as Kabbalah, and Gnostic and Esoteric Christianity as well as of Indian religions. Demographic survey data from 1999-2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe and America, where there is reasonable freedom of thought and access to ideas but no outstanding recent reincarnationist tradition, believe we had a life before we were born, will survive death and be born again physically. The mean for the Nordic countries is 22%.[54] The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with Lithuania having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44%. The lowest figure is in East Germany, 12%. In Russia about one-third believes in reincarnation. The effect of communist anti-religious ideas on the beliefs of the populations of Eastern Europe seems to have been rather slight, if any, except apparently in East Germany.[54] Overall 22% of respondents in Western Europe believe in reincarnation.[54] According to a 2005 Gallup poll 20 percent of U.S. adults believe in reincarnation. Recent surveys by the Barna Group, a Christian research nonprofit organization, have found that a quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10 percent of all born-again Christians, embrace the idea.[55]

Skeptic Carl Sagan asked the Dalai Lama what would he do if a fundamental tenet of his religion (reincarnation) were definitively disproved by science. The Dalai Lama answered; "if science can disprove reincarnation, Tibetan Buddhism would abandon reincarnation... but it's going to be mighty hard to disprove reincarnation."[56]

Religions and philosophies

Hinduism

In Hinduism the soul (atman) is immortal while the body is subject to birth and death. The Bhagavad Gita states;

Hindus believe the self or soul (atman) repeatedly takes on a physical body.
  • "Never was there a time when I did not exist, nor you, nor all these kings; nor in the future shall any of us cease to be. As the embodied soul continuously passes, in this body, from boyhood to youth to old age, the soul similarly passes into another body at death. A sober person is not bewildered by such a change". (2: 12-13)

and;

  • "Worn-out garments are shed by the body; Worn-out bodies are shed by the dweller within the body. New bodies are donned by the dweller, like garments". (2:22)[57]

According to the Hindu sage Adi Shankaracharya, the world - as we ordinarily understand it - is like a dream: fleeting and illusory. To be trapped in samsara is a result of ignorance of the true nature of our existence. It is ignorance (avidya) of one's true self that leads to ego-consciousness, grounding one in desire and a perpetual chain of reincarnation. The idea is intricately linked to action (karma), a concept first recorded in the Upanishads. Every action has a reaction and the force determines one's next incarnation. One is reborn through desire: a person desires to be born because he or she wants to enjoy a body,[58] which can never bring deep, lasting happiness or peace (ānanda). After many births every person becomes dissatisfied and begins to seek higher forms of happiness through spiritual experience. When, after spiritual practice (sādhanā), a person realizes that the true "self" is the immortal soul rather than the body or the ego all desires for the pleasures of the world will vanish since they will seem insipid compared to spiritual ānanda. When all desire has vanished the person will not be born again.[59] When the cycle of rebirth thus comes to an end, a person is said to have attained liberation (moksha).[60] All schools agree this implies the cessation of worldly desires and freedom from the cycle of birth and death, though the exact definition differs. Followers of the Advaita Vedanta school believe they will spend eternity absorbed in the perfect peace and happiness of the realization that all existence is One Brahman of which the soul is part. Dvaita schools perform worship with the goal of spending eternity in a spiritual world or heaven (loka) in the blessed company of the Supreme Being.[61]

Jainism

Further information: Karma in Jainism and Jain philosophy

Jainism, like Buddhism, is historically connected with the sramana tradition with which the earliest mentions of reincarnation are associated.[62]

Buddhism

Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism)
In this 8-meter (25-foot) tall Buddhist relief, made sometime between the years 1177 and 1249, Mara, Lord of Death and Desire, clutches a Wheel of Reincarnation which outlines the Buddhist cycle of reincarnation.

The early Buddhist texts make it clear that there is no permanent consciousness that moves from life to life.[63] Gautama Buddha taught a distinct concept of rebirth constrained by the concepts of anattā, that there is no irreducible ātman or "self" tying these lives together,[64] and anicca, that all compounded things are subject to dissolution, including all the components of the human person and personality.

In Buddhist doctrine the evolving consciousness (Pali: samvattanika-viññana)[65][66] or stream of consciousness (Pali: viññana-sotam,[67] Sanskrit: vijñāna-srotām, vijñāna-santāna, or citta-santāna) upon death (or "the dissolution of the aggregates" (P. khandhas, S. skandhas)), becomes one of the contributing causes for the arising of a new aggregation. At the death of one personality, a new one comes into being, much as the flame of a dying candle can serve to light the flame of another.[68][69] The consciousness in the new person is neither identical to nor entirely different from that in the deceased but the two form a causal continuum or stream. Transmigration is the effect of karma (kamma)[70][71] or volitional action.[72] The basic cause is the abiding of consciousness in ignorance (Pali: avijja, Sanskrit: avidya): when ignorance is uprooted rebirth ceases.[73]

The Buddha's detailed conception of the connections between action (karma), rebirth and causality is set out in the twelve links of dependent origination. The empirical, changing self does not only affect the world about it, it also generates, consciously and unconsciously, a subjective image of the world in which it lives as 'reality'. It "tunes in" to a particular level of consciousness which has a particular range of objects, selectively notices such objects and forms a partial model of reality in which the ego is the crucial reference point. Vipassana meditation uses "bare attention" to mind-states without interfering, owning or judging. Observation reveals each moment as an experience of an individual mind-state such as a thought, a memory, a feeling or a perception that arises, exists and ceases. This limits the power of desire, which, according to the second noble truth of Buddhism, is the cause of suffering (dukkha), and leads to Nirvana (nibbana, vanishing (of the self-idea)) in which self-oriented models are transcended and "the world stops".[74] Thus consciousness is a continuous birth and death of mind-states: rebirth is the persistence of this process.

While all Buddhist traditions accept rebirth there is no unified view about precisely how events unfold after death. The Tibetan schools hold to the notion of a bardo (intermediate state) that can last up to forty-nine days. An accomplished or realized practitioner (by maintaining conscious awareness during the death process) can choose to return to samsara, that many lamas choose to be born again and again as humans and are called tulkus or incarnate lamas.[citation needed] The Sarvastivada school believed that between death and rebirth there is a sort of limbo in which beings do not yet reap the consequences of their previous actions but may still influence their rebirth. The death process and this intermediate state were believed to offer a uniquely favourable opportunity for spiritual awakening. Theravada Buddhism generally denies there is an intermediate state, though some early Buddhist texts seem to support it,[75][76] but asserts that rebirth is immediate.

Some schools conclude that karma continues to exist and adhere to the person until it works out its consequences. For the Sautrantika school each act "perfumes" the individual or "plants a seed" that later germinates. In another view remaining impure aggregates, skandhas, reform consciousness. Tibetan Buddhism stresses the state of mind at the time of death. To die with a peaceful mind will stimulate a virtuous seed and a fortunate rebirth, a disturbed mind will stimulate a non-virtuous seed and an unfortunate rebirth.[77] The medieval Pali scholar Buddhaghosa labeled the consciousness that constitutes the condition for a new birth as described in the early texts "rebirth-linking consciousness" (patisandhi).

Sant mystics and Sikhism

Reincarnation remained a tenet of the Sant Bhakti movement and of related mystics on the frontiers of Hinduism such as the Baul minstrels, the Kabir panth and the Sikh Brotherhood. Sikhs believe the soul is passed from one body to another until Liberation. If we perform good deeds and actions and remember the Creator, we attain a better life while, if we carry out evil actions and sinful deeds, we will be incarnated in “lower” life forms. God may pardon wrongs and release us.[78] Otherwise reincarnation is due to the law of cause and effect but does not create any caste or differences among people. Eckankar is a Western presentation of Sant mysticism.[79] It teaches that the soul is eternal and either chooses an incarnation for growth or else an incarnation is imposed because of Karma. The soul is perfected through a series of incarnations until it arrives at "Personal Mastery".

The classical world

A 2nd century Roman sarcophagus shows the mythology and symbolism of the Orphic and Dionysiac Mystery schools. Orpheus plays his lyre to the left

The Orphic religion, which taught reincarnation, first appeared in Thrace in north-eastern Greece and, about the 6th century BC, organized itself into mystery schools at Eleusis and elsewhere, and produced a copious literature.[80][81][82] Orpheus, its legendary founder, is said to have taught that the immortal soul aspires to freedom while the body holds it prisoner. The wheel of birth revolves, the soul alternates between freedom and captivity round the wide circle of necessity. Orpheus proclaimed the need of the grace of the gods, Dionysus in particular, and of self-purification until the soul has completed the spiral ascent of destiny to live for ever.

An association between Pythagorean philosophy and reincarnation was routinely accepted throughout antiquity. In the Republic Plato makes Socrates tell how Er, the son of Armenius, miraculously returned to life on the twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other world. There are myths and theories to the same effect in other dialogues, in the Chariot allegory of the Phaedrus, in the Meno, Timaeus and Laws. The soul, once separated from the body, spends an indeterminate amount of time in "formland" (see The Allegory of the Cave in The Republic) and then assumes another body.

In later Greek literature the doctrine is mentioned in a fragment of Menander[83] and satirized by Lucian.[84] In Roman literature it is found as early as Ennius,[85] who, in a lost passage of his Annals, told how he had seen Homer in a dream, who had assured him that the same soul which had animated both the poets had once belonged to a peacock. Persius in his satires (vi. 9) laughs at this: it is referred to also by Lucretius[86] and Horace.[87]

Virgil works the idea into his account of the Underworld in the sixth book of the Aeneid.[88] It persists down to the late classic thinkers, Plotinus and the other Neoplatonists. In the Hermetica, a Graeco-Egyptian series of writings on cosmology and spirituality attributed to Hermes Trismegistus/Thoth, the doctrine of reincarnation is central.

Norse mythology

Sváfa holding the dying Helgi in their first incarnation of three.

Reincarnation also appears in Norse mythology, in the Poetic Edda. The editor of the Poetic Edda says that Helgi Hjörvarðsson and his mistress, the valkyrie Sváfa, whose love story is told in the Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, were reborn as Helgi Hundingsbane and the valkyrie Sigrún. Helgi and Sigrún's love story is the matter of a part of the Völsunga saga and the lays Helgakviða Hundingsbana I and II. They were reborn a second time as Helgi Haddingjaskati and the valkyrie Kára, but unfortunately their story, Káruljóð, only survives in a probably modified form in the Hrómundar saga Gripssonar.

The belief in reincarnation was probably commonplace among the Vikings since the annotator of the Poetic Edda wrote that people formerly used to believe in it;

Sigrun was early dead of sorrow and grief. It was believed in olden times that people were born again, but that is now called old wives' folly. Of Helgi and Sigrun it is said that they were born again; he became Helgi Haddingjaskati, and she Kara the daughter of Halfdan, as is told in the Lay of Kara, and she was a Valkyrie.[89]

The Celts

In the 1st century BCE Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor wrote;

"The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the Gauls' teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body."

Julius Caesar recorded that the druids of Gaul, Britain and Ireland had metempsychosis as one of their core doctrines;[90]

"The principal point of their doctrine is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another..... the main object of all education is, in their opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the indestructibility of the human soul, which, according to their belief, merely passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such doctrine alone, they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the highest form of human courage be developed."

Christianity

Mainstream Christian denominations have rejected the notion of reincarnation but some Christians contend that reincarnation was taught by the early Christian church and that, due to bias and mistranslations, these teachings were lost or obscured. Geddes Macgregor argued that the Early Church Father Origen taught reincarnation.[91]

In a New Testament passage that have been taken to allude to reincarnation[92] the Jews ask John the Baptist if he is Elijah and John replies that he is not. However this is a special case as Elijah was taken bodily up to heaven in a whirlwind and a chariot of fire, and Malachi 4:5 [6] states that God would send Elijah back to Earth as a foreunner of the Messiah. Other passages seem to reject the possibility of any return or contact with this world for souls in Heaven or Hell.[93]

Some early Christian Gnostic sects professed reincarnation. The Sethians and followers of Valentinus believed in it.[94] The followers of Bardaisan of Mesopotamia, a sect of the 2nd century deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, drew upon Chaldean astrology, to which Bardaisan's son Harmonius, educated in Athens, added Greek ideas including a sort of metempsychosis. Another such teacher was Basilides (132–? CE/AD), known to us through the criticisms of Irenaeus and the work of Clement of Alexandria. (see also Neoplatonism and Gnosticism and Buddhism and Gnosticism)

Around the 11-12th century several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of the Inquisition in the Latin west. These included the Cathar, Paterene or Albigensian church of western Europe, the Paulician movement, which arose in Armenia,[95] and the Bogomils in Bulgaria.[96]

Mani

In the third Christian century Manichaeism spread both east and west from Babylonia, then within the Sassanid Empire, where its founder Mani lived about 216–276. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 A.D. Noting Mani's early travels to the Kushan Empire and other Buddhist influences in Manichaeism, Richard Foltz[97] attributes Mani's teaching of reincarnation to Buddhist influence. However the inter-relation of Manicheanism, Orphism, Gnosticism and neo-Platonism is far from clear.

Christian sects such as the Bogomils and the Cathars, who professed reincarnation and other gnostic beliefs, were referred to as "Manichean", and are today sometimes described by scholars as "Neo-Manichean".[98] As there is no known Manichaean mythology or terminology in the writings of these groups there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups truly were descendants of Manichaeism.[99]

The Muslim world

The idea of reincarnation is accepted by several Muslim sects, particularly of the extreme Sh'ia, (Ghulat), and other sects in the Muslim world. In Nizari Ismailism the doctrine is seen in some devotional/gnostic verses (Ginans). Historically, South Asian Isma'ilis performed chantas yearly, one of which is for sins committed in past lives.[100] (Aga Khan IV) Sinan ibn Salman ibn Muhammad, also known as Rashid al-Din Sinan, (r. 1162-92) subscribed to the transmigration of souls as a tenet of the Alawi,[101] who are thought to have been influenced by Isma'ilism. Ya’furiyya Shia are also reincarnationists.

QURAN:56. The Inevitable Event (Al-Wáqiá): "60. We have decreed Death to be your common lot, and We are not to be frustrated,61. From changing your Forms and creating you (again) in (forms) that ye know not."

Some verses of the Quran are held to support the theory of reincarnation[102] Other verses seem to discount the idea[103] The principle is rejected by mainstream Sunni and twelver Shi'a denominations, but some Sunni Sufi mystics and poets have celebrated similar ideas:

I died as mineral and became a plant,
I died as plant and rose to animal,
I died as animal and I was man.
Why should I fear?
When was I less by dying? [104]

Modern Sufis who embrace the idea of reincarnation include Bawa Muhaiyadeen.[105] However Hazrat Inayat Khan has criticized the idea as unhelpful to the spiritual seeker.[106]

Reincarnation also exists in the Druze religion, which broke from Ismailism. The Druze believe that they will be reincarnated as Druze, their own future descendants. The five-colored Druze star, intelligence/reason (green), soul (red), word (yellow), precedent (blue), and immanence (white), stands for five different spirits that, until recently, have been continuously reincarnated on Earth as prophets and philosophers including Adam, Pythagoras and Akhenaten, personified in five people who came down together to Earth to teach humans the true path to God, though with them came five other individuals who would lead people away from the right path into darkness. It is believed that the number of the world's population is stable. It is not necessary to remember past lives, but it may occur in cases of violent or unnatural death.

Ashkenazi Judaism

The Ark in the Ari (Isaac Luria) Ashkenazi Synagogue in Safed. Luria fully expounded the Kabbalistic doctrine of gilgul
See also: Kabbalah § Human soul in Kabbalah

Reincarnation is not an essential tenet of traditional Judaism. It is not mentioned in the Tanakh ("Hebrew Bible"), the classical rabbinic works (Mishnah and Talmud), or Maimonides' 13 Principles of Faith, though the tale of the Ten Martyrs in the Yom Kippur liturgy, who were killed by Romans to atone for the souls of the ten brothers of Joseph, is read in every Orthodox Jewish community. But books of Kabbalah — Jewish mysticism — teach a belief in gilgul and hence it is common in Hasidic Judaism, which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative.

The 16th-century systemisation of Cordoveran Kabbalah and the subsequent Lurianic Kabbalah replaced rationalistic medieval Jewish philosophy as the mainstream traditional Jewish theology both in scholarly circles and in the popular imagination. Esoteric explanations of gilgul were articulated as part of the metaphysical purpose of creation. Luria taught new explanations of gilgul and advocated identification of the reincarnations of historic Jewish figures that were compiled by Haim Vital in his Shaar HaGilgulim.[107] Gilgul is contrasted with the other processes in Kabbalah of Ibbur, the attachment of a second soul to an individual, and Dybuk, the exile of a soul.

In Kabbalism reincarnation is concerned with the process of rectification of the soul, tied to the Lurianic doctrine of the rectification of creation. Gilgul is a heavenly agreement with the individual soul. The true essence of anything is the divine spark within that gives it existence. Even a stone or leaf possesses a soul that "came into this world to receive a rectification". A soul may occasionally be exiled into such lower creatures. The most basic component of the soul, the nefesh, must leave at the cessation of blood production. There are four other soul components and different nations of the world possess different forms of souls with different purposes. Each Jewish soul is reincarnated in order to fulfil each of the commandments that elevate a particular spark of holiness associated with each commandment. Once all the Sparks are redeemed to their spiritual source, the Messianic Era begins.

Rabbis who accepted reincarnation include the mystical leaders Nahmanides (the Ramban) and Rabbenu Bahya ben Asher, Levi ibn Habib (the Ralbah), Shelomoh Alkabez, Yisrael Baal Shem Tov, later Hasidic masters and the Vilna Gaon. Chaim ibn Attar, in his commentary on the Torah identifies Moses as the reborn Abel and Rabbi Akiva as Cain. Moshe Teitelbaum of Ujhel (1759–1841) said he had been incarnated three times, first as a sheep in the flock of Jacob, second in the time of Moses and third in the time of the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem. The contemporary Kabbalist Yitzchak Ginsburgh identifies Isaac Newton as the modern reincarnation of Noah on his website.[108] Rabbis who have rejected the idea include Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud and Leon de Modena. Among the Geonim, Hai Gaon argued with Saadia Gaon in favour of gilgulim.

Taoism and the Native American nations

Taoist documents from as early as the Han Dynasty claimed that Lao Tzu appeared on earth as different persons in different times beginning in the legendary era of Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. The (ca. 3rd century BCE) Chuang Tzu states: "Birth is not a beginning; death is not an end. There is existence without limitation; there is continuity without a starting-point. Existence without limitation is Space. Continuity without a starting point is Time. There is birth, there is death, there is issuing forth, there is entering in."[109]

Reincarnation is an intrinsic part of many Native American and Inuit traditions.[citation needed] In the now heavily Christian Polar North (now mainly parts of Greenland and Nunavut), the concept of reincarnation is enshrined in the Inuit language.[citation needed]

The following is a story of human-to-human reincarnation as told by Thunder Cloud, a Winnebago shaman referred to as T. C. in the narrative. Here T. C. talks about his two previous lives and how he died and came back again to this his third lifetime. He describes his time between lives, when he was “blessed” by Earth Maker and all the abiding spirits and given special powers, including the ability to heal the sick.

T. C.’s Account of His Two Reincarnations

I (my ghost) was taken to the place where the sun sets (the west). ... While at that place, I thought I would come back to earth again, and the old man with whom I was staying said to me, “My son, did you not speak about wanting to go to the earth again?” I had, as a matter of fact, only thought of it, yet he knew what I wanted. Then he said to me, “You can go, but you must ask the chief first.” Then I went and told the chief of the village of my desire, and he said to me, “You may go and obtain your revenge upon the people who killed your relatives and you.” Then I was brought down to earth. ... There I lived until I died of old age. ... As I was lying [in my grave], someone said to me, “Come, let us go away.” So then we went toward the setting of the sun. There we came to a village where we met all the dead. ... From that place I came to this earth again for the third time, and here I am. (Radin, 1923)[110]

Later movements

Theosophy

The Theosophical Society, the first institution in the modern west to spread the concept of reincarnation, draws much of its inspiration from India. The idea is, according to a recent Theosophical writer, "the master-key to modern problems," including heredity.[111] In the Theosophical world-view reincarnation is the vast rhythmic process by which the soul, the part of man which belongs to the formless non-material and timeless worlds, unfolds its spiritual powers in the world and comes to know itself. It descends from sublime, free, spiritual realms and gathers experience through its effort to express itself in the world. Afterwards there is a withdrawal from the physical plane to successively higher levels of Reality, in death, a purification and assimilation of the past life. Having cast off all instruments of personal experience it stands again in its spiritual and formless nature, ready to begin its next rhythmic manifestation, every lifetime bringing it closer to complete self-knowledge and self-expression. However it may attract old mental, emotional, and energetic karma patterns to form the new personality.

Modern Christian teachings

A few modern churches indirectly address the subject through teachings about death (see Particular judgment) or consider the matter open to individual interpretation due to the few biblical references that survive. Among modern Christian-oriented teachings, the Anthroposophy of Rudolf Steiner describes the human soul as gaining new experiences in every epoch and in a variety of races or nations, searching for and even preparing a familial lineage supportive of its future life. Some events are determined by our past, others are ordained to prepare us for the future, and between these is space for human free will. Steiner wrote on the karma of historical individuals from Karl Marx to Julian the Apostate and developed exercises intended to develop a capacity to discern past lives.[112] The American mystic Edgar Cayce promoted reincarnation and karma as instruments of a loving God as well as natural laws - the purpose being to teach us certain spiritual lessons. Animals are said to have undifferentiated, "group" souls rather than individuality and consciousness.

Neopaganism

Today, most[weasel words] Wiccans, Witches, Occulists, and Modern Traditional Pagans seem to have the common belief that when one dies they do not always move on to a different plane of existence, but that they are reincarnated into another human, animal, or living creature. Some, Wiccans in particular, believe when they die they move onto a place called Summerland, temporarily, to rest and prepare for their next incarnation. Many Pagans believe that they will incarnate many lifetimes, until they have experienced all there is to experience, until they move on to a higher plane of existence. The ethnic neopagan Lithuanian faith, Romuva, accepts reincarnation as the most probable form of existence after death.

Scientology

See also: Scientology beliefs and practices.

Past reincarnation, usually termed "past lives", is a key part of the principles and practices of the Church of Scientology. Scientologists believe that the human individual is actually an immortal thetan, or spiritual entity, that has fallen into a degraded state as a result of past-life experiences. Scientology auditing is intended to free the person of these past-life traumas and recover past-life memory, leading to a higher state of spiritual awareness. This idea is echoed in their highest fraternal religious order, the Sea Organization, whose motto is "Revenimus" or "We Come Back", and whose members sign a "billion-year contract" as a sign of commitment to that ideal. L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of Scientology, does not use the word "reincarnation" to describe its beliefs, noting that: "The common definition of reincarnation has been altered from its original meaning. The word has come to mean 'to be born again in different life forms' whereas its actual definition is 'to be born again into the flesh of another body.' Scientology ascribes to this latter, original definition of reincarnation."[113]

The first writings in Scientology regarding past lives date from around 1951 and slightly earlier. In 1960, Hubbard published a book on past lives entitled Have You Lived Before This Life. In 1968 he wrote Mission Into Time, a report on a five-week sailing expedition to Sardinia, Sicily and Carthage to see if specific evidence could be found to substantiate L. Ron Hubbard's recall of incidents in his own past, centuries ago.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Charles Taliaferro, Paul Draper, Philip L. Quinn, A Companion to Philosophy of Religion. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, page 640: [1]. For the Buddha's reprimand of a disciple who claimed that the same consciousness transmigrates without change, see Richard Gombrich, How Buddhism began: the conditioned genesis of the early teachings. Continuum International Publishing Group, 1996, page 47. Google books: [2]. For a contemporary Buddhist teacher's discussion of the difference between Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, see Ajahn Sumedho, The mind and the way: Buddhist reflections on life. Wisdom Publications, 1995, page 52: [3].
  2. ^ Gananath Obeyesekere, Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth. University of California Press, 2002, page 15.
  3. ^ a b Shroder, Tom. Ian Stevenson; Sought To Document Memories Of Past Lives in Children, The Washington Post, February 11, 2007.
  4. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica
  5. ^ Gödel Exhibition: Gödel's Century
  6. ^ Heart of Hinduism: Reincarnation and Samsara
  7. ^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 9780884897255.
  8. ^ Teachings of Queen Kunti by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, Chapter 18 "To become Brahma is not a very easy thing.... But he is also a living entity like us."
  9. ^ "Reincarnation in Buddhism: What the Buddha Didn't Teach" By Barbara O'Brien, About.com
  10. ^ Transform Your Life: A Blissful Journey, pages 52-55), Tharpa Publications (2001, US ed. 2007) ISBN 978-0-9789067-4-0
  11. ^ The Five Precepts
  12. ^ http://www.mullasadra.org/new_site/english/Paper%20Bank/Anthropology/kennedy%20day.htm
  13. ^ Gavin D. Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press (1996), p.86, UK ISBN 0521438780 - "The origin of the doctrines of Karma and Samsara are obscure."
  14. ^ Gavin D. Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press (1996), UK ISBN 0521438780 p. 86 - "These concepts were certainly circulating among the Sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions."
  15. ^ Padmanabh S. Jaini, Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies, Motilal Banarsidass 2001, ISBN 8120817761: "the doctrine of karma... can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin." Page 51.
  16. ^ Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass, p.135, ISBN 8120811046: "Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals of Karma, Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought..."
  17. ^ "As is now almost universally accepted by informed Indological scholarship, a re-examination of early Buddhist historical material, ..., necessitates a redating of the Buddha's death to between 411 and 400 BCE." Paul Dundas, The Jains, 2nd edition, (Routledge, 2001), p. 24.
  18. ^ Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic, Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. Wayman... traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some later literature."
  19. ^ Gavin D. Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press (1996), UK ISBN 0521438780 p. 86 - "A third alternative is that the origin of transmigration theory lies outside of vedic or sramana traditions in the tribal religions of the Ganges valley, or even in Dravidian traditions of south India."
  20. ^ M. Dillon and N. Chadwick, The Celtic Realms, Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, passim
  21. ^ Isaac Bonewits, Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism, Citadel, 2006.
  22. ^ Diodorius Siculus v.28.6; Hippolytus Philosophumena i.25.
  23. ^ Donald A.Mackenzie, Buddhism in pre-Christian Britain (1928:21).
  24. ^ Reincarnation: Socrates to Salinger
  25. ^ Arvind Sharma's review of Hajime Nakamura's A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul., 1987), page 330.
  26. ^ "Yoga Sutras 3.17-3.37: Experiences from Samyama". Retrieved 2008-12-15.
  27. ^ Osho (n.d.). The Alchemy of Yoga: Commentaries on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Diamond Pocket Books Ltd. pp. 129-152. ISBN 8128806696. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |chaptertitle= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  28. ^ Kumar, R (2000). Kundalini for Beginners: The Shortest Path to Self-Realization (For Beginners). Llewellyn Publications. pp. 115-130. ISBN 1-56718-435-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |chaptertitle= ignored (help)
  29. ^ Schibli, S., Hermann, Pherekydes of Syros, p. 104, Oxford Univ. Press 2001
  30. ^ "The dates of his life cannot be fixed exactly, but assuming the approximate correctness of the statement of Aristoxenus (ap. Porph. V.P. 9) that he left Samos to escape the tyranny of Polycrates at the age of forty, we may put his birth round about 570 BC, or a few years earlier. The length of his life was variously estimated in antiquity, but it is agreed that he lived to a fairly ripe old age, and most probably he died at about seventy-five or eighty." William Keith Chambers Guthrie, (1978), A history of Greek philosophy, Volume 1: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, page 173. Cambridge University Press
  31. ^ "the souls must always be the same, for if none be destroyed they will not diminish in number." Republic X, 611. The Republic of Plato By Plato, Benjamin Jowett Edition: 3 Published by Clarendon press, 1888.
  32. ^ In a letter to his friend George Whatley written May 23, 1785: Jennifer T. Kennedy, Death Effects: Revisiting the conceit of Franklin's Memoir, Early American Literature, 2001. JSTOR
  33. ^ Marsilio Ficino, Platonic Theology, 17.3-4
  34. ^ "Again, Rosalind in "As You Like It" (Act III., Scene 2), says: I was never so be-rhimed that I can remember since Pythagoras's time, when I was an Irish rat" — alluding to the doctrine of the transmigration of souls." William H. Grattan Flood, quoted at http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishMusic/XVII-2.php
  35. ^ Boulting, 1914. pp. 163-64
  36. ^ Schopenhauer, A: "Parerga und Paralipomena" (Eduard Grisebach edition), On Religion, Section 177
  37. ^ Nietzsche and the Doctrine of Metempsychosis, in J. Urpeth & J. Lippitt, Nietzsche and the Divine, Manchester: Clinamen, 2000
  38. ^ a b http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article-318
  39. ^ David Hammerman, Lisa Lenard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Reincarnation, Penguin, p.34. For relevant works by James, see; William James, Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897), The Will to Believe, Human Immortality (1956) Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20291-7, The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature (1902), ISBN 0-14-039034-0, Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912) Dover Publications 2003, ISBN 0-486-43094-4
  40. ^ a b Berger, Arthur S. (1991). The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research. Paragon House Publishers. ISBN 1557780439. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  41. ^ Richmal Crompton, More William, GEORGE NEWNES, LONDON, 1924, XIII. William and the Ancient Souls;"The memory usually came in a flash. For instance, you might remember in a flash when you were looking at a box of matches that you had been Guy Fawkes."
  42. ^ Théodore Flournoy, Des Indes à la planète Mars, Étude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie, Éditions Alcan et Eggimann, Paris et Genève, 1900
  43. ^ a b c d Cadoret, R (2005). "Book Forum: Ethics, Values, and Religion - European Cases of the Reincarnation Type". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 162 (4): 823–4.
  44. ^ Carroll RT (2003). The Skeptic's Dictionary: a collection of strange beliefs, amusing deceptions, and dangerous delusions. New York: Wiley. pp. 276–7. ISBN 0-471-27242-6.
  45. ^ a b Tucker, Jim (2005). Life before life: a scientific investigation of children's memories of previous lives. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-32137-6.
  46. ^ Shroder, T (2007-02-11). "Ian Stevenson; Sought To Document Memories Of Past Lives in Children". The Washington Post.
  47. ^ Rockley, R (2002-11-01). "Book Review: Children who remember previous lives, A question of reincarnation, Ian Stevenson". Skeptic Report. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
  48. ^ Fox, Margalit. Ian Stevenson Dies at 88; Studied Claims of Past Lives, The New York Times, February 18, 2007.
  49. ^ Brody, Eugene B. Research in Reincarnation and Editorial Responsibility: An Editorial, The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. September, 1977.
  50. ^ Lief, Harold. Commentary on Ian Stevenson’s "The Evidence of Man’s Survival After Death", The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.
  51. ^ Janice Hopkins Tanne. Obituaries: Ian Pretyman Stevenson, psychiatrist who researched reincarnation with scientific rigour, British Medical Journal. April 2, 2007.
  52. ^ Template:PDFlink
  53. ^ Tony Walter and Helen Waterhouse, "A Very Private Belief: Reincarnation in Contemporary England". Sociology of Religion, Vol. 60, 1999
  54. ^ a b c Popular psychology, belief in life after death and reincarnation in the Nordic countries, Western and Eastern Europe
  55. ^ China Regulates Buddhist Reincarnation
  56. ^ Lynda Obst (2006). "Valentine to science - interview with Carl Sagan". Interview. p. 2. Retrieved 20 May 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  57. ^ Bhagavad Gita II.22, ISBN 1-56619-670-1
  58. ^ See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20
  59. ^ Rinehart, Robin, ed., Contemporary Hinduism19-21 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8
  60. ^ Karel Werner, A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism 110 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
  61. ^ Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9
  62. ^ "The sudden appearance of this theory [of karma] in a full-fledged form is likely to be due, as already pointed out, to an impact of the wandering muni-and-shramana-cult, coming down from the pre-Vedic non-Aryan time." Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1998, page 76.
  63. ^ The many references in early Buddhist scriptures include; Mahakammavibhanga Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 136); Upali Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 56); Kukkuravatika Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 57); Moliyasivaka Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 36.21); Sankha Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 42.8). For an explicit rejection of this view in the early texts see David J. Kalupahana, Causality--the central philosophy of Buddhism. University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 119.
  64. ^ Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (London: Gordon Fraser Limited, 1990), p. 51
  65. ^ (M.1.256) "Post-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism." by Bruce Matthews. in Karma and Rebirth: Post-Classical Developments State Univ of New York Press: 1986 ISBN 0873959906 pg 125
  66. ^ Collins, Steven. Selfless persons: imagery and thought in Theravāda Buddhism Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 052139726X pg 215[4]
  67. ^ (D.3.105) "Post-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism. by Bruce Matthews. in Karma and Rebirth: Post-Classical Developments State Univ of New York Press: 1986 ISBN 0873959906 pg 125
  68. ^ Tucker, 2005, p.216
  69. ^ PTS: Miln 71-72; 82-83; 84 (Pali Canon)
  70. ^ His Holiness the Dalai Lama, How to Practice: The Way to a Meaningful Life (New York: Atria Books, 2002), p. 46
  71. ^ Bruce Matthews in Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, editor, Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments. SUNY Press, 1986, page 125. Google.com
  72. ^ Rahula, p. 144
  73. ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, [5].
  74. ^ Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press 1995, page 247.
  75. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 1, p. 377
  76. ^ The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Translator. Wisdom Publications
  77. ^ Transform Your Life: A Blissful Journey, page 52), Tharpa Publications (2001, US ed. 2007) ISBN 978-0-9789067-4-0
  78. ^ Reincarnation as understood by Sikh Religion
  79. ^ Edwards, L. (2001). A Brief Guide to Beliefs: Ideas, Theologies, Mysteries, and Movements. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664222595.
  80. ^ Linforth, Ivan M. (1941) The Arts of Orpheus Arno Press, New York, OCLC 514515
  81. ^ Long, Herbert S. (1948) A Study of the doctrine of metempsychosis in Greece, from Pythagoras to Plato (Long's 1942 Ph.D. dissertation) Princeton, New Jersey, OCLC 1472399
  82. ^ Long, Herbert S. (16 February 1948) "Plato's Doctrine of Metempsychosis and Its Source" The Classical Weekly 41(10): pp. 149—155
  83. ^ Menander, The Inspired Woman
  84. ^ Lucian, Gallus, 18 et seq.
  85. ^ Poesch, Jessie (1962) "Ennius and Basinio of Parma" Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 25(1/2): pp. 116—118, page 117, FN15
  86. ^ Lucretius, (i. 124)
  87. ^ Horace, Epistles, II. i. 52
  88. ^ Virgil, The Aeneid, vv. 724 et seq.
  89. ^ Bellow's translation of Helgakviða Hundingsbana II.
  90. ^ Julius Caesar, "De Bello Gallico", VI
  91. ^ Reincarnation in Christianity: A New Vision of Rebirth in Christian Thought
  92. ^ In Matthew 11:10-14 and 17:10-13, John 1:21
  93. ^ see Hebrews 9:27 and Luke 16:20–31
  94. ^ Much of this is documented in R.E. Slater's book Paradise Reconsidered.
  95. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11583b.htm
  96. ^ Steven Runciman, The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy, 1982, isbn=0521289262, Cambridge University Press, The Bogomils, http://books.google.com/books?id=d1LGB7u5iD0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=mediaeval+manichee&cd=1
  97. ^ Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road
  98. ^ For example Dondaine, Antoine. O.P. Un traite neo-manicheen du XIIIe siecle: Le Liber de duobus principiis, suivi d'un fragment de rituel Cathare (Rome: Institutum Historicum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 1939)
  99. ^ http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm
  100. ^ CHAR JOOG NO CHANTO - Seeking forgiveness for sins from past lives
  101. ^ Wasserman, James (2001). The Templars and the Assassins - The Militia of Heaven. Inner Traditions International. pp. 133–137. ISBN 0-89281-859-X.
  102. ^ e.g. 3:27 "Thou [God] makest the night to pass into the day and Thou makest the day to pass into the night, and Thou bringest forth the living from the dead and Thou bringest forth the dead from the living, and Thou givest sustenance to whom Thou pleasest without measure."
  103. ^ e.g. 20:55 "From the (earth) did We Create you, and into it Shall We return you, And from it shall We Bring you out once again"
  104. ^ Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi - Nicholson, 1950, p. 103
  105. ^ see his To Die Before Death: The Sufi Way of Life
  106. ^ Gnostic liberation front The Sufi Message of Hazrat Inayat Khan
  107. ^ Sha'ar Ha'Gilgulim, The Gate of Reincarnations, Chaim Vital
  108. ^ From Noah's Rainbow to Isaac Newton's Prism at www.inner.org. Retrieved October 2009
  109. ^ tr. Giles 1889, p. 304
  110. ^ Jefferson, Warren (2008). Reincarnation beliefs of North American Indians : soul journeys, metamorphoses, and near-death experiences. Native Voices. ISBN 1570672121.
  111. ^ Theosophy and reincarnation
  112. ^ Steiner, various dates
  113. ^ Does Scientology believe in reincarnation or past lives?

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  • Nikhilananda, Swami. Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9
  • Prophet, Elizabeth Clare, Erin L. Prophet, Reincarnation: The Missing Link in Christianity, 1997, ISBN 0-922729-27-1
  • Palamidessi Tommaso, The Memory of Past Lives and Its Technique, ed. Archeosofica, 1977
  • Palamidessi Tommaso, Reincarnation And Christianity
  • Ramster, Peter, In Search of Lives Past, ISBN 0-646-00021-7
  • Rinehart, Robin, ed., Contemporary Hinduism, (2004).
  • Roberts, Jane. Seth Speaks: The Eternal Validity of the Soul, (1972). ISBN 1-878424-07-6
  • Semkiw, Walter, Return of the Revolutionaries: The Case for Reincarnation and Soul Groups Reunited, 2003, ISBN 1-57174-342-1
  • Steiner, Rudolf, Karmic Relationships: Esoteric studies, 8 volumes, various dates, Rudolf Steiner Press. ISBN 0-85440-260-8 and others.
  • Steiner, Rudolf, A Western Approach to Reincarnation and Karma: selected lectures and writings; ed. and intr. by René Querido. Hudson, NY: Anthroposophic Press, c1997, ISBN 0-88010-399-X
  • Steinpach, Richard, Hidden Connections Determine Our Earth-Life, 1988, ISBN 1-57461-013-9
  • Stevenson, Ian (1980). Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation, second (revised and enlarged) edition, University of Virginia Press. ISBN 9780813908724
  • Taylor, Michael, "Master of the Rose", Comstar Media LLC, 1997–2007, ISBN 1-933866-07-1
  • Tucker, Jim, (2005). Life Before Life: A Scientific Investigation of Children's Memories of Previous Lives, ISBN 0-312-32137-6
  • Van Lommel, Pim. (2001). "Near-death experience in survivors of cardiac arrest: a prospective study in the Netherlands." The Lancet. 358: 2039-45.
  • Braude, S.E. (1992). "Claims of Reincarnation: An Empirical Study of Cases in India". The Journal of Parapsychology. 56 (4). Retrieved 27 January 2008.
  • Weiss, Brian L., Only Love is real: the story of soulmates reunited, 1996, ISBN 0-446-51945-6
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