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Histology of cerebral cortex

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This document provides an overview of the structure and cell types of the cerebral cortex. It begins with an introduction to the basic structure of neurons and the central nervous system. It then describes the six layers of the neocortex and the principal cell types found within each layer, including pyramidal cells, stellate cells, and others. The interconnections between neurons and various staining techniques used to visualize cortical components are also summarized. Finally, several common diseases that affect the cerebral cortex are briefly mentioned.

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PRESENTED BY- DR.A.RAMYA (First year pg) - CHAIRPERSON - DR.M.RAMANI (Prof) MODERATORS - DR.DEVENDER REDDY (Assoc.Prof) DR.NEELIMA (Asst.Prof)
INTRODUCTION  The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are composed of neurons, the supporting glial cells and blood vessels.  Basic structure of a neuron consists of -cell body -dendrites -axon
 Structure of Neuron
Basic neuron types -Based on the arrangement of the axon and dendrites, with respect to cell body.
ULTRASTRUCTURE OF NEURON .
CEREBRAL CORTEX  The cerebral hemispheres consists of a convoluted cortex of grey matter overlying central medullary mass of white matter.  The grey matter consists of neuron cell bodies and their dendritic interconnections & glial cells.  The white matter conveys fibers between different parts of the cortex and from other parts of CNS.
Contd..  The cortex is a thin layer of neurons and their inter connections, measuring few mm and contains 3o billion neurons.  The evolved cortex in mammals called neocortex consists of 6 layers of neurons.
Histology of cerebral cortex
HISTOLOGY OF GREY MATTER .
TYPES OF CORTEX  Neocortex  >90 % of our total cortical area. -6 layered structure. -Refered to as homogenic cortex.  Paleocortex  Covers some parts of the base of the telencephalon.(olfactory area) -Forms heterogenic cortex.  archicortex  The hippocampal formation.
Neuron Cell types  Two principal cell types are present in neo cortex.  1.The pyramidal cell  2.The Stellate cell  Other cells are  3. The cells of Martinotti  4.Fusiform cells  5.Horizontal cells of cajal
. .
1. Pyramidal Cell 2. Fusiform Cell 3. Granular (Stellate) Cell 4. Horizontal Cell of Cajal 5. Cells of Martinotti a: axon
PYRAMIDAL CELLS  Pyramid shaped cell bodies.  About 10 microns to 70 microns in diameter.  Axon arises from the base and the dendrite from the apex.  The largest of the pyramidal cells are called the BETZ cells.
Functions of pyramidal cels  The apical dendrites of pyramidal cells are studded with dendritic spines.  These are numerous small projections that are the preferential site of synaptic contact.  It has been suggested that dendritic spines may be the sites of synapses that are selectively modified as a result of learning.  Most or all pyramidal cells have long axons that leave the cortex to reach either other cortical areas or to various subcortical sites.  Therefore, pyramidal cells are the principal output neurons.
STELLATE CELLS -Also known as granular cells. -They are the principal interneurons of cortex . -These come in a wide assortment of shapes. -They are typically small (< 10 micrometres) multipolar neurons.
FUNCTIONS OF STELLATE CELLS  The short axons of stellate cells do not leave the cortex.  Stellate cells are the principal interneurons of the neocortex.
CELLS OF MARTINOTTI  Small polygonal cells.  Have very few short dendrites.  The axon extends towards the surface and bifurcate to run horizontally in most superficial layers.  Forms synapses with the pyramidal cells.
FUSIFORM CELLS  Spindle shaped cells.  They are oriented at right angles to the cortex.  Axon arises from the side of the cell body and passes superficially.  Dendrites extend from each end of the cell body branching into deeper and more superficial layers.  Functions are similar to that of pyramidal cells.
HORIZONTAL CELLS OF CAJAL (OR) RETZIUS CAJAL CELLS  Small ,spindle shaped.  Oriented parallel to the surface.  Least common cell type.  Found only in most superficial layer.  Axons pass laterally to synapse with dendrites of pyramidal cells.  They are prominent during development, but disappear after birth.
LAYERS OF NEOCORTEX Differing in neuron morphology, size and population density, there are 6 layers in the neocortex. 1.plexiform or molecular layer 2.outer granular layer 3.outer pyramidal cell layer 4.inner granular layer 5.inner pyramidal cell layer/ganglion cell layer 6.multiform cell layer -The six neocortical layers are not equally prominent everywhere. They form granular & agranular layers.
Histology of cerebral cortex
1.PLEXIFORM LAYER  Most superficial layer.  Contains many dendritic and axonal synapses with one another.  Sparse nuclei are seen that belongs to neuroglia.  Occasional horizontal cells of cajal are seen.
2.OUTER GRANULAR LAYER  Dense population of small pyramidal cells and stellate cells.  Also contains various axons and dendritic connections.
3.PYRAMIDAL CELL LAYER  Moderate sized pyramidal cells predominate.  Large pyramidal cells are present in further deeper layers.  Martinotti cells are also present.
4.INNER GRANULAR LAYER  Consists of densely packed stellate cells.
5.GANGLIONIC LAYER  Large pyramidal cells  Stellate cells (few)  Cells of martinotti  Huge pyramidal Betz cells of motor cortex are present. Hence the name ganglion cell layer.
6.MULTIFORM CELL LAYER  All morphological forms are found in this layer.  Fusiform cells in deeper and other cells are present superficially in this layer.
Histology of cerebral cortex
Histology of cerebral cortex
Histology of cerebral cortex
Layer 4&5 .
Histology of cerebral cortex
INTERCONNECTIONS OF CORTEX  Afferent fibers synapse high(superficially) in the cortex with dendrites of efferent neuron.  Efferent fibers, typically the axons of pyramidal cells tend to give off branches.  These branches pass back into the superficial layers to communicate with their own dendrites.  This can be via interneuronal connectins or involving other cortical cell types.
. .
Contd…  Afferent Input Efferent Output Association nuclei(Thalamus) - corticothalamic fibers Other cortical areas - corticocortical fibers Intralaminar nuclei(Thalamus) - corticostriate fibers to brainstem & spinal cord
NEUROGLIAL CELLS  In addition to neurons, the cortex contains supporting neuroglial cells.  They are-  1. Astrocytes  2. Oligodendroglial cells  3. Microglial cells  4. Ependymal cells
ASTROCYTES Function(s): .  Most numerous glial cells in ..Supply of nutrients to the grey matter. neurons.  The nucleus is round to oval ..Removes excess with open chromatin and neurotransmitters ..Maintains appropriate balance peripheral nucleoli. of Ca2+ and K+  The cytoplasm is highly ions (which are important in passing nerve branched that occupy most impulses at synapses). of the neuropil - ..Helps migration of neurons during braindevelopment. protoplasmic astrocytes ..Aids formation of the  The foot process act as BBB blood-brain barrier. called glia limitans.
Histology of cerebral cortex
Histology of cerebral cortex
OLIGODENDROCYTES -Found mainly adjacent to neurons/axon. -FUNCTION- myelination of neurons. -They develop an artifactural vacuolisation around nuclei thus a halo appears around the nucleus. -They are relatively large cells with dispersed nuclear chromatin and perinuclear halo. -They also aggregate around nerve cell bodies in grey matter and function as supporting cells.
MICROGLIAL CELLS  Small cells of mesenchymal origin. - Have elongated nuclei and relatively little cytoplasm. - The cytoplasm forms fine, highly branched processes. - In response to tissue damage, they transform into large amoeboid phagocytic cells. Protects neurons from disease process. - They function as scavengers of nervous system. - CNS representatives of macrophage monocyte defence system.
EPENDYMAL CELLS FUNCTIONS -Protection: Forms lining of the ventricles of the brain and -Forms the epithelial lining of central canal of the spinal cord. ventricles and spinal cord. Forms cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). -Aids circulation of cerebrospinal -Cuboidal or low columnar in fluid (CSF). shape. -cells are bound at the luminal surface by epithelial junctional complexes. –The bases of cells taper and break into fine branches which ramify into underlying layer of astrocytic processes.
Staining of components of nervous system  NEURON:  General architecture -routine H&E stain.  Hematoxylin & von Giesan stain - highlights vascular changes. - emphasises myelin staining. - provides cellular cytology.  Nissl’s substance-basic dyes-methylene blue, toluedene blue, neurtal red, cresyl violet
CRESYL VIOLET, TOLUEDENE BLUE AND HEAVY METAL IMPREGNATION METHOD
HEAVY METAL IMPREGNATION TECHNIQUE WITH GOLD  HMI techniques with gold and silver are valuable in the study of neuronal morphology.  Cajal and Golgi are the pioneers of neuroanatomy who employed these techniques.
Contd..  IHC OF NEURONS  Anti-neurofilament antibody staining- Nf 70, Nf 150, Nf 200(cytoskeletal protiens)  Ab to neuron specific enolase(cytoplasmic protiens)  Protiens associated with neurosecretory granules Chromogranin A Synaptophysin
IHC- ANTIBODY TO NEUROFILAMENT PROTEIN Nf-70
Contd..  For staining axons and neuronal processes – block impregnation method—ammonical silver soln.  Biclschowsky’s silver stain(silver nitrate soln)– neuro fibrils, dendrites & axons in parrafin &frozen sections. (Stains black)  Eriksons staining for axons(ammonical silver soln)  Earer’s method for staining degenerated nerve fibers- stains brown to black(N-pale yellow)  Myelin-solochrome cyanin+ aq. Iron alum—stains myelin sheaths blue.
SILVER STAINED SECTION OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
SPECIAL STAINS FOR NEUROGLIAL TISSUE  ASTROCYTES- Normal- Cajals gold sublimate. reactive/gliosis- lithium carbonate technique, silver staining, PTAH(phospho tungstic acid hematoxylin)  Astroglial neoplasms-GFAP immunoperoxidase.  PTAH-stains astrocyte fibrils, nuclei,myelin- blue & neurons- pink  Cajal’s stain fibrous & protoplasmic astrocytes dark purple to black( background- light purple)
ASTROCYTES-IHC Staining for GFAP
Contd..  EPENDYMAL CELLS-iron hematoxylin/PTAH/GFAP immunoperoxidase.  OLIGODENDROCYTES- H&E, toluedene blue.  MICROGLIA-silver techniques, macrophage marker CD68.
DISEASES OF CEREBRAL CORTEX  Alzheimers’s disease- senile plaques,neurofibrillary tangles.  Lewy body dementia-Neuronal inclusions in cerebral cortex.  Huntingtons disease- polyglutamin containing inclusions.  Vascular dementia- multiple cerebral infarcts.  NEOPLASMS- astrocytoma, oligodendrocytoma.  Picks disease, tau-pathies, prion disease.
CEREBRAL INFARCT
Silver stain – Alzheimers disease
-  Amyloid deposition in cortical arteriole in CEREBRAL AMYLOID ANGIOPATHY  IHC Stain for A-beta deposits
OLIGODENRROGLIOMA
Astrocytoma
Silver stain-PICK DISEASE showing Pick bodies(inclusions)
PRION DISEASE- Cortical plaques surrounded by spongiform change in vCJD.
REFERENCE  WHEATERS functional histology – Page399,123-127 5th edition.  Text book of histology- I.B.SINGH  JOHN D.BANCROFT- theory and practice of histological techniques-5th edition.  ROBBINS & COTRAN-8th edition  INTERNET
- -THANK YOU

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Histology of cerebral cortex

  • 1. PRESENTED BY- DR.A.RAMYA (First year pg) - CHAIRPERSON - DR.M.RAMANI (Prof) MODERATORS - DR.DEVENDER REDDY (Assoc.Prof) DR.NEELIMA (Asst.Prof)
  • 2. INTRODUCTION  The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are composed of neurons, the supporting glial cells and blood vessels.  Basic structure of a neuron consists of -cell body -dendrites -axon
  • 4. Basic neuron types -Based on the arrangement of the axon and dendrites, with respect to cell body.
  • 6. CEREBRAL CORTEX  The cerebral hemispheres consists of a convoluted cortex of grey matter overlying central medullary mass of white matter.  The grey matter consists of neuron cell bodies and their dendritic interconnections & glial cells.  The white matter conveys fibers between different parts of the cortex and from other parts of CNS.
  • 7. Contd..  The cortex is a thin layer of neurons and their inter connections, measuring few mm and contains 3o billion neurons.  The evolved cortex in mammals called neocortex consists of 6 layers of neurons.
  • 9. HISTOLOGY OF GREY MATTER .
  • 10. TYPES OF CORTEX  Neocortex  >90 % of our total cortical area. -6 layered structure. -Refered to as homogenic cortex.  Paleocortex  Covers some parts of the base of the telencephalon.(olfactory area) -Forms heterogenic cortex.  archicortex  The hippocampal formation.
  • 11. Neuron Cell types  Two principal cell types are present in neo cortex.  1.The pyramidal cell  2.The Stellate cell  Other cells are  3. The cells of Martinotti  4.Fusiform cells  5.Horizontal cells of cajal
  • 12. . .
  • 13. 1. Pyramidal Cell 2. Fusiform Cell 3. Granular (Stellate) Cell 4. Horizontal Cell of Cajal 5. Cells of Martinotti a: axon
  • 14. PYRAMIDAL CELLS  Pyramid shaped cell bodies.  About 10 microns to 70 microns in diameter.  Axon arises from the base and the dendrite from the apex.  The largest of the pyramidal cells are called the BETZ cells.
  • 15. Functions of pyramidal cels  The apical dendrites of pyramidal cells are studded with dendritic spines.  These are numerous small projections that are the preferential site of synaptic contact.  It has been suggested that dendritic spines may be the sites of synapses that are selectively modified as a result of learning.  Most or all pyramidal cells have long axons that leave the cortex to reach either other cortical areas or to various subcortical sites.  Therefore, pyramidal cells are the principal output neurons.
  • 16. STELLATE CELLS -Also known as granular cells. -They are the principal interneurons of cortex . -These come in a wide assortment of shapes. -They are typically small (< 10 micrometres) multipolar neurons.
  • 17. FUNCTIONS OF STELLATE CELLS  The short axons of stellate cells do not leave the cortex.  Stellate cells are the principal interneurons of the neocortex.
  • 18. CELLS OF MARTINOTTI  Small polygonal cells.  Have very few short dendrites.  The axon extends towards the surface and bifurcate to run horizontally in most superficial layers.  Forms synapses with the pyramidal cells.
  • 19. FUSIFORM CELLS  Spindle shaped cells.  They are oriented at right angles to the cortex.  Axon arises from the side of the cell body and passes superficially.  Dendrites extend from each end of the cell body branching into deeper and more superficial layers.  Functions are similar to that of pyramidal cells.
  • 20. HORIZONTAL CELLS OF CAJAL (OR) RETZIUS CAJAL CELLS  Small ,spindle shaped.  Oriented parallel to the surface.  Least common cell type.  Found only in most superficial layer.  Axons pass laterally to synapse with dendrites of pyramidal cells.  They are prominent during development, but disappear after birth.
  • 21. LAYERS OF NEOCORTEX Differing in neuron morphology, size and population density, there are 6 layers in the neocortex. 1.plexiform or molecular layer 2.outer granular layer 3.outer pyramidal cell layer 4.inner granular layer 5.inner pyramidal cell layer/ganglion cell layer 6.multiform cell layer -The six neocortical layers are not equally prominent everywhere. They form granular & agranular layers.
  • 23. 1.PLEXIFORM LAYER  Most superficial layer.  Contains many dendritic and axonal synapses with one another.  Sparse nuclei are seen that belongs to neuroglia.  Occasional horizontal cells of cajal are seen.
  • 24. 2.OUTER GRANULAR LAYER  Dense population of small pyramidal cells and stellate cells.  Also contains various axons and dendritic connections.
  • 25. 3.PYRAMIDAL CELL LAYER  Moderate sized pyramidal cells predominate.  Large pyramidal cells are present in further deeper layers.  Martinotti cells are also present.
  • 26. 4.INNER GRANULAR LAYER  Consists of densely packed stellate cells.
  • 27. 5.GANGLIONIC LAYER  Large pyramidal cells  Stellate cells (few)  Cells of martinotti  Huge pyramidal Betz cells of motor cortex are present. Hence the name ganglion cell layer.
  • 28. 6.MULTIFORM CELL LAYER  All morphological forms are found in this layer.  Fusiform cells in deeper and other cells are present superficially in this layer.
  • 34. INTERCONNECTIONS OF CORTEX  Afferent fibers synapse high(superficially) in the cortex with dendrites of efferent neuron.  Efferent fibers, typically the axons of pyramidal cells tend to give off branches.  These branches pass back into the superficial layers to communicate with their own dendrites.  This can be via interneuronal connectins or involving other cortical cell types.
  • 35. . .
  • 36. Contd…  Afferent Input Efferent Output Association nuclei(Thalamus) - corticothalamic fibers Other cortical areas - corticocortical fibers Intralaminar nuclei(Thalamus) - corticostriate fibers to brainstem & spinal cord
  • 37. NEUROGLIAL CELLS  In addition to neurons, the cortex contains supporting neuroglial cells.  They are-  1. Astrocytes  2. Oligodendroglial cells  3. Microglial cells  4. Ependymal cells
  • 38. ASTROCYTES Function(s): .  Most numerous glial cells in ..Supply of nutrients to the grey matter. neurons.  The nucleus is round to oval ..Removes excess with open chromatin and neurotransmitters ..Maintains appropriate balance peripheral nucleoli. of Ca2+ and K+  The cytoplasm is highly ions (which are important in passing nerve branched that occupy most impulses at synapses). of the neuropil - ..Helps migration of neurons during braindevelopment. protoplasmic astrocytes ..Aids formation of the  The foot process act as BBB blood-brain barrier. called glia limitans.
  • 41. OLIGODENDROCYTES -Found mainly adjacent to neurons/axon. -FUNCTION- myelination of neurons. -They develop an artifactural vacuolisation around nuclei thus a halo appears around the nucleus. -They are relatively large cells with dispersed nuclear chromatin and perinuclear halo. -They also aggregate around nerve cell bodies in grey matter and function as supporting cells.
  • 42. MICROGLIAL CELLS  Small cells of mesenchymal origin. - Have elongated nuclei and relatively little cytoplasm. - The cytoplasm forms fine, highly branched processes. - In response to tissue damage, they transform into large amoeboid phagocytic cells. Protects neurons from disease process. - They function as scavengers of nervous system. - CNS representatives of macrophage monocyte defence system.
  • 43. EPENDYMAL CELLS FUNCTIONS -Protection: Forms lining of the ventricles of the brain and -Forms the epithelial lining of central canal of the spinal cord. ventricles and spinal cord. Forms cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). -Aids circulation of cerebrospinal -Cuboidal or low columnar in fluid (CSF). shape. -cells are bound at the luminal surface by epithelial junctional complexes. –The bases of cells taper and break into fine branches which ramify into underlying layer of astrocytic processes.
  • 44. Staining of components of nervous system  NEURON:  General architecture -routine H&E stain.  Hematoxylin & von Giesan stain - highlights vascular changes. - emphasises myelin staining. - provides cellular cytology.  Nissl’s substance-basic dyes-methylene blue, toluedene blue, neurtal red, cresyl violet
  • 45. CRESYL VIOLET, TOLUEDENE BLUE AND HEAVY METAL IMPREGNATION METHOD
  • 46. HEAVY METAL IMPREGNATION TECHNIQUE WITH GOLD  HMI techniques with gold and silver are valuable in the study of neuronal morphology.  Cajal and Golgi are the pioneers of neuroanatomy who employed these techniques.
  • 47. Contd..  IHC OF NEURONS  Anti-neurofilament antibody staining- Nf 70, Nf 150, Nf 200(cytoskeletal protiens)  Ab to neuron specific enolase(cytoplasmic protiens)  Protiens associated with neurosecretory granules Chromogranin A Synaptophysin
  • 48. IHC- ANTIBODY TO NEUROFILAMENT PROTEIN Nf-70
  • 49. Contd..  For staining axons and neuronal processes – block impregnation method—ammonical silver soln.  Biclschowsky’s silver stain(silver nitrate soln)– neuro fibrils, dendrites & axons in parrafin &frozen sections. (Stains black)  Eriksons staining for axons(ammonical silver soln)  Earer’s method for staining degenerated nerve fibers- stains brown to black(N-pale yellow)  Myelin-solochrome cyanin+ aq. Iron alum—stains myelin sheaths blue.
  • 50. SILVER STAINED SECTION OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
  • 51. SPECIAL STAINS FOR NEUROGLIAL TISSUE  ASTROCYTES- Normal- Cajals gold sublimate. reactive/gliosis- lithium carbonate technique, silver staining, PTAH(phospho tungstic acid hematoxylin)  Astroglial neoplasms-GFAP immunoperoxidase.  PTAH-stains astrocyte fibrils, nuclei,myelin- blue & neurons- pink  Cajal’s stain fibrous & protoplasmic astrocytes dark purple to black( background- light purple)
  • 53. Contd..  EPENDYMAL CELLS-iron hematoxylin/PTAH/GFAP immunoperoxidase.  OLIGODENDROCYTES- H&E, toluedene blue.  MICROGLIA-silver techniques, macrophage marker CD68.
  • 54. DISEASES OF CEREBRAL CORTEX  Alzheimers’s disease- senile plaques,neurofibrillary tangles.  Lewy body dementia-Neuronal inclusions in cerebral cortex.  Huntingtons disease- polyglutamin containing inclusions.  Vascular dementia- multiple cerebral infarcts.  NEOPLASMS- astrocytoma, oligodendrocytoma.  Picks disease, tau-pathies, prion disease.
  • 56. Silver stain – Alzheimers disease
  • 57. -  Amyloid deposition in cortical arteriole in CEREBRAL AMYLOID ANGIOPATHY  IHC Stain for A-beta deposits
  • 60. Silver stain-PICK DISEASE showing Pick bodies(inclusions)
  • 61. PRION DISEASE- Cortical plaques surrounded by spongiform change in vCJD.
  • 62. REFERENCE  WHEATERS functional histology – Page399,123-127 5th edition.  Text book of histology- I.B.SINGH  JOHN D.BANCROFT- theory and practice of histological techniques-5th edition.  ROBBINS & COTRAN-8th edition  INTERNET
  • 63. - -THANK YOU