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Chapter 2

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Robert Carels
Robert Carels

The document provides an overview of the biology of the brain and mind, including: - The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, which receives signals, processes them, and sends signals to other neurons or tissues. - The brain contains around 100 billion neurons that are connected in complex ways, with each neuron connecting to around 10,000 others on average. - Key structures of the brain discussed include the cerebral cortex, lobes, hippocampus, amygdala, and more. - Methods for probing and observing the brain like EEG, MRI, and PET scanning are also summarized.

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The Biology of Mind and Behavior: The Brain in Action
The Neuron The basic unit of the nervous system Receives signals from neurons or sense organs Processes signals Sends signals to other neurons, muscles, or organs The brain contains 100 billion neurons
Complexity of the Brain Complexity of the brain! 100,000,000,000 (100 billion) neurons Average of 10,000 connections for each neuron 10,000,000,000,000 (10 trillion) neural connections!
The Neuron: Structure
 
Neural Impulses Resting potential More positively charged ions outside than inside Action potential: “Firing” Threshold exceeded All-or-none law Flow of ions through channels in membrane Saltatory conduction Myelin Acts as an insulator Allows signal to travel more efficiently Multiple sclerosis (MS): deteriorated myelin
Action Potential
Neuron Firing
Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators Synapse Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter Vesicles Reuptake Excitatory Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission
Drugs and the Brain Agonist Antagonist Serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, norepinephrine Agonist Example: Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil block the reuptake of serotonin
The Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Reflex
Spinal Cord
The Brain: Structures Cerebral cortex Cerebral hemisphere Lobes Corpus callosum
The Brain: Lobes Occipital lobes Temporal lobes Parietal lobes Frontal lobes Sulci Central sulcus Lateral sulcus
The Frontal Lobes Front of the brain Functions include Planning Memory search Motor processing Reasoning Emotional regulation Phineas Gage
The Occipital Lobes At the back of the head Functions include Visual processing
The Temporal Lobes In front of the ears Functions include Language comprehension Sound processing "Entering new information in memory" "Storing visual memories"
The Parietal Lobes Top, rear of the brain Functions include Attention Spatial location Somatosensory processing
The “Strips”
Subcortical Brain Areas
Subcortical Brain Areas Thalamus: Crossroads Hypothalamus: Thermostat Hippocampus: Remember Amygdala: Inner feelings Basal ganglia: Planning and producing movement Brainstem (medulla and pons): sleep and arousal Cerebellum: coordination
Hippocampal Damage Hippocampal Damage
Probing the Brain Detecting electrical activity Electroencephalograph (EEG) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Single-cell recording Visualizing structure Computer-assisted tomography (CT scan) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Visualizing function Positron emission tomography (PET) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Observing the Brain Brain damage Lesion Stroke Stimulating the brain Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
DNA DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid ) resides in the nucleus of each of the body's trillions of cells. DNA exists as two long, paired strands spiraled into the famous double helix. DNA in each cell contains 3 billion base pairs of proteins (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine). The 3 billion base pairs are organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes (one set of pair inherited from the mother and one from the father).
Genes The DNA in each chromosome contains many genes. Each gene is a stretch of DNA that contains a particular set of instructions, usually coding for a particular protein. There are between 30,000 – 50,000 human genes.
How Genetically Complex are Humans Relative to Other Species? Number of Genes: Human - ~30,000 Mouse - ~30,000 Fruit Fly - 13,600 Plant - 25,500
How Genetically Diverse are Humans from other Species? Genetically identical to Humans: Chimpanzees ~ 98.5% Mice ~ 85.0%
Genes and the Brain Genotype: Sum total of your particular set of genes. Phenotype: The observable structure of behavior of an organism. Mutations (physical changes to genes can produce different behaviors) Fat mice The environment matters Pruning (losing unused neural connections) Plasticity (the brains ability to change with experience: pruning or neural growth)
Three Ways Genes and the Environment Interact Passive interaction: Genetically shaped tendencies of parents or siblings produce an environment that is passively received by the child. Evocative (or reactive ) interaction: Genetically influenced characteristics draw out behaviors from other people. Active interaction: People choose, partly based on genetic tendencies, to put themselves in specific situations and to avoid others.
Behavioral Genetics DNA Heritability Twin studies Monozygotic (identical) Dizygotic (fraternal) Adoption studies
Evolution and the Brain Evolution Natural selection Adaptation Reproduction of the fittest
Genetic Testing DNA testing is useful innocence or guilt; disease risk; preventive treatment or adjust their lifestyle; paternity. Genetic “blueprints” cost as little as $985 find out if your risk for 18 diseases, including Alzheimers. Soon it may be economically possible to construct a complete genetic map for every individual in the United States. Potential uses and abuse
More Questions on Genetics Would you want to know about your risk for a disease that has no current preventive treatment or cure? Why? Would the information improve or diminish your quality of life? Why? Should potential employers, insurance companies, or the government have access to this information? Why? Should potential employers, insurance companies, or the government be able to administer these tests prior to you being hired or insured? Why? Because it is clear that the ability to gather this information is rapidly approaching, should steps be taken to limit who has access to this information or to limit how it is used? What kind of steps? Do the potential benefits of having this information outweigh the drawbacks? Why?

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Chapter 2

  • 1. The Biology of Mind and Behavior: The Brain in Action
  • 2. The Neuron The basic unit of the nervous system Receives signals from neurons or sense organs Processes signals Sends signals to other neurons, muscles, or organs The brain contains 100 billion neurons
  • 3. Complexity of the Brain Complexity of the brain! 100,000,000,000 (100 billion) neurons Average of 10,000 connections for each neuron 10,000,000,000,000 (10 trillion) neural connections!
  • 5.  
  • 6. Neural Impulses Resting potential More positively charged ions outside than inside Action potential: “Firing” Threshold exceeded All-or-none law Flow of ions through channels in membrane Saltatory conduction Myelin Acts as an insulator Allows signal to travel more efficiently Multiple sclerosis (MS): deteriorated myelin
  • 9. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators Synapse Synaptic cleft Neurotransmitter Vesicles Reuptake Excitatory Inhibitory Synaptic Transmission
  • 10. Drugs and the Brain Agonist Antagonist Serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, norepinephrine Agonist Example: Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil block the reuptake of serotonin
  • 11. The Central Nervous System Brain Spinal cord Reflex
  • 13. The Brain: Structures Cerebral cortex Cerebral hemisphere Lobes Corpus callosum
  • 14. The Brain: Lobes Occipital lobes Temporal lobes Parietal lobes Frontal lobes Sulci Central sulcus Lateral sulcus
  • 15. The Frontal Lobes Front of the brain Functions include Planning Memory search Motor processing Reasoning Emotional regulation Phineas Gage
  • 16. The Occipital Lobes At the back of the head Functions include Visual processing
  • 17. The Temporal Lobes In front of the ears Functions include Language comprehension Sound processing "Entering new information in memory" "Storing visual memories"
  • 18. The Parietal Lobes Top, rear of the brain Functions include Attention Spatial location Somatosensory processing
  • 21. Subcortical Brain Areas Thalamus: Crossroads Hypothalamus: Thermostat Hippocampus: Remember Amygdala: Inner feelings Basal ganglia: Planning and producing movement Brainstem (medulla and pons): sleep and arousal Cerebellum: coordination
  • 23. Probing the Brain Detecting electrical activity Electroencephalograph (EEG) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Single-cell recording Visualizing structure Computer-assisted tomography (CT scan) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Visualizing function Positron emission tomography (PET) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
  • 24. Observing the Brain Brain damage Lesion Stroke Stimulating the brain Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
  • 25. DNA DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid ) resides in the nucleus of each of the body's trillions of cells. DNA exists as two long, paired strands spiraled into the famous double helix. DNA in each cell contains 3 billion base pairs of proteins (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine). The 3 billion base pairs are organized into 23 pairs of chromosomes (one set of pair inherited from the mother and one from the father).
  • 26. Genes The DNA in each chromosome contains many genes. Each gene is a stretch of DNA that contains a particular set of instructions, usually coding for a particular protein. There are between 30,000 – 50,000 human genes.
  • 27. How Genetically Complex are Humans Relative to Other Species? Number of Genes: Human - ~30,000 Mouse - ~30,000 Fruit Fly - 13,600 Plant - 25,500
  • 28. How Genetically Diverse are Humans from other Species? Genetically identical to Humans: Chimpanzees ~ 98.5% Mice ~ 85.0%
  • 29. Genes and the Brain Genotype: Sum total of your particular set of genes. Phenotype: The observable structure of behavior of an organism. Mutations (physical changes to genes can produce different behaviors) Fat mice The environment matters Pruning (losing unused neural connections) Plasticity (the brains ability to change with experience: pruning or neural growth)
  • 30. Three Ways Genes and the Environment Interact Passive interaction: Genetically shaped tendencies of parents or siblings produce an environment that is passively received by the child. Evocative (or reactive ) interaction: Genetically influenced characteristics draw out behaviors from other people. Active interaction: People choose, partly based on genetic tendencies, to put themselves in specific situations and to avoid others.
  • 31. Behavioral Genetics DNA Heritability Twin studies Monozygotic (identical) Dizygotic (fraternal) Adoption studies
  • 32. Evolution and the Brain Evolution Natural selection Adaptation Reproduction of the fittest
  • 33. Genetic Testing DNA testing is useful innocence or guilt; disease risk; preventive treatment or adjust their lifestyle; paternity. Genetic “blueprints” cost as little as $985 find out if your risk for 18 diseases, including Alzheimers. Soon it may be economically possible to construct a complete genetic map for every individual in the United States. Potential uses and abuse
  • 34. More Questions on Genetics Would you want to know about your risk for a disease that has no current preventive treatment or cure? Why? Would the information improve or diminish your quality of life? Why? Should potential employers, insurance companies, or the government have access to this information? Why? Should potential employers, insurance companies, or the government be able to administer these tests prior to you being hired or insured? Why? Because it is clear that the ability to gather this information is rapidly approaching, should steps be taken to limit who has access to this information or to limit how it is used? What kind of steps? Do the potential benefits of having this information outweigh the drawbacks? Why?