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Amerikas navngivning

Amerigo Vespucci

Navngivningen af det amerikanske kontinent, eller Amerika, fandt sted kort efter Christopher Columbus' sørejse til Amerika i 1492. Der er bred enighed om at navngivet stammer fra Amerigo Vespucci, den italienske opdagelsesrejsende, der opdagede de nye kontinenter i de følgede år. Dog har nogle fremsat andre forklaringer, hvilket omfatter at det er navngivnet efter en bjergkæde i Nicaragua eller efter Richard Amerika af Bristol.

Brug

I moderne engelsk, bliver Nord- og Sydamerika generelt opfattet som to adskilte kontinenter, og disse kaldes sammenlagt 'Americas' (på dansk Amerika) i flertal, parallelt med lignende situationer såsom 'the Carolinas' (på dansk Carolina). Når det bliver opfattet som et samlet kontinent er formen generelt 'the continent of America' (på dansk 'Det amerikanske kontinent') i ental. Imidlertid referer entalsformen 'America' på engelsk uden en tydeliggørende kontekst ofte til USA, undertiden kendt som Amerikas Forenede Stater.[1]

Historisk plejede begrebet Amerika i den engelstalende verden at henvise til et enkelt kontinent frem til 1950'erne (som i Van Loons Geography fra 1937): Ifølge historikerne Kären Wigen and Martin W. Lewis,[2]

Selvom det kan virke overraskende at stadig finde både Nord- og Sydamerika sammenføjet til et kontinent i en bog fra 1936, forblev en sådan opfattelse temmelig almindelig indtil Anden verdenskrig. Det kan ikke være tilfældigt at denne idé tjents amerikanske geopolitiske planer på det tidspunkt, der på samme tid søgte både herredømme over den vestlige halvkugle og frigørelse fra "den gamle verdens" kontinenter Europa, Asien og Afrika. Ved 1950'erne var stort set alle amerikanske geografer dog insisterende på at Nord- og Sydamerikas visuelt forskellige landmasser fortjente særskilte betegnelser.

Denne forandring ser ikke ud til at have sket i de fleste andre kulturelle hemisfære på jorden, såsom de romansk-talende (herunder Frankrig, Belgien, Luxembourg, Italien, Portugal, Spanien, Romanien, Schweiz og de postkoloniale romans-talende lande i Latinamerika og Afrika), germansk (men eksklusiv engelsk) talende (herunder Tyskland, Østrig, Schweiz, Belgien, Nederlandende, Luxembourg, Danmark, Norge, Sverige, Island, Færøerne), de baltisk-slaviske sprog (herunder Tjekkiet, Slovakiet, Polen, Ukraine, Hviderusland, Litauen, Letland, Rusland, Slovenien, Kroaterien, Bosnien og Herzegovina, Serbien, Montenegre og Bulgarien og i mange andre hemisfære, hvor Amerika stadigvæk betragtes som et kontinent der dækker over de Nord- og Sydamerikanske subkontinenter,[3][4] såvel som Mellemamerika.[5][6][7][8][9][10]

På dansk er situation stort set den samme som med moderne engelsk, med den undtagelse af brugen af ordet 'Amerika' til at referere til USA er ikke eksisterende, hvorfor de to andre navne USA, og det lidt ældre og sjældent brugte navn Amerikas Forenede Stater bruges i stedet.

Tidligste brug af navnet

Verdenskort lavet af Waldseemüller (Tyskland, 1507), der som det første brugte navnet 'America' (i den nedre-venstre sektion, ovenover Sydamerika.[11]

Den tidligst kendte brug af navnet America dateres til 25 april, 1507, hvor det blev anvendt til hvad der nu kaldes Sydamerika.[11] Her optræder det på et lille verdenskort med tolv tidszoner og desuden på det største vægkort lavet til dato, der begge er frembragt af den tyske kartograf Martin Waldseemüller i Saint-Dié-des-Vosges Frankrig.[12] Disse kort var det første der viste Amerika som en adskilt landmasse fra Asien. En medfølgende bog ved navn Cosmographiae Introductio, der fremstår som anonym men tilsyneladende er skrevet af Waldseemüller's samarbejdspartner Matthias Ringmann,[13] meddeler følgende: "Jeg kan ikke se hvilken ret nogle måtte have til at gøre indsigelse mod at kalde denne del [det vil sige det sydamerikanske fastland], efter Americus, der opdagede det og som er en intelligent mand, Amerigen, det vil sige Americus' land, eller Amerika, eftersom både Europa og Asia fik deres fra kvinder". America er også inskrevet på Paris Grønne Globus (eller Globe vert) som er blevet tilskrevet Waldseemüller og dateret til år 1506–07: såvel som det eneste navn, der er indskrevet på de nordlige og sydlige dele af den Nye Verden, kontinenter bærer også inskriften: America ab inuentore nuncupata (Amerika, navngivet efter dets opdager).[14]

Mercator på hans kort kaldte Nordamerika "Amerija or Nyt Indien" (America sive India Nova).[15]

Globe vert America
America ab inventore nuncupata (America, called after its discoverer) on the Globe vert, c.1507.

Amerigo Vespucci

Americus Vesputius var den latiniserede version af den italienske opdagelsesrejsende Amerigo Vespuccis navn, hvoraf fornavnet var en gammel italienskisering (sammenlignelig med moderne italienske Enrico) af det middelalder latinske Emericus (se helgenen Emerica af Ungarn), der stammer fra det oldhøjtyske navn Emmerich, som kan have været en sammenslutning af adskillige germanske navne – Amalric, Ermanaric og det oldhøjtyske Haimirich, fra det urgermanske


*amala- ('vigor, bravery'), *ermuna- ('great; whole') or *haima- ('home') + *rīk- ('ruler') (compare *Haimarīks).[16]

Amerigo Vespucci (March 9, 1454 – February 22, 1512) was an Italian explorer, financier, navigator and cartographer who first postulated that the West Indies and corresponding mainland were not part of Asia's eastern outskirts as initially conjectured from Columbus's voyages, but instead constituted an entirely separate landmass hitherto unknown to the Europeans.[17][18]

Vespucci was apparently unaware of the use of his name to refer to the new landmass, as Waldseemüller's maps did not reach Spain until a few years after his death.[13] Ringmann may have been misled into crediting Vespucci by the widely published Soderini Letter, a sensationalized version of one of Vespucci's actual letters reporting on the mapping of the South American coast, which glamorized his discoveries and implied that he had recognized that South America was a continent separate from Asia.[19] Spain officially refused to accept the name America for two centuries, saying that Columbus should get credit, and Waldseemüller's later maps, after Ringmann's death, did not include it; in 1513 he labelled it "Terra Incognita" with a note about Columbus's discovery of the land.[20]

Following Waldseemüller, the Swiss scholar Heinrich Glarean included the name America in a 1528 work of geography published in Basel. There, four years later, the German scholar Simon Grinaeus published a map, which Hans Holbein and Sebastian Münster (who had made sketches of Waldseemüller's 1507 map) contributed to; this labelled the continent America Terra Nova (America, the New Land). In 1534, Joachim von Watt labelled it simply America.[20] Gerardus Mercator applied the names North and South America on his influential 1538 world map; by this point, the naming was irrevocable.[20] Acceptance may have been aided by the "natural poetic counterpart" that the name America made with Asia, Africa, and Europa.[13]

Opkaldt efter en Nicaraguansk bjergkæde

In 1874, Thomas Belt proposed that the name derives from the Amerrisque Mountains of present-day Nicaragua. In 1875, Jules Marcou suggested a derivation from indigenous American languages where "Amerrique" originally named the prominent mountain range.[21] Marcou corresponded with Augustus Le Plongeon, who wrote: "The name AMERICA or AMERRIQUE in the Mayan language means, a country of perpetually strong wind, or the Land of the Wind, and ... the [suffixes] can mean ... a spirit that breathes, life itself."[22]

In this view, native speakers shared this indigenous word with Columbus and members of his crew, and Columbus made landfall in the vicinity of these mountains on his fourth voyage.[21][22] The name America then spread via oral means throughout Europe relatively quickly even reaching Waldseemüller, who was preparing a map of newly reported lands for publication in 1507.[22] Waldseemüller's work in the area of denomination takes on a different aspect in this view. Jonathan Cohen of Stony Brook University writes:

The baptismal passage in the Cosmographiae Introductio has commonly been read as argument, in which the author said that he was naming the newly discovered continent in honor of Vespucci and saw no reason for objections. But, as etymologist Joy Rea has suggested, it could also be read as an explanation, in which he indicates that he has heard the New World was called America, and the only explanation lay in Vespucci's name.</ref name="Cohen"/>

Among the reasons which proponents give in adopting this theory include the recognition of, in Cohen's words, "the simple fact that place names usually originate informally in the spoken word and first circulate that way, not in the printed word".[22][23] In addition, Waldseemüller not only is exonerated from the charge of having arrogated to himself the privilege of naming lands, which privilege was reserved to monarchs and explorers, but also is freed from the charge of violating the long-established and virtually inviolable ancient European tradition of using only the first name of royal individuals as opposed to the last name of commoners (such as Vespucci) in bestowing names to lands.[21]

Richard Amerike

Bristol antiquarian Alfred Hudd suggested in 1908 that the name was derived from the surname "Amerike" or "ap Meryk" and was used on early British maps that have since been lost. Richard ap Meryk, anglicised to Richard Amerike (or Ameryk) (Skabelon:Circa 1445–1503) was a wealthy Anglo-Welsh merchant, royal customs officer and sheriff of Bristol.[24] According to some historians, he was the principal owner of the Matthew, the ship sailed by John Cabot during his voyage of exploration to North America in 1497.[24] The idea that Richard Amerike was a 'principal supporter' of Cabot has gained popular currency in the 21st century.[24] There is no known evidence to support this.[kilde mangler] Similarly, and contrary to a recent tradition that names Amerike as principal owner and main funder of the Matthew, Cabot's ship of 1497,[24] academic enquiry does not connect Amerike with the ship. Her ownership at that date remains uncertain.[25] Macdonald asserts that the caravel was specifically built for the Atlantic crossing.[26]

Hudd proposed his theory in a paper which was read at the 21 May 1908 meeting of the Clifton Antiquarian Club, and which appeared in Volume 7 of the club's Proceedings. In "Richard Ameryk and the name America," Hudd discussed the 1497 discovery of North America by John Cabot, an Italian who had sailed on behalf of England. Upon his return to England after his first (1497) and second (1498–1499) voyages, Cabot received two pension payments from Henry VII. Of the two customs officials at the Port of Bristol who were responsible for delivering the money to Cabot, the more senior was Richard Ameryk (High Sheriff of Bristol in 1503).[22][27] Hudd postulated that Cabot named the land that he had discovered after Ameryk, from whom he received the pension conferred by the king.[28] He stated that Cabot had a reputation for being free with gifts to his friends, such that his expression of gratitude to the official would not be unexpected. Hudd also thought it unlikely that America would have been named after Vespucci's given name rather than his family name. Hudd used a quote from a late 15th-century manuscript (a calendar of Bristol events), the original of which had been lost in an 1860 Bristol fire, that indicated the name America was already known in Bristol in 1497.[22][29]

This year (1497), on St. John the Baptist's day (June 24th), the land of America was found by the merchants of Bristow, in a ship of Bristowe called the 'Mathew,' the which said ship departed from the port of Bristowe the 2nd of May and came home again the 6th August following.</ref name=ameryk/>

Hudd reasoned that the scholars of the 1507 Cosmographiae Introductio, unfamiliar with Richard Ameryk, assumed that the name America, which he claimed had been in use for ten years, was based on Amerigo Vespucci and, therefore, mistakenly transferred the honour from Ameryk to Vespucci.[22][29] While Hudd's speculation has found support from some authors, there is no strong evidence to substantiate his theory that Cabot named America after Richard Ameryk.[22][24][30]

Moreover, because Amerike's coat of arms was similar to the flag later adopted by the independent United States, a legend grew that the North American continent had been named for him rather than for Amerigo Vespucci.[24] It is not widely accepted - the origin is usually attributed to the jack of the British East India Company.

Indfødtes navngivning af kontinentet

Naming the continent after a European colonizer has been seen by some civil society groups as problematic. In 1977, the World Council of Indigenous Peoples (Consejo Mundial de Pueblos Indígenas) proposed using the term Abya Yala instead of "America" when referring to the continent. There are also names in other indigenous languages such as Ixachilan and Runa Pacha. Some scholars have picked up the term with a reference to the illegitimacy of colonialism.[31]

Referencer

  1. ^ "America." The Oxford Companion to the English Language (ISBN 0-19-214183-X). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 33: "[16c: from the feminine of Americus, the Latinized first name of the explorer Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512). The name America first appeared on a map in 1507 by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller, referring to the area now called Brazil]. Since the 16c, a name of the western hemisphere, often in the plural Americas and more or less synonymous with the New World. Since the 18c, a name of the United States of America. The second sense is now primary in English: ... However, the term is open to uncertainties: ..."
  2. ^ "The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography (Chapter 1)". University of California Press. Hentet august 14, 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  3. ^ "The Continents of the World". nationsonline.org. Hentet september 2, 2016. Africa, the Americas, Antarctica, Asia, Australia together with Oceania, and Europe are considered to be Continents.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  4. ^ "Map And Details Of All 7 Continents". worldatlas.com. Hentet september 2, 2016. In some parts of the world students are taught that there are only six continents, as they combine North America and South America into one continent called the Americas.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  5. ^ "CENTRAL AMERICA". central-america.org. Hentet september 18, 2016. Central America is not a continent but a subcontinent since it lies within the continent America.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  6. ^ "Six or Seven Continents on Earth" (English). Hentet december 18, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) CS1-vedligeholdelse: Ukendt sprog (link) "In Europe and other parts of the world, many students are taught of six continents, where North and South America are combined to form a single continent of America. Thus, these six continents are Africa, America, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, and Europe."
  7. ^ "Continents" (English). Hentet december 18, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) CS1-vedligeholdelse: Ukendt sprog (link) "six-continent model (used mostly in France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and Latin America) groups together North America+South America into the single continent America."
  8. ^ "AMÉRIQUE" (French). Hentet december 18, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) CS1-vedligeholdelse: Ukendt sprog (link)
  9. ^ "America" (Italian). Hentet december 18, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) CS1-vedligeholdelse: Ukendt sprog (link)
  10. ^ "Amerika". Duden (tysk). Berlin, Germany: Bibliographisches Institut GmbH. Hentet 2019-08-19.
  11. ^ a b "Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii alioru[m]que lustrationes". Arkiveret fra originalen januar 9, 2009. Hentet september 8, 2014. {{cite web}}: Ugyldig |dead-url=yes (hjælp); Ukendt parameter |dead-url= ignoreret (|url-status= foreslået) (hjælp)CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  12. ^ Martin Waldseemüller. "Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii alioru[m]que lustrationes". Washington, DC: Library of Congress. LCCN 2003626426. Hentet april 18, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  13. ^ a b c Toby Lester, December (2009). "Putting America on the Map". Smithsonian. 40: 9.
  14. ^ Monique Pelletier, "Le Globe vert et l'oeuvre cosmographique du Gymnase Vosgien”, Bulletin du Comité français de cartographie, 163, 2000, pp. 17-31.[1]
  15. ^ "Mercator 1587 | Envisioning the World | The First Printed Maps". lib-dbserver.princeton.edu. Hentet 2020-09-12.
  16. ^ Harrison, Henry (8 februar 2017). Surnames of the United Kingdom: A Concise Etymological Dictionary (engelsk). Genealogical Publishing Com. ISBN 9780806301716.{{cite book}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  17. ^ Davidson, M. H. (1997). Columbus Then and Now: A Life Re-examined. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, p. 417.
  18. ^ Szalay, Jessie. Amerigo Vespuggi: Facts, Biography & Naming of America (citing Erika Cosme of Mariners Museum & Park, Newport News VA). 20 September 2017 (accessed 23 June 2019)
  19. ^ "UK | Magazine | The map that changed the world". BBC News. oktober 28, 2009. Hentet 23 juni 2019.{{cite news}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  20. ^ a b c Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2007). Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America (1st udgave). New York: Random House. s. 186-187. ISBN 978-1400062812. OCLC 608082366.
  21. ^ a b c ""Origin of the Name America" by Jules Marcou, The Atlantic Monthly, March 1875". UNZ.org. Hentet 19 marts 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h Cohen, Jonathan. "The Naming of America: Fragments We've Shored Against Ourselves". Stony Brook University. Arkiveret fra originalen 7 juni 2010. Hentet 2 juli 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  23. ^ Rea, Joy (1 januar 1964). "On the Naming of America". American Speech. 39 (1): 42-50. doi:10.2307/453925. JSTOR 453925.{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  24. ^ a b c d e f Macdonald, Peter (17 februar 2011). "BBC History in Depth; The Naming of America; Richard Amerike". BBC History website. BBC. Hentet 24 februar 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  25. ^ Evan T. Jones, "The Matthew of Bristol and the financiers of John Cabot's 1497 voyage to North America", English Historical Review (2006)
  26. ^ Macdonald, Peter (1997), Cabot & the Naming of America, Bristol: Petmac Publications, s. 29, ISBN 0-9527009-2-1
  27. ^ Macdonald 1997, s. 46
  28. ^ Macdonald 1997, s. 33
  29. ^ a b Alfred E. Hudd, F.S.A., Hon. Secretary. "Richard Ameryk and the name America" (PDF). Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club. VII: 8-24. Hentet 11 juli 2012.{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  30. ^ Quinn, David B. (1990). Explorers and Colonies: America, 1500–1625. A&C Black. s. 398. ISBN 9781852850241. Hentet 12 februar 2016.{{cite book}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
  31. ^ Julia Roth. Latein/Amerika, in: Susan Arndt and Nadja Ofuatey-Alazard: Wie Rassismus aus Wörtern spricht. Unrast-Verlag.

Bibliografi

  • The Columbus Myth: Did Men of Bristol Reach America before Columbus? Ian Wilson (1974; reprint 1991: ISBN 0-671-71167-9)
  • Terra Incognita: The True Story of How America Got Its Name, Rodney Broome (US 2001: ISBN 0-944638-22-8)
  • Amerike: The Briton America Is Named After, Rodney Broome (UK 2002: ISBN 0-7509-2909-X)

Eksterne henvisninger

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