Brain-inspired nanophotonic spike computing: challenges and prospects

ANNs represent an attempt to mimic the biological brain's complex architecture with its high degree of connectivity and parallelism, in order to achieve some of the brain's remarkable information processing capabilities. However, even state-of-the-art neural networks implemented in digital platforms represent a significantly simplified abstraction of the behaviour observed in biological neuronal networks. The architecture of artificial neurons and ANNs has over time evolved in what is usually considered as three major generations of neural networks (perceptrons, DNNs and SNNs) [41].

2.1.1. First generation—perceptrons

2.1.2. Second generation—DNNs

2.1.3. Third generation—SNNs

2.1.4. Applications of SNNs

Signalling in neurons is typically enabled by a wide range of nonlinear dynamical phenomena including pulsing, excitable spikes, bursting and oscillations. Spiking allows for temporal analogue-like encoding of information which is highly resilient to noise and extremely efficient, consuming only approximately 10⁴ adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules to transmit a bit at a chemical synapse [46], corresponding to around 1 fJ bit⁻¹ at 32 bit s⁻¹ (i.e. several orders of magnitude lower than existing neuromorphic technologies). Each neuron in the human neocortex receives input spikes from approximately 10⁴ other neurons, with each neuron spiking at a sparse rate between 0.1 and 100 Hz. This parallelism and sparse activity combined with temporal integration property makes the brain a formidable power-efficient and error-tolerant computing natural machine. This represents a very powerful encoding system when many connections (10¹⁴ synapses in the human brain) are established between individual neurons, and hardware solutions biomimicking neurons are being developed in electronic and photonic-based SNN platforms.

There is nowadays a wide range of both industrial and academic research activities aiming at realizing neuromorphic hardware. Among the industrial leaders are Cerebras with their WSE-2 processor, BrainChip with their Akida neural processor, IBM with their TrueNorth chip and Intel with their recently released second generation of Loihi self-learning chip. In Europe, the FACETS program demonstrated a chip with 200 000 neurons and 50 million synaptic connections which led to the BrainScaleS project and to the neuromorphic computing platform in 'The Human Brain Project' (HBP). Additionally, SpiNNaker, an SNN architecture, using a massively parallel, manycore supercomputer architecture designed by the Advanced Processor Technologies Research Group, University of Manchester, is being used as one component of the neuromorphic computing platform for HBP. Thus far, these approaches rely mostly on conventional complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) transistors. Alternative solutions include in-memory computing using resistive switching devices (e.g. memristors, phase change), and spintronics—see a review in [47]—in an attempt to emulate the action-potential functionalities of the brain using beyond Moore's technologies.

Optics and optoelectronics are among the key prospective technologies that will allow to overcome both interconnect energy and bandwidth density constraints of neuromorphic electronic approaches. Using photonics, light-speed neuron-like spikes can be achieved in semiconductor lasers namely using commercially available VCSELs [48, 49], and other optoelectronic platforms (review in [50]). To decrease spatial footprint, approaches for optical neural networks are being tested using either mature III–V/Si photonic integrated platforms or fibre optics-based reservoir computing, therefore allowing for the implementation of coherent light-based deep learning, reservoir computing, and photonic accelerators (tensor cores) (review in [7]). Currently, many of these approaches require off-chip coherent laser sources, detectors, and optical amplifiers, and additional pre- and post-processing steps, hence imposing a bottleneck for compact and efficient solutions. Importantly, several of the photonic platforms are lacking suitable optical neurons for use in SNN architectures.

In the past few years, there have been various initiatives aiming at realizing all-optical and optoelectronic SNNs. Here we discuss a few representative examples. In 2019, a photonic integrated neuromorphic computing platform based around phase-change materials (PCMs) and devices on silicon photonics was realized, figure 2(a), providing an hardware with the basic integrate-and-fire functionality of neurons and the plastic weighting operation of synapses [51]. The architecture required more than 100 optical elements occupying a mm² footprint to emulate four neurons and sixty synapses. Still, biological neurons exhibit more complex spike-based functions. In 2021, artificial optical neurons were implemented with anti-symmetrically coupled degenerate optical parametric oscillators (DOPOs) [52]. The nonlinearity and phase bistability of the DOPOs were used to generate two spiking modes of class-I (saddle-node bifurcation) and class-II (Andronov–Hopf bifurcation) neurons that had been originally classified by A.L. Hodgkin. Using these optical neurons, an experimental setup of a DOPO-based neural network was shown using a 240-node ANN composed of 480 DOPOs with antisymmetric couplings and based on time-domain multiplexing in a 1 km fibre-ring cavity, figure 2(b). This architecture required several bulky components such as modulators and optical amplifiers. Energy efficient and scalable photonic-based approaches demand at least a 100-fold reduction in the size of these components that can perform complex spiking signalling functions while using significantly less energy. A brain-inspired neuron architecture based on the Izhikevich model and implemented in nano-optoelectronic hardware has been suggested in 2022 [53]. The optoelectronic neurons consist of two photodetectors for excitatory and inhibitory optical spiking inputs, electrical transistors' circuits providing spiking nonlinearity, and a laser for optical spiking outputs, but the demonstration of a photonic SNN is yet to be shown. In perspective, active optical spiking components integrated on-chip in a practical scalable SNN architecture are still at an early stage of development.

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2.5.1. Miniaturized light spiking sources

2.5.2. Miniaturized light spiking receivers

2.5.3. Nanophotonic integrated circuit platform for SNNs

Considering the challenges of integrating nanoscale artificial neuron light sources and nanophotodetectors in a scalable SNN platform, in sections 3–7 of this perspective, we discuss the recent results and prospects, of a novel platform, figure 3, using innovative III–V/Si materials, panel (a) (sections 3 and 4), specifically DBQW nanostructures providing unique neuron-like spike-emitting-receiving properties (panel (b), section 3). These materials are used to design nanodevices consisting of light spiking sources and detectors with sub-λ confinement (nanoLEDs, nanolasers) and nano-photodetectors (nanoPDs), panel (b) (section 5). In sections 6 and 7 of this perspective, we discuss the strategies to use these nanophotonic neurons for energy-efficient and high-bandwidth photonic interconnected synaptic links, panels (c) and (d), for applications in artificial SNNs.

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Neurons exhibit excitability [58], the dynamical property that is essential for biologically inspired AI. Seeking an alternative architecture that supports spikes as information carriers, here we look at DBQW-based resonant tunnelling diode (RTD) circuits as excitable neuromorphic spike generators [59]. Typically, the active DBQW layer consists of a thin 10 nm of either aluminium arsenide-gallium arsenide-aluminium arsenide (AlAs/GaAs/AlAs) or aluminium arsenide-indium gallium arsenide-aluminium arsenide (AlAs/InGaAs/AlAs) semiconductor heterostructure. This heterolayer is inserted in the epitaxial growth direction of the III–V semiconductor layer stack which enables 1D carrier confinement and filtering of carriers (e.g. electrons) via the resonant tunnelling effect across the quantum well's quasi-bound states (resonances), as shown in figure 4(a) [35].

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NanoRTDs can be combined with photonics (e.g. LEDs, lasers and photodetectors) to process and transmit optical signals [35, 39, 60]. The DBQW nanometric size enables circuit high-speed. The resonance in the quantum well (which controls the current flow via resonant tunnelling effect) can be fine-tuned by applying a voltage across the emitter and collector sides. This resonance control provides an energy passband-like filtering effect for carriers. As a result, a current–voltage (I–V) characteristic with a pronounced NDC is achieved—also called negative differential resistance, figure 4(b). The theoretical cut-off frequency of a single DBQW is limited by the tunnelling escape time in the quantum well [35]. Notably, the resonant tunnelling effect and NDC characteristic, when combined with a suitable circuit design, figure 4(c), have been exploited in a wide range of nonlinear applications, such as THz oscillators, emitters and detectors for imaging [61], and wireless communications beyond 5 G [36].

Importantly, the DBQW can be epitaxially integrated with other active materials (either based on III–V or III-N), and RTD-based photodetectors and light sources have been demonstrated. Notable examples include single-photon switches and detectors [37, 38], near-infrared photodetectors for optical communications [62], mid-infrared detectors for sensing [63], III-nitride LED sources [64], III–V unipolar (n-type) bistable light-emitting RTDs [65], bipolar (p–n-type) RTD-based LEDs [66–68] and RTD-lasers [69, 70]. These works open unique opportunities to combine the nonlinear electrical properties of RTDs with the optical characteristics of photonic devices to create novel architectures of interest for emergent neuromorphic optical computing systems.

For neuron-like computation, early works evoked RTD-based devices as nanoelectronic candidates for cellular neural networks as a form of threshold logical gates [74]. In the context of photonics, reports on optoelectronic RTDs integrated with photo-sensitive absorption layers and lasers showed potential for bio-neural functionalities. Figure 5 summarizes the main experimental works reported in the last decade that demonstrate relevant nonlinear neural dynamic functions of optoelectronic microRTDs. The most remarkable examples include the use of bistable RTD photodetectors for light-induced stochastic resonance phenomena (figure 5(a) [71]), excitability in photosensitive RTD-laser hybrid integrated circuit devices for spiking and bursting (figure 5(b) [21]), autaptic (self-feedback) neuron-like signalling (figure 5(c) [39]), and mixed-mode neuron-like oscillations (figure 5(d) [60]). More recently, light-induced stochastic spiking was demonstrated in RTD photodiodes (figure 5(e) [72]), and in-device coincidence detection (logical AND), and exclusive logical OR (XOR) tasks were demonstrated using an opto-electro-optical (O/E/O) artificial neuron built with an RTD coupled to a photodetector as a receiver and a vertical cavity surface emitting laser as a transmitter (figure 5(f) [73]). In what follows, we present the key nonlinear dynamic functions of neuromorphic RTDs biomimicking neurons.

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Figure 4(c) depicts the equivalent circuitry of a DBQW RTD driven by a d.c. bias supplied by an external source of voltage. The dynamic properties of this nonlinear system are described by the following differential equations,

$$\begin{equation}C\frac{{{\text{d}}V}}{{{\text{d}}t}} = I - F\left( V \right) + \sigma \xi \left( t \right)\end{equation} \tag{ 1 }$$

$$\begin{equation}L\frac{{{\text{d}}I}}{{{\text{d}}t}} = {V_m}\left( t \right) - V - RI.\end{equation} \tag{ 2 }$$

Here, $V,I$ are the voltage and current across the RTD, respectively. The parameters $R,C,L$ represent the circuit's intrinsic resistance, capacitance and inductance, respectively. Unless otherwise specified, their values for the remainder of this Section are $R = 10\,{{\Omega }},\,C = 2\,{\text{fF}},\,L = 126\,{\text{nH}}$. The parameter ${V_m}\left( t \right)$ represents the external driving voltage (which includes both a d.c. and a time-varying signal). The intrinsic fluctuations in the system are accounted for by a time-uncorrelated white noise function, $\xi \left( t \right)$, and a noise intensity, $\sigma$. The function $F\left( V \right)$ is the RTD nonlinear I–V characteristic. As previously described, incident electrons may resonate with the confinement energy levels in the quantum well due to the DBQW structure (figure 4(a)), depending on their Fermi energy levels. As a result, the I–V characteristic is locally maximised and exhibits one or more regions of NDC between regions of positive differential conductance (PDC). Schulman et al provides an expression for $F\left( V \right)$ derived from the Fermi–Dirac statistics [75],

$$\begin{equation}F\left( V \right) = a\ln \left( {\frac{{1 + {e^{\frac{{\left( {b - c + {n_1}V} \right)q}}{{kT}}}}}}{{1 + {e^{\frac{{\left( {b - c - {n_1}V} \right)q}}{{kT}}}}}}} \right)\left[ {\frac{\pi }{2} + {{\tan }^{ - 1}}\left( {\frac{{c - {n_1}V}}{d}} \right)} \right] + h\left( {{e^{{n_2}qV/kT}} - 1} \right)\end{equation} \tag{ 3 }$$

where $q$ is the electron charge, $\kappa$ is the Boltzmann constant and $T$ is the temperature. The remaining $a,b,c,d,{n_1},{n_2},h$ parameters tune the shape of the I–V curve and can be, for instance, determined by fitting the experimental data. Figure 6(a) illustrates an example of an I–V characteristic with an NDC region embedded between two PDC regions. The limiting peak and valley points are, ${V_V} = { }609.63$ mV and, ${V_P} = { }720.65$ mV, respectively. In what follows, using equations (1)–(3) we summarize some of the nonlinear dynamical regimes found in nanoscale RTDs and of interest for neuromorphic spike-based processing and computation.

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3.2.1. Bistability and slow-fast oscillation dynamics

3.2.2. Excitability

3.2.3. Stochastic spiking and bursting

An RTD may fire spikes spontaneously if biased in the proximity of the NDC region and subjected to a non-zero level of noise ($\sigma$). As noise is permanently perturbing the circuit, the excitability threshold may be exceeded, triggering the excitable response. The higher the noise level, the more likely the latter will occur and the more frequent spikes will be fired [21, 59]. When the RTD is biased close to the peak of the I–V characteristic, isolated spikes seem to appear following an exponential statistic that depend on the noise level, figure 7(a), top panel. However, when the bias is set close to the valley, the spikes appear agglomerated in bursts, as shown in figure 7(a), bottom panel. Experiments have also revealed stochastic bursting [21]. The causes of this phenomenon are elucidated in [59]. It is related to the wide basin-like profile of the I–V curve in the valley. The latter leads to a bistability regime between the periodic oscillating solution of the RTD and the quiescent steady state in the valley. When an excitable orbit is triggered by noise, the system after firing the excitable response may remain trapped for some time within the attractor of the limit cycle, which appears as a bursting response that consists of an integer number of peaks.

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3.2.4. Mixed-mode oscillations

We introduce a nanoscale nanophotonic neuron circuit formed by a DBQW nanostructure integrated into a subwavelength metal-dielectric cavity nanolight-emitting diode (nanoLED). The key neuron-like functions of this nanoRTD-LED emitter architecture was first proposed in [78]. In this Section, we summarize the main properties of the nanoLED neuron emitters, as well as recent advances reported elsewhere in realizing and improving such nanoemitters, namely increasing their output power enabled by light extraction [79], and surface passivation [80] methods.

The design of the nanoLED neuron emitter takes advantage of the unique physical properties of DBQW nanostructures, as discussed in section 3. The nanoLED neuron emitter consists of an n-type DBQW (AlAs/GaAs/AlAs material system) monolithic integrated with an inverted p–i–n-type GaAs/AlGaAs nanopillar LED and is shown schematically in figure 9(a) (although other III–V material systems could be considered, as in the case of the nanolaser discussed in section 5.2). The DBQW enables control of the electron injection into the nanopillar active region of the LED. The resulting nanoLED has an NDC characteristic, figure 9(c), that controls the all-or-nothing optical spiking response, figure 9(e), of the nanoLED. In contrast to the light-voltage (L–V) characteristic (black dashed line in figure 9(c)) of typical LEDs, this results in a voltage-controlled NDC in the L–V curve (red solid line in figure 9(c)). Due to the Purcell enhancement of the spontaneous emission [81], the dielectric-metal nanocavity of the nanopillar, figure 9(b), offers strong light–matter interaction at the nanoscale, leading to faster and more efficient light emission [82, 83], a key feature for achieving high-bandwidth optical spiking.

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The dynamic model used to analyse the optical spiking dynamic properties of the nanoRTD-LED neuron emitter was first reported in [78], and combines the differential equations of the optoelectronic lumped circuit, figure 9(d), which take into account the nonlinear voltage-controlled current characteristic of the nanoRTD, figure 9(c), and the rate equations of the nanopillar LED. Figure 9(e) shows an example of numerically simulated optical spikes at multi-gigahertz speeds induced by an input perturbation. It shows some of the characteristics of excitable systems such as all-or-nothing response and refractory time. The all-or-nothing optical spike signals are activated using extremely low (sub-10 mV) electrical pulse signals. This results in a nanoLED neuron emitter with ultralow switching energy (here in the range of 10–100 fJ per emitted spike). Figure 9(f) compares the operation of the neuromorphic nanoRTD-LED with a typical current-driven pulsed (non-spiking) nanoLED source in terms of electrical and optical energy per spike. We consider two case scenarios: (i) with and (ii) without an improved surface passivation method. A typical microLED (blue traces) operates with electrical energy well above 100 fJ/spike and displays modulation bandwidths well below 1 GHz, limited by the spontaneous recombination process. Instead, Purcell-enhanced nanoLEDs (red traces) are particularly well-suited for operation at multi-gigahertz speeds in the 10–100 fJ/spike range, especially when their surfaces have been passivated to reduce non-radiative effects in nanopillars (see also figure 10). We observe there is a clear trade-off between the electrical and optical energy per pulse produced in conventional LEDs. However, for the neuromorphic nanoRTD-LED (star symbols) the electrical and optical energy per emitted spike is given by the intersection of the dashed-dot horizontal red line and the diagonal traces (standard nanoLEDs) (assuming a refractory time of ∼650 ps for the examined spiking nanoRTD-LED). We observe the energy per spike is nearly constant and independent of the incoming modulating frequency signal, in contrast to standard pulsed current modulation schemes. We note that the all-or-nothing response, which activates the spiking response with a constant refractory time for a given input above a certain threshold, is the cause of this important characteristic of the spiking nanoRTD-LED. Finally, since RTD-based photodetectors have already been demonstrated [72, 84], the photosensitive characteristics of DBQW structures could be used to create optically activated neuromorphic nanoLEDs, and the neuron receiver architecture is covered in more detail in sections 5.3 and 5.4.

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Despite the promising spiking properties of nanoLED neuron emitters, experimentally demonstrating power-efficient III–V nanoLEDs with reasonable large optical output, and with such neuromorphic (spiking) properties, remains a significant challenge. In recent years, advances in the quantum efficiency of nanoLEDs have been made using several III–V materials. The miniaturization approach relies on the use of cavities such as photonic crystals [26], metal-dielectric [27] or plasmonics [29], allowing the realization of wavelength and subwavelength scale devices. These advancements are creating expectations that nanoLEDs will be both efficient and fast, outperforming nanolasers [85, 86]. However, to date the external quantum efficiency (EQE) of III–V nanoLEDs at room-temperature remains limited to values below 1%, resulting in ultralow output powers (in the nW or even pW range) [26, 27, 29], and impractical optical systems. Taking the example of III–V nanopillars considered in our neurons, and neglecting losses related to metallic structures in metal-dielectric or plasmonic nanocavites, the main reasons for the extremely low EQEs are two-fold. Firstly, efficiently coupling the light output to a nanowaveguide [27], or a plasmonic waveguide [29], remains a challenge when the area of the light source is reduced to the deep sub-μm² range. Therefore, new light extraction strategies are of key importance. Secondly, as the surface-to-volume ratio increases significantly at these small scales, non-radiative effects in III–V materials, specifically surface-related properties, become more important. In what follows, we provide a concise review of the results recently reported on light extraction and surface passivation in GaAs-based light-emitting materials integrated with DBQW nanostructures (the key architecture of the nanoLED neuron emitter).

To begin, we will review recent developments on light extraction in nanostructured GaAs-based LEDs. Despite extensive research in out-coupling methods employing 2D photonic crystals [26], and nanowaveguides integrated with grating couplers [27], these approaches are difficult to implement when the size of the light-emitting structures is drastically reduced to the deep-subwavelength (≪λ³) scale. In a recent work, a strong enhanced signal in vertical-emitting undoped AlGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs tapered pillars in a GaAs substrate has been demonstrated [79], when the emitting nominal area is decreased to the sub-μm scale. We note that identical GaAs-based materials were used, as previous discussed in the architecture of the neuromorphic nanoLEDs. The work used pillars ranging from 200 nm to 8 μm lateral width. These were fabricated using e-beam lithography and dry etching techniques, and characterized using a micro-photoluminescence (PL) microscope with λ = 561 nm laser excitation. Figure 10(a) shows confocal images examples (top) of the emission for optically pumped nanopillars (the respective intensity profiles are shown inset). As shown in the bottom plot, presenting the integrated intensity as a function of diameter, for the case of micropillars, the light emission is reduced as the diameter decreases following a typical scaling law, d², of planar LEDs. However, as d is reduced from 4 μm to 0.2 μm sizes, particularly in the range of 300 nm < d< 400 nm, although the nominal emission area is reduced by a factor of more than 100, the intensity is reduced only by ∼10 times. For example, the emitting intensity peaks for pillars with d= 360 nm and the respective integrated intensity is comparable to pillars with d∼ 1 μm. This strongly deviates from the d² dependence observed for micropillars, resulting in a 37-fold enhancement of emission. This striking effect has a large effect on the EQE. The vertical-emitting nanopillar-based LEDs have the potential to achieve notable large EQE ∼45%, whereas the efficiency of μm-pillar planar LEDs, without further methods, are limited to EQE ∼2%. These results offer a versatile method of light-outcoupling in nanostructures with prospects to improve the performance of interconnected nanoLED devices which are of key importance for efficient photonic neural network architectures.

Lastly, we review the non-radiative effects in nanopillar structures for the same GaAs-based materials previously described. Typically, large densities of electronically active defects can be found on the surfaces of GaAs-based compounds and at their interfaces with dielectrics, namely because of dry etching during the patterning of the nanopillars. Because of the large surface-to-volume ratio, this is especially important when the devices are scaled to the deep subwavelength size (≪1 μm). Passivation of GaAs with silicon nitride (Si_x N_y ) has been proposed to improve GaAs electrical performance [87]. Recently, it has been demonstrated that surface passivation using a combination of ammonium sulphide chemical treatment followed by encapsulation with a thin layer of Si_x N_y (80 nm) deposited by low-frequency plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition (LF-PECVD) can result in improved optical properties of nanopillar LEDs [80]. The results show that passivated GaAs nanopillar surfaces are robust, stable, and long-lasting. A micro-PL setup was used to collect the PL of fabricated nanopillars. Figure 10(b) depicts the passivated and unpassivated PL spectra of a representative pillar (width of d= 400 nm). When compared to the unpassivated pillar, the Si_x N_y coated sample exhibits a 29-fold increase in the PL integrated intensity. This improvement was measured for all nanopillar sizes (not shown) and is due to hydrogen species attack on the GaAs surface, which reduces the density of surface states significantly, as reported in the LF-PECVD process. These findings, when combined with efficient light extraction methods, could lead to significant EQE improvements in nanostructures, which is critical for the miniaturization of neuromorphic nanoLEDs. Further, since the DBQW structures reported here use Al layers for the barriers, the passivation treatment is of key importance for both optical and electrical properties of the nanodevices. Other challenges to overcome in order to realize fully functional nanoLEDs include the fabrication of low-resistance ohmic contacts, and the demonstration of low-loss metal-dielectric subwavelength cavities that could offer a significant light–matter interaction.

The monolithic integration of a nanolaser with an RTD would enable electro-optical spiking functionality with a small footprint and low power operation. This, however, poses several challenges. Firstly, to achieve lasing, in comparison to the nanoLED case analyzed in the previous Section, several additional aspects needed to be addressed: (i) achieving the appropriate resonant wavelength, (ii) having enough gain while minimizing losses in the cavity. Achieving resonant wavelength is not trivial, as the nanocavity sizes are of the order of magnitude of the wavelength. When using high-resolution lithography process (e.g. electron-beam lithography), innaccuracies of a few tens of nanometers are to be expected, which results in a large resonant wavelength detuning (e.g. 30 nm offset in the cavity size translates into 100 nm resonant wavelength of a cavity for the case of an InGaAs active region). A significant offset between the resonant wavelength and the material gain can cause a limited modal gain.

High-reflectivity mirrors are essential to maintain moderate mirror losses and keep the lasing threshold within reach. In principle, metal mirrors can provide high reflectivity close to the unity [88], however the net reflectivity back into the resonant mode is highly dependent on the verticality of the reflecting facets, which are defined with reactive-ion-etching methods. A small sidewall angle of 5° can reduce net reflectivity to 83% [88]. Another important aspect is that lasers can only be used in planar photonic integrated circuits if they are waveguide-coupled. This brings an additional optical loss mechanism into the cavity, which can compromise the cavity quality factor and prevent lasing. Therefore, controlling the waveguide coupling strength is critical. Weak and controlled waveguide coupling of similar structures can be achieved through evanescent coupling [27].

Regarding electrical-related challenges, surface recombination and ohmic contact losses are the most relevant. Non-radiative surface recombination (discussed also in section 5.1) limits the amount of carriers contributing to optical gain, and plays an important factor in nanocavities due to their high surface-to-volume ratio. Adequate surface passivation methods are required to address this. Moreover, nanocavities have a small horizontal cross section and therefore suffer from high ohmic contact resistance. An alternative device configuration for reduced contact resistance is the incorporation of a tunnel junction to enable both sides of the diode with an n-type contact [89]. Excessive contact resistance leads to pronounced Joule heating, which red-shifts the gain curve producing a thermal roll-off. A strategy for heat sinking is therefore very important.

In addition to the fabrication of the nanolaser device, the integration of a DBQW to provide nonlinearity should be considered. In this regard, if the position of the DBQW is misplaced in the laser diode layer stack, it may induce additional electrical or optical losses. In our approach, the DBQW-based RTD is embedded in the InGaAs contact layer to keep the electrical and optical functions as separate as possible. Additional RTD-related design considerations include matching the electrical nonlinearity with the laser operational regime. The main issue here is that RTDs are voltage-driven devices, whereas lasers are current driven devices. For a laser to operate in the spiking mode, the NDC region (i.e. peak and valley currents) must be located between the lasing current threshold and the thermal roll-off of the device. Finally, as discussed in section 3.2, controlling capacitance in RTDs is important for tuning their dynamic characteristics. It is therefore ideal that the device design includes a mechanism for adjusting the capacitance, so that the correct electrical regime can be targeted.

Several approaches for integrating a laser with RTDs have previously been reported. A hybrid integration strategy [21] simplifies the epitaxial growth and processing of components; however, the footprint is compromised, and wired connections may introduce additional inductance to the experimental circuit while sacrificing operation speed. Monolithic integration optimizes the device's footprint and minimizes external electrical parasitics, and has been demonstrated experimentally with quantum well lasers on GaAs [70] and InP [69]. However, monolithic devices integrating an RTD with MQW lasers typically have thousands of μm² active area, which leads to limited operation speeds compromised by the large capacitance values.

The integration of an RTD with a nanoscale optical device can allow for high-speed operation and a remarkable integration density of interest for compact neuromorphic systems. Various nanolasers have been demonstrated in recent years. The main concepts rely on the use of metal-cladding cavities [90], or photonic-crystal confinement [91]. Such nanoscale light sources have shown interesting performance in terms of efficiency and speed, and therefore are promising for applications that require high integration density and low power operations. A nanolaser with nonlinear performance will broaden the potential application domains, especially in the neuromorphic field.

Realising the spiking nanolaser functionality on an integrated platform requires significant design freedom. An InP-based platform is advantageous due to light-emitting functionality in the infrared region, and a variety of demonstrated passive devices. InP membranes on silicon (IMOS) allow for a nanophotonic platform with active and passive functionalities, as well as the potential for future integration with electronics [92]. IMOS also allows for double-side processing, which adds a degree of flexibility to fabrication processes.

Here we discuss our proposed design of a nanolaser-RTD. A metal-cavity nanolaser structure (figure 11) is created by a semiconductor nanopillar encapsulated in a dielectric-metal shell. The epitaxial layer stack of this nanopillar forms a p–i–n diode, allowing for radiative recombinations to take place in the intrinsic InGaAs layer. Electrical injection is carried through highly doped InGaAs contact layers. Double-side processing allows direct light extraction through an optical window. The position of the DBQW structure within the n-InGaAs contact layer is selected so that it does not overlap with the optical mode.

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The fabrication of electrical contacts on both sides of the InP membrane provides capacitance tuning functionality, which is critical for achieving RTD-based excitability [59]. We fabricated and tested RTD devices with a layer stack that included an AlAs/InGaAs DBQW structure embedded in a highly doped n-InGaAs layer (inset of figure 12). As shown in figure 12, micro-sized devices of various radii exhibit consistent peak current densities of around 30 kA cm⁻² and peak-to-valley current ratios of up to 13. For the design of nanolaser devices, it is important that such peak current density value exceeds the lasing threshold.

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Scaling down photonic devices on chip would open the possibility for large-scale neuromorphic photonics with low energy consumption and high integration density, provided that fabrication tolerances are well controlled. For example, surface imperfections in the active medium cause additional surface recombination losses, effectively increasing threshold current density and thereby compromising the device efficiency. This is particularly critical in nanolasers because of the high surface-to-volume ratio of the active medium. This effect can prevent a nanolaser device from reaching the lasing threshold. To achieve lasing in nanoscale structures, efficient passivation of surface recombination effects should be implemented. In recent experiments (figure 13), we have demonstrated that combining ammonium sulphide treatment, SiO_x encapsulation, and high-temperature post-annealing improves surface recombination velocity by a factor of 19.

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Other fabrication non-idealities that can sacrifice the cavity quality factor include non-vertical pillar slopes, which introduce additional reflection losses. Such mirror losses become more dominant in smaller devices, significantly increasing the threshold gain required to overcome the losses. Finite-difference time domain (FDTD) simulations (figure 14(a)) of a 1 μm long nanolaser cavity show that for a slope angle of 5° the threshold gain increases by 3.5 times when compared to vertical sidewalls. Recently, our etched nanolaser pillar tests (figure 14(b)) revealed high verticality slopes (∼1.6°), which can enable a low-threshold in experimental nanolasers.

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Finally, it is important to implement an appropriate thermal management strategy to prevent nanolaser overheating, which causes thermal roll-off at lower current levels (before lasing). In the IMOS platform, since the polymer bonding layer introduces thermal isolation between the photonic membrane and the Si-substrate, we propose connecting the devices to the substrate through thermal vias (figure 11) for efficient heat sinking. Solving all the aforementioned aspects in RTD-based nanolasers is of central relevance to achieve the next-generation of high-performance nanolaser neuron spiking emitters.

The RTD-based nanophotodetector neuron receiver consists of either micro- or nanopillars GaAs/AlGaAs (for operation at 850 nm) or InGaAs/InP (operation at 1310 nm or 1550 nm) epilayer stacks with light absorbing layers surrounding the DBQW. The layout of the baseline nanoRTD-PD for detection at 1310 nm or 1550 nm is illustrated in figure 15. It consists of an AlAs/InGaAs/AlAs DBQW surrounded by a thick layer of a light absorbing material in the collector side of the RTD (typically the same material as the quantum well of the DBQW). The contact layers comprise of a higher band-gap material, such as InP. The device is considered forward biased, with current flowing from the top contact to the bottom contact.

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The spike detection principle in the nanoRTD-PD, schematically illustrated in figure 15(c), is as follows. When d.c. biased near the peak of first PDC, and in the absence of light, the voltage and current flowing through the nanoRTD-PD remain constant. In the presence of an optical spike (triggering event), the electron–hole pairs generated by the absorption of the optical spike are separated by the built-in electric field induced across the collector by the d.c. applied voltage. The electrons drift towards the collector contact, thus adding to the circuit's external current, while the photo-generated holes moving towards the emitter contact are trapped by the DBQW collector barrier, accumulating in the the collector region. This leads to an enhancement of the electric field across the DBQW and the collector depleted region, allowing the resonance in the quantum well to be reached at a lower bias voltage than under dark conditions. As a result, the circuit load line 'jumps' momentarily to the NDC region of I–V, leading to the generation of a voltage spike corresponding to the valley-to-peak voltage difference (section 3.2). This can be interpreted as an overall shift to lower voltage of the nanoRTD-PD I–V curve under illumination, figure 15(b). This enables to achieve optical-to-electrical spike conversion, figure 15(d). The bandwidth of the nanoRTD-PD excitable photodetector is limited by the pulse duration and dead time. These properties are mainly determined by the circuit's intrinsic PDCs, NDC, capacitance and inductance. Spiking nodes with electrical and optical inputs and outputs can be realized by combining nanoRTD-PD neuron receivers with neuron nanolight emitters (previous Sections).

Several loss mechanisms can influence the optical response of nanoRTD-PD devices, including a non-ideal photodetection quantum efficiency due to the limited absorption through the finite absorption layers, optical reflection of the incident light at semiconductor surface, losses due to fibre-chip coupling, losses in internal contact layers, and carrier recombination before the carriers reach the contacts. Moreover, due to bandwidth limits such as RC time, transit time, and carrier diffusion, the photocurrent generated at very high frequency (GHz band) may be smaller than the stationary state (low frequency operation).

Several epilayer stacks have been investigated for the fabrication of nanoRTD-PDs with the goal of developing excitable neuromorphic light-induced spike generators with low power consumption. The fabrication of nanometre-sized nanoRTD-PDs with suitable epitaxial layer structures, figure 16(a), to meet the expected low-power consumption requirements, as well as the realization of device architectures that provide efficient optical absorption, present challenges. A fabrication process for nano-sized InP RTDs has been successfully developed. Figure 16 shows in panels (b) and (c) scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the various stages of the nanofabrication process for a representative nanoRTD-PD device consisting of a nanopillar with a diameter of 500 nm. In panel (d), the I–V characteristics of nanopillar devices with diameters of 500 nm, 700 nm and 800 nm are shown. Clear signatures of NDC regions are achieved. The peak currents of the fabricated devices are in the range of a few hundred μA allowing for an energy-efficient solution. Nanopillars with optical windows for efficient light in-coupling represent one of the ongoing challenges in operating nanoRTD-PDs as neuron optical receivers. In what follows, we discuss the observation of electrical spikes using nanopillar devices, as well as the observation of light-induced spikes using already established micropillar RTD-PD devices with light in-coupled from the top open mesa windows, as illustrated in figure 15(a).

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Experiments to generate spikes with RTD-PDs featuring optical windows on top of the pillar mesa have been reported recently [72]. Figures 17(a) and (b) show the electrical and optical experimental setups, respectively, used to investigate the generation of spike signals in RTD-PDs. Firstly, for electrical spike triggering, figure 17(a), the devices were driven by an electrical pseudo-random bit sequence with an amplitude of 1 V and a frequency of 500 MHz, and biased at −0.59 V, i.e. near to the device's peak voltage. The nature of the spikes is similar to that seen in figure 17(c), which depicts the periodic generation of electrical spikes. Noteworthy, similar spiking phenomena can be activated by optical modulated signals, figures 17(b) and (d) [72]. The injected light plays the role of external perturbations that drive the RTD to generate stochastic spiking. As shown in figure 17(d), excitable phenomena (here stochastic spiking), can be elicited by carefully controlling either the bias voltage or the intensity of the optical perturbation signal. We notice the spikes are fired using a rather low power input (∼90 μW). In this example, the pulse duration of each spike is about 12.5 μs, with a typical frequency between spikes of 12 kHz (i.e. the refractory response), which is dependent on the applied voltage and the intrinsic properties of the RTD-PD oscillator circuit.

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We observe that by carefully designing the circuit (decreasing the capacitance and inductance values), the oscillation frequency of the spike firing may be tuned from kHz up to GHz frequencies. Using a micropillar RTD-PD, figure 18 illustrates an example of deterministic firing of high-speed electrical spikes (blue traces) triggered by two consecutive 1 ns optical pulses (red trace) separated by 5 ns (panel (a)) and 2.45 ns (panel (c)). The separation threshold (i.e. 2.45 ns) in this example can be regarded as the RTD-PD circuit refractory time.

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These studies demonstrate the versatility of nanoRTD-PDs in performing multiple spike-based firing functions (here oscillatory, stochastic and deterministic spiking) by adjusting a few operating parameters (e.g. bias voltage, amplitude or frequency of the incoming signal, etc.). As a result, we anticipate nanoRTD-PDs to function in a variety of neuromorphic spiking dynamic behaviours that are entirely compatible with optical signal transmission systems and do not require any additional electronic or optoelectronic components.

In the previous Sections, we discussed the monolithic integration of nanoRTDs with nanoLEDs, nanoLDs, and nanoPDs to realize neuron emitter and receiver spiking nodes. Table 2 presents a comparison between the nanophotonic neurons presented in this work in terms of speed, energy consumption, and type of neuron model emulated, with four representative analog photonic/optoelectronic solutions (superconducting Josephson junctions [23], phase change materials [51], excitable micropillar lasers [17], and Izhikevich-inspired photonic neuron [53]), and two analog electronic neuromorphic architectures (TrueNorth [4], and Loihi [5]). Although by no means exhaustive, the solutions chosen from the literature relate to representative artificial neurons capable of spike- (pulse) based signalling. Since not all of the solutions addressed in this perspective have been shown experimentally, the numbers in table 2 comprise the best projected values taking into account the designed performance based on physical models of the nanophotonic neurons. We conclude the nanophotonic spiking architecture discussed here has the advantage of offering a wide range of spatio-temporal neuron-like complex functions, which are difficult to realize using optics-based approaches, while providing energy consumption and spike event timescales of comparable performance to some of the best reported photonic and optoelectronic approaches. These neuron-like functions are similar to those that are many times only possible using complex circuit design in electronics-based neuron models, while providing higher speed potential (>GHz) and consuming much lower energy per event. Potential limitations of the proposed nanophotonic neuron architecture for scalable SNNs include the idle state voltage and current required to drive the nanophotonic neurons. Specifically, in the nanoLED and nanoLDs this limits the energy consumption to values ranging from 10 to 100 fJ per event fired, due to the diode turn-on voltage. However, alternative circuit design solutions, such as on-off pulse driving of the nanolight sources, could be implemented to minimize power consumption.

The hardware of ANNs can be used for different tasks or modes, which place several requirements on the optical synaptic interconnections between the neuron nodes. If the optical neural network hardware is used to train a new network, the synaptic interconnect weights have to be adjusted after each (small) batch of training samples. In this case, training time and power consumption can be reduced significantly by eliminating time and energy-consuming data transfers between the synaptic interconnect and external weight memory and processing units. This can be achieved by storing and updating the synaptic connection weights locally in the synaptic interconnect [96]. If the optical neural network is used in inference mode and thus performs a pre-trained classification task on a stream of input data, the synaptic weights are updated seldomly and external control and storage of the connection weights does not incur a large power penalty. In this case the holding power that is required to keep the synaptic connection weights at a fixed level dominates the energy consumption [8].

In this Section, we discuss two paths toward a tunable 2D synaptic interconnect. The first approach consists of an electrically tunable synaptic interconnect based on the well-established silicon photonics technology. In a second approach, we present on an exploratory concept, where the optical synaptic interconnections are obtained by diffraction on refractive index gratings written in a photorefractive crystal [97, 98]. This approach has been demonstrated in optical systems built from discrete elements [99], but we intend to integrate the photorefractive material and all controlling optics onto a single silicon photonics chip. With the latter concept, the synaptic weights are stored locally in the interconnect and the full weight matrix can be adjusted in one single step, which makes this interconnect well suited for application in a neural network training system.

6.1.1. Silicon photonics interconnects

The silicon photonics interconnect architecture is based on a mesh of crossing input and output waveguides, with cross-coupling elements incorporating a variable attenuator at each crossing. The schematic layout of this interconnect mesh, together with a die photograph of the fabricated interconnects are shown in figures 19(a) and (b), respectively. Assuming that the light from the source neurons is completely incoherent we can split and combine the light in the optical power domain only. Thus, the crossing points of the mesh are designed such that at each crossing the same amount of the input light power is coupled out from the input waveguide, attenuated according to the required synaptic interconnect strength, and coupled to the output waveguide. The corresponding power coupling factors are denoted at each cross-point element in the schematic layout, as shown in figure 19(a).

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The physical layout of the synaptic cross-point elements consists of a directional coupler that taps light out of the vertical input waveguide, followed by a thermally tuneable Mach–Zehnder interferometer that serves as a variable optical attenuator. The attenuated light is then coupled into the horizontal output waveguide by a second directional coupler. A photograph of a representative fabricated silicon photonics interconnects is shown in figure 19(b). The current devices could be implemented in an envisioned SNN using off-chip coupling (e.g. via optical fibres) from sources-emitters to the synaptic interconnects. The designs presented here can be adapted to include optical interfaces matching the spiking optical elements for a complete on-chip hybrid co-integration.

6.1.2. Photorefractive optical interconnects

In the photorefractive concept, the synaptic connections are stored as refractive index gratings in a photorefractive layer on an integrated photonic circuit. The refractive gratings are written and read by sets of collimated optical beams. The collimated beams are obtained by placing lenses between the photorefractive medium and arrays of transmitters and detectors. These basic operations are illustrated in figure 20.

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The physical implementation of the photorefractive interconnect in integrated optics is illustrated in figure 21. The photorefractive layer in the current version of the device is produced by bonding a semi-insulating GaAs wafer to an oxide cladding layer on a silicon wafer and thinning the GaAs layer down to ∼1 μm by grinding and chemical-mechanical polishing. Through two-wave mixing measurements performed perpendicularly through the photorefractive interconnect die, as shown in figure 21(c), we could confirm the photorefractive effect in the interaction region of the interconnect devices. Our current focus is on the experimental validation of the full interconnect functionality of the devices towards realizing photorefractive crossbar arrays for neural network inference and training.

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Chip-to-chip connections are usually performed using optical fibres and grating couplers, which can incur in up to 10 dB losses due to large core size and mode mismatches between the fibre and the on-chip components. This is a severe limiting factor for neural network scaling, as the cumulative loss in complex interconnected systems quickly becomes prohibitively large. The microprinting of 3D polymeric structures using TPP offers potential to tackle this, with recent works reporting fibre-to-chip-couplers [101], optical fibre taper couplers [102, 103], and free-form inter-chip couplers [104, 105].

Noteworthy, 3D polymer structures have been proposed recently for neural networks in reservoir computation [34]. In fact, there is a vast potential in recently-developed 3D interconnection design, simulation, and manufacturing methods for novel inter-chip optical wire-bonding approaches. Such approaches resort in TPP microprinting methods to achieve freeform 3D structures with optically clear resins [106]. The flexibility of such polymeric waveguides holds excellent prospects for connecting various nanolight sources and detectors in comparatively small area footprints, as the optical connections can cross each other in 3D. Examples of recent 3D-printed polymeric photonic elements include beam-shaping structures [107], sub-micron waveguides [108], and waveguide splitter-based convolution kernels for DNNs [34], among other waveguide devices [109, 110]. On the other hand, free-form on-chip 3D waveguides and couplers for individual device interconnections still remain relatively unexplored. Recent works have proposed designs based on continuously [111] and discretely [109] supported 3D waveguides for planar photonic circuits and 3D splitter waveguides [112].

In this Section, we discuss the design and fabrication of 3D structures (waveguides and couplers, figures 22(a)–(c)) to exploit the interconnectivity of multiple photonic neuromorphic elements in small footprint areas (see concept in figure 22(d)). Differently from the synaptic interconnects discussed in the previous Section, here there is no functionality for active weighting in 3D polymers. Future developments could include active functional materials for either thermal, magnetic, or other ways of controlling light transmission properties. Alternatively, the passive 3D polymeric waveguides could be integrated with recently-developed active transmission weighting technologies (section 6.1).

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For the experimental realization of 3D waveguides, we focus on the TPP technique [113, 114], which uses a femtosecond laser to polymerize a photosensitive material in a two-photon absorption process. A suitable photosensitive polymer should meet several requirements for optical interconnects: (i) optical transparency in the desired wavelength range, (ii) suitable refractive index contrast for waveguiding, and (iii) displaying suitable post-exposure stiffness (Young's modulus) for mechanically stable 3D architectures (in some scenarios bridging over several hundred micrometers between functional elements is required). Some polymers contain photoinitiators that can induce avalanche effects that increase the TPP cross-section (reducing the fluence threshold required for TPP). However, this approach also results in larger minimum effective writing voxels and the size of the recoverable features. Lastly, materials with low shrinkage and suitable viscosity are also relevant. For example, low viscosity for simple spin coating or higher viscosity to achieve better bonding to the substrate in inverted TPP fabrication systems, can facilitate the fabrication process. Such properties could improve the quality of the 3D microstructures, leading to higher-fidelity 3D CAD design reproductions.

Recently, we have developed a dedicated algorithm to predict the 3D morphology of TPP writing structures, taking into account the experimental setup and the material parameters [115]. This tool enables to predict crucial experimental and design parameters (such as laser fluence and line density) for optimal structural reproducibility. It should be noted that the limited stiffness of typical TPP optical-grade materials for the neuromorphic chip dimensions (spanning several hundred microns) can require the use of support structures in suspended waveguides (figure 22(a)). Such structures introduce losses in extended 3D waveguides, characterized by the systematic fabrication of straight waveguides with variable height and number of support structures (figures 22(b) and (c)). The support structures introduce scattering hotspots, leading to propagation losses far above the typical insertion losses in planar waveguides employed in semiconductor materials. Thus, mechanical stability (through stiffer polymers and shortened designs) is central for reducing the number of support structures and transmission losses. The fabrication results shown here revealed stable structures with at least 100 μm gaps between support structures.

A systematic optical characterization of the bending losses in fabricated straight (figure 22(b)) and s-bend (figure 22(c)) structures was performed (figures 23(a) and (b)). The results revealed a minimum bending radius of about 100 μm is required to minimize the losses. The 3D CAD designs used for fabrication were employed for modelling of the waveguide optical properties (using either mode-solving, finite-difference time-domain (FDTD), or custom oscillator-based O-FDTD simulations [116, 117]). As illustrated in figure 23(b), the mode-solving simulations are in good agreement with experimental results. Such simulator engines provide the description of the mode profiles in the waveguides, enabling for example the optimization of the 3D geometries of optical tapers to achieve a high coupling efficiency between waveguides and the active neuron emitters/receivers [115], which will be crucial in future interconnected nodes. Additional relevant design considerations shall include the design of tapers optimized for the emission profile of nanolight sources, and the implementation of 3D interconnects linking on-chip nanophotonic components (such as a neural network of nanoRTD-LD/LEDs and nanoRTD-PDs). In an advanced stage of development, the design of 3D manifolds that act as network building blocks and form branched neural networks, and the conceptual design of chip-to-chip interconnects shall be considered for complex neural networks.

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For a system to successfully operate as an artificial spiking neuron in scope of a larger SNN, it should exhibit certain key dynamical functionalities. These include the ability to sum and threshold input signals both spatially (realizing fan-in) and temporally; thus providing the ability to respond to incoming pulses (stimuli) with different timing while exhibiting a (short term) memory. Lastly, the artificial neuron should be capable of providing a fan-out, sending its output to multiple downstream nodes in a network. Recently, we have numerically demonstrated all of these key functionalities in nanoRTD-powered spiking optoelectronic nodes [95]. Firstly, we have shown that RTDs, when biased either in the valley or peak regions (in their highly nonlinear I–V characteristic), are capable of deterministic firing spikes in response to either electrical or optical (in the case of nanoRTD-PD) incoming signals. The fired spikes exhibit all the hallmarks of typical all-or-nothing excitable responses, that is, incoming subthreshold perturbations produce negligible system outputs, whilst superthreshold perturbations elicit firing of spikes that are independent of the amplitude of the incoming perturbations. Furthermore, the photodetection property in the nanoRTD nodes enables directly spatial integration of upstream signals, while the RTD itself exhibits the functionality of temporal signal integration, drawing a general parallel to the well-known leaky-integrate-and-fire neuronal model.

We have utilized this capability of the nanoRTD node to demonstrate spike-based information processing tasks at ultrafast rates and with low-input energy signals. We have shown the ability to perform a pattern recognition task, where an 8-bit sequence corresponding to a serialized matrix of 4 × 2 binary values (representing Tetris-like blocks) is used as an input to the nanoRTD node, figure 24(a). A weighting process (figure 24(b)) is applied as follows: first the 8-bit pulse sequences are multiplied elementwise by a vector of weights W bounded between (−1,+1), and this weighted sequence is injected into the RTD as a series of return-to-zero pulses of 50 ps separated by 50 ps interleaves (50% duty cycle). In such a configuration, only the pre-weighted sequences with a sufficient number (in this case, eight) of downward pulses carry enough combined perturbation energy to go over the excitability threshold, eliciting a spiking response in the system (figure 24(c)). Therefore, the RTD is capable of performing a classification task on the pre-weighted data, only firing a spike for a specifically targeted data sequence.

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In the previous Section, we have shown that an nanoRTD node can not only operate as an artificial spiking neuron, but also that a single node can already perform information processing tasks, such as the classification of binary sequences. However, for more complex data processing, and for the realization of advanced functional tasks, it is essential to go beyond single neuron systems and implement network architectures built from multiple interconnected nodes.

To investigate this network mode of operation, we have analysed numerically a 5-to-1 feedforward SNN built with nanoRTDs (figure 25(a)). This is formed by five master (E/O) nodes in the input layer and a single receiver (O/E) node on the output. All the upstream (PRE) nodes are connected to the output (POST) node via unidirectional links (e.g. waveguides) and considering a simple weighting function, in this case intensity/power attenuation. The PRE nodes are encoded with five binary data streams, eliciting input spatio-temporal spiking patterns that are processed (integrated) in the POST downstream node. The latter fires a spike only when a particular (target) spatio-temporal input pattern is detected, remaining quiescent otherwise. In this network, the temporal separation between each 5-bit input pattern is set to 420 ps, corresponding to full network processing capacity of 11.9 Gbps, with prospects for faster processing speeds, via increased parallelization (higher number of parallel nodes) or faster input sequences.

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Similarly to common ANNs, the system needs to go first through a learning phase to be able to perform inference (recognition) on input data. As SNNs are not readily suitable for conventional error backpropagation training algorithms, an alternative solution for network weight adjustments is required. In [95] a supervised, off-chip, spike-timing dependent network learning rule is introduced, and demonstrated on the nanoRTD spiking network model (figure 25(b)). The rule utilizes labels on input data and temporal separation between pre- and postsynaptic spiking activity of the downstream node to train the network. The aforementioned 5-to-1 network was trained using this approach, reaching 94%+ accuracy during the subsequent inference phase on the spatio-temporal patterns (figure 25(c)). The simulation studies indicate the demonstration of a functional feedforward ANN utilizing spikes to compute and that can be realized in hardware with neural nodes based on optoelectronic nanoRTDs.