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[[File:United States bombing raid over a German city - NARA - 197269.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|An American [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17 Flying Fortress]] "Miss Donna Mae II" is damaged by bombs after drifting under the American bomber flying above it during the [[Bombing of Berlin in World War II|bombing of Berlin]] in 1944. The damage to the [[horizontal stabilizer]] caused the plane to go into an uncontrollable spin and crash, killing all 11 crew members.]]
In [[military terminology]], '''friendly fire''' or '''[[fratricide]]'''{{efn|From the term for [[Fratricide|killing one's brother]]}} is an attack by [[belligerent]] or [[neutral country|neutral]] forces on friendly troops while attempting to attack enemy/ or hostile targets. Examples include misidentifying the target as hostile, cross-fire while engaging an enemy, long range ranging errors or inaccuracy. Accidental fire not intended to attack enemy/ or hostile targets, and deliberate firing on one's own troops for disciplinary reasons, is not called friendly fire,<ref name=Regan>Regan, Geoffrey (2002) ''Backfire: a history of friendly fire from ancient warfare to the present day'', Robson Books</ref> and neither is unintentional harm to [[civilian]] or neutral targets, which is sometimes referred to as [[collateral damage]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA468785.pdf |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Robert E. |ref=Joint Forces Staff College masters thesis |title=The Wrong Target – The Problem of Mistargeting Resulting in Fratricide and Civilian Casualties |access-date=4 January 2011 |archive-date=31 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031071819/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA468785&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Training accidents and bloodless incidents also do not qualify as friendly fire in terms of casualty reporting.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Joint Chiefs of Staff|title=Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 20 November 2010 (As amended through 31 January 2011)|url=http://www.people.mil/Portals/56/Documents/rtm/jp1_02.pdf|access-date=18 August 2016|ref=JP 1-02|page=149|archive-date=6 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006125220/http://www.people.mil/Portals/56/Documents/rtm/jp1_02.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
Use of the term "''friendly"'' in a military context for allied personnel started during the [[First World War]], often when [[Shell (projectile)|shells]] fell short of the targeted enemy.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. cites a 1925 reference to a term used in trenches during the war</ref> The term ''friendly fire'' was originally adopted by the [[United States Armed Forces|United States military]]; [[S.L.A. Marshall]] used the term in ''Men Against Fire'' in 1947.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Men Against Fire|last=Marshall|first=S.L.A.|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1947|pages=193}}</ref> Many [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) militaries refer to these incidents as '''blue on blue''', which derives from [[military exercise]]s where NATO forces were identified by blue pennants and units representing [[Warsaw Pact]] forces by red pennants. In classical forms of warfare where [[hand-to-hand combat]] dominated, death from a "friendly" was rare, but in industrialized warfare, deaths from friendly fire are more common.<ref>Shrader 1982, vii</ref>
Friendly fire should not be confused with [[fragging]], which is the uncondoned ''intentional'' (or attempted) killing of servicemen by fellow personnel serving on the same side.
Paul R. Syms argues that friendly fire is an ancient phenomenon.<ref>Kirke, Charles (ed.). 2010. ''Fratricide in Battle: (Un)Friendly Fire''. London: Bloomsbury, p. 7.</ref> He notes recorded events in Ancient Greece and other early accounts of battles. He and other historians also note that weapons such as guns, artillery, and aircraft dramatically increased friendly-fire casualties.
By the 20th and 21st centuries, friendly-fire casualties have likely become a significant percentage of combat injuries and fatalities. [[Jon Krakauer]] provides an overview of American casualties during and since the [[World War II|Second World War]]:
{{blockquote|While acknowledging that the "statistical dimensions of the friendly fire problem have yet to be defined; reliable data are simply not available in most cases," ''The Oxford Companion to American Military History'' estimates that between 2 percent and 25 percent of the casualties in America's wars are attributable to friendly fire.<ref>Krakauer, Jon. 2010. ''Where Men Win Glory: The Odyssey of Pat Tillman'', NY: Anchor Books, p. 405.</ref> }}
===Errors of identification===
Errors of identification happen when friendly troops are mistakenly attacked in the belief that they are the enemy. Highly mobile battles, and battles involving troops from many nations are more likely to cause this kind of incident as evidenced by incidents in the 1991 [[Gulf War]], or the shooting down of a British aircraft by a U.S. [[MIM-104 Patriot|Patriot battery]] during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].<ref>The Economist ''Closing in on Baghdad'' 25 March 2003</ref> In the [[Tarnak Farm incident]], four Canadian soldiers were killed and eight others injured when a [[U.S. Air National Guard]] Majormajor dropped a 500 lb (230 kg) bomb from his [[F-16]] onto the [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry]] regiment which was conducting a night firing exercise near Kandahar.<ref>[[Michael Friscolanti|Friscolanti, Michael]]. (2005). ''Friendly Fire: The Untold Story of the U.S. Bombing that Killed Four Canadian Soldiers in Afghanistan.'' pp. 420–421</ref><ref>CBC News Online (6 July 2004). [http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/friendlyfire/verdict.html "U.S. Air Force Verdict."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040804021748/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/friendlyfire/verdict.html |date=4 August 2004 }}</ref> Another case of such an accident was the death of [[Pat Tillman]] in Afghanistan, although the exact circumstances of that incident are yet to be definitively determined.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/07/01/afghan.probe/index.html |title=U.S. military probes soldier's death |publisher=CNN |date=1 July 2006 |access-date=4 January 2011 |archive-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614225757/http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/07/01/afghan.probe/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
During [[World War II]], "[[invasion stripes]]" were painted on [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[aircraft]] to assist identification in preparation for the [[invasion of Normandy]]. [[Invasion stripes#Hawker Typhoon|Similar markings had been used]] when the [[Hawker Typhoon]] was first introduced into use as it was otherwise very similar in profile to a German aircraft. Late in the war the "protection squadron" that covered the [[Jagdverband 44|elite German jet fighter squadron]] as it landed or took off were brightly painted to distinguish them from raiding Allied fighters.
==Impact reduction==
Some analyses dismiss the material impact of friendly fire, by concluding friendly-fire casualties are usually too few to affect the outcome of a battle.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Percin, Gen. Alexandre (1921) ''Le Massacre de Notre Infanterie 1914–1918'', Michel Albin, Paris;</ref><ref>Shrader, Charles R. (1982) ''Amicicide: The Problem of Friendly Fire in Modern War'', US Command & General Staff College Survey No. 1</ref> The effects of friendly fire, however, are not just material. Troops expect to be targeted by the enemy, but being hit by their own forces has a huge negative impact on [[morale]]. Forces doubt the competence of their command, and its prevalence makes commanders more cautious in the field.<ref name="uYxiz6P0KsEC">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYxiz6P0KsEC&pg=PA4 |title=Who goes there : friend or foe? |author=Office of Technology Assessment |year=1993 |publisher=Diane Publishing |isbn=9781428921139 |access-date=4 January 2011}}{{Page needed|date=July 2011}}</ref>
Attempts to reduce this effect by military leaders involve identifying the causes of friendly fire and overcoming repetition of the incident through training, tactics and technology.<ref name="Kirke">Kirke, Charles M. (ed., 2012) ''Fratricide in Battle: (Un)Friendly Fire'' [http://www.continuumbooks.com/books/detail.aspx?BookId=158678&SearchType=Basic Continuum Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171011073806/https://www.ebookweek.com/fat-obliterator-review/ |date=11 October 2017 }}</ref>
===Training===
[[File:Bold Quest 2011 wraps up 110921-A-CP678-108.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Soldiers perform a night assault at [[Camp Atterbury]] Joint Maneuver Training Center during Bold Quest 2011, a combat assessment exercise to test the interoperability of target identification systems of different allied nations to reduce friendly fire incidents.]]
Most militaries use extensive training to ensure troop safety as part of normal coordination and planning, but are not always exposed to possible friendly-fire situations to ensure they are aware of situations where the risk is high. Difficult terrain and bad weather cannot be controlled, but soldiers must be trained to operate effectively in these conditions, as well as being trained to fight at night. Such simulated training is now commonplace for soldiers worldwide. Avoiding friendly fire can be as straightforward as ensuring fire discipline is instilled in troops, so that they fire and cease firing when they are told to. Firing ranges now also include [['Don"don't Fire'fire" targets]].<ref name="uYxiz6P0KsEC"/>
The increasing sophistication of weaponry, and the tactics employed against American forces to deliberately confuse them has meant that while overall casualties have fallen for American soldiers in the late 20th and 21st centuries, the overall percentage of deaths due to friendly fire in American actions has risen dramatically. In the 1991 Gulf War, most of the Americans killed by their own forces were crew members of armored vehicles hit by anti-tank rounds. The response in training includes recognition training for Apache helicopter crews to help them distinguish American tanks and armored vehicles at night and in bad weather from those of the enemy. In addition, tank gunners must watch for "friendly" robotic tanks that pop out on training courses in California's Mojave Desert. They also study video footage to help them recognize American forces in battle more quickly.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite news |last=Schmitt |first=Eric |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE6DF1E3FF93AA35751C1A967958260 |title=U.S. Striving to Prevent 'Friendly Fire' |location=Middle East |work=The New York Times |date=9 December 1991 |access-date=4 January 2011 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063247/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/09/us/us-striving-to-prevent-friendly-fire.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Improved technology to assist in identifying friendly forces is also an ongoing response to friendly fire problems.
From the earliest days of warfare, identification systems were visual and developed into extremely elaborate suits of armour with distinctive [[heraldry|heraldic]] patterns. During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], Admiral Nelson ordered that ships under his command adopt a common paint scheme to reduce friendly fire incidents; this pattern became known as the [[Nelson Chequer]]. [[Invasion stripes]] served a similar function during the Allied invasion of Normandy in World War II. When [[radar]] was developed during World War II, IFF ("[[Identification friend or foe|IFF]]") systems to identify aircraft developed into a multitude of radio beacons.
Correct [[navigation]] is vital to ensuring units know where they are in relation to their own force and the enemy. Efforts to provide accurate compasses inside metal boxes in tanks and trucks has proven difficult, with [[GPS]] a major breakthrough.
{{Main|List of friendly fire incidents}}
Incidents include: the killing of Royalist commander, the [[Robert Pierrepont, 1st Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull|Earl of Kingston]], by Royalist cannon fire during the [[English Civil War]],;<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ca0FDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 |title=Seriously Funny, and Other Oxymorons |first=Simon |last=Brett |publisher=[[Hachette UK]] |year= 2017 |page=43 |isbn=9781472139443 |access-date=13 September 2020 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063229/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Seriously_Funny_and_Other_Oxymorons/ca0FDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PT43&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref> the bombing of American troops by [[Eighth Air Force]] [[bombers]] during [[Operation Cobra]] in [[World War II]],;<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2016/06/06/the-little-known-d-day-operation-that-accidentally-killed-more-than-100-u-s-troops/ |title=The little known D-Day operation that accidentally killed more than 100 U.S. troops |first=Thomas |last=Gibbons-Neff |date=6 June 2016 |access-date=22 June 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-date=24 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624115119/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2016/06/06/the-little-known-d-day-operation-that-accidentally-killed-more-than-100-u-s-troops/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the attack on the [[Royal Navy]] 1st Minesweeping Flotilla off [[La Poterie-Cap-d'Antifer|Cap d'Antifer]], [[Le Havre]] by [[No. 263 Squadron RAF|263 Squadron]] and [[No. 266 Squadron RAF|266 Squadron]] RAF on 27 August 1944, sinking {{HMS|Britomart|J22|6}} and {{HMS|Hussar|J82|2}}, and irreparably damaging [[Halcyon-class minesweeper#Friendly fire losses|HMS Salamander]], killing 117 sailors and wounding 153 more;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.halcyon-class.co.uk/FriendlyFire/friendly_fire.htm |title=Sinking of HMS Britomart and HMS Hussar by friendly fire |publisher=Halcyon Class |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref> the eight-hour firefight between British units during the [[Cyprus Emergency]],;<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eh7JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT109 |title=The Cyprus Emergency: The Divided Island 1955–1974 |first=Nicholas |last=van der Bijl |publisher=[[Pen and Sword]] |date=2014 |page=109 |isbn=9781844682508}}</ref> the sinking of the German destroyers [[German destroyer Z1 Leberecht Maass|''Leberecht Maass'']] and [[German destroyer Z3 Max Schultz|''Max Schultz'']] by the Luftwaffe in the North Sea during World War II,; the [[1982 British Army Gazelle friendly fire incident|downing of a British Army Gazelle helicopter by a British warship]] during the [[Falklands War]],;<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03ghmwd |title=London Calling the Falklands Islands, Friendly Fire |date=7 January 2003 |access-date=22 June 2020 |work=[[BBC Programmes]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |archive-date=25 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625140151/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03ghmwd |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident|downing of two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters by USAF fighters in 1994]] during the [[Iraqi no-fly zones]],;<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntSNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |title=No Fly Zones and International Security: Politics and Strategy |first1=Stephen |last1=Wrage |first2=Scott |last2=Cooper |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year= 2019 |pages=34–36 |isbn=9781317087182 |access-date=13 September 2020 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125063236/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntSNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |url-status=live }}</ref> the shooting down and killing of [[Italo Balbo]], the Italian governor of Libya over Tobruk by Italian anti aircraft fire in 1940,; the accidental shooting of [[Stonewall Jackson]] during the American Civil War,; the killing of a Royal Military Policeman by a British sniper during the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|war in Afghanistan]],;<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/nov/14/sniper-escapes-friendly-fire-death-charges |title=Sniper escapes prosecution over friendly fire death |first=Jamie |last=Doward |date=14 November 2010 |access-date=22 June 2020 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=[[Guardian News & Media Limited]] |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731215624/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/nov/14/sniper-escapes-friendly-fire-death-charges |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Tarnak Farm incident]] when US Air National Guard pilots in 2002 bombed 12 Canadian soldiers, four of whom were killed;<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=40204274 |title=Reporting on Fratricide: Canadian Newspapers and the Incident at Tarnak Farm, Afghanistan |first=Mark |last=Yaniszewski |journal=[[International Journal]] |volume=62 |issue=2 |year=2007 |pages=362–380 |publisher=[[Sage Publications Ltd|Sage Publications, Ltd.]] |doi=10.1177/002070200706200210|s2cid=141837377 }}</ref> these were the first Canadian casualties of the war in Afghanistan.
==See also==
* ''[[Friendly Fire (1979 film)|Friendly Fire]]'', 1979 television docudrama about a high-profile friendly fire incident during the Vietnam War ▼* ''[[A Second Knock at the Door]]'' (2011 documentary film)
▲* ''[[Friendly Fire (1979 film)|Friendly Fire]]'', 1979 television docudrama about a high-profile friendly fire incident during the Vietnam War
* [[Identification friend or foe]] (IFF), aviation technology
* [[Fragging]], the intentional killing of a fellow soldier.
== Notes ==
* Regan, Geoffrey (1995) ''Blue on Blue: A History of Friendly Fire'', Avon Books, NY; {{ISBN|0380776553}}
* Regan, Geoffrey (2004) ''More Military Blunders'', Carlton Books {{ISBN|9781844427109}}
* Shrader, Charles R. (1982) [https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a211713.pdf ''Amicicide: The Problem of Friendly Fire in Modern War''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420195917/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a211713.pdf |date=20 April 2021 }}, US Command & Staff College, Fort Leavenworth: University Press of the Pacific, 2005; {{ISBN|1410219917}}
==External links==
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