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{{Art of Italy}}
'''Duecento''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|dj|uː|ə|ˈ|tʃ|ɛ|n|t|oʊ}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/duecento|title=duecento|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> {{IPA
The period built on the so-called [[Renaissance of the 12th century]], and movements originating elsewhere, such as the [[Gothic architecture]] of France. Most of the innovation in both the visual arts and literature was concentrated in the second half of the century, after about 1250, when major new directions opened up in both painting and sculpture, mostly in northern Italy, and the ''[[Dolce Stil Novo]]'' (''Sweet New Style'') emerged in poetry.
==Characteristics==
In the 13th century, much of [[Europe]] experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the [[Hanseatic League]] of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the 4th century. The [[Italian city-states|city-states of Italy]] expanded greatly during this period and grew in power
[[File:1252-1303 fiorino d'oro III serie.JPG|thumb|left|upright|The gold [[Italian coin florin|florin]] of [[Florence
During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with the creation in Italy of the [[double-entry book-keeping]], [[joint stock companies]], an international [[banking]] system, a systematized [[foreign exchange market]], [[insurance]], and [[government debt]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Burke |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Burke (historian) |title=The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy |page=232 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=23 February 2014 |isbn=9780691162409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uo9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232}}</ref> Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold [[Italian coin florin|florin]] became the main currency of international trade. The [[Republic of Venice]] and the [[Republic of Genova]] dominated the trade in the Mediterranean sea.
Many argue that the ideas that characterized the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th century
The Duecento was followed by the beginning of the [[Italian Renaissance]] during the [[Trecento]].
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==Literature==
The thirteenth-century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. During this century, the standard modern [[Italian language]] began to be fixed, mainly as a [[literary language]]. Previously each region used its own language, as many continue to do, at least in the common spoken language. The standard modern Italian language began in poetic and literary writings of [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] and [[Sicily|Sicilian]] writers of the 12th century, and the grammar and core lexicon are basically unchanged from those used in Florence in the 13th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/storia-della-lingua_(Enciclopedia-dell'Italiano)/|title=Storia della lingua|last=Coletti|first=Vittorio|publisher=Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana|access-date=10 October 2015|quote=L'italiano di oggi ha ancora in gran parte la stessa grammatica e usa ancora lo stesso lessico del fiorentino letterario del Trecento.|year=2011}}</ref>
It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], or [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]. The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as the ''[[Dolce Stil Novo]]'' (''Sweet New Style'', which emphasized [[Platonic love|Platonic]] rather than [[courtly love]]) came into its own, pioneered by poets like [[Guittone d'Arezzo]] and [[Guido Guinizelli]]. Especially in [[poetry]], major changes in [[Italian literature]] had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began. An increasing number of works began to be written in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance.
Written works expanded beyond works of [[theology]] and towards the pre-Christian eras of [[Roman Empire|Imperial Rome]] and [[Ancient Greece]]. This is not to say that no religious works were
▲This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' reflects a distinctly medieval world view. This masterpiece helped establish the [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan language]], in which it is written (also in most present-day Italian-market editions), as the standardized [[Italian language]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lepschy |first=Anna Laura |author-link=Anna Laura Lepschy |last2=Lepschy |first2=Giulio C. |title=The Italian Language Today |year=1977 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ph1dAAAAMAAJ |publisher=[[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]] |pages=284 |isbn=9780091280208 |jstor=478819}}</ref>
[[Christianity]] remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the [[classics]] coming into their own as a second primary influence.
Literature in Latin continued to be written, with Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]]'s ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' a massive and unfinished summary and exploration of the [[theology]] of the medieval church, which has continued to be influential.
[[File:Duccio triptych NatGalLon.jpg|thumb|left|''Madonna and Child'' by [[Duccio di Buoninsegna]], created in 1280]]▼
==Painting==
▲[[File:Duccio triptych NatGalLon.jpg|thumb|left|''Madonna and Child'' by [[Duccio di Buoninsegna]],
[[Italo-Byzantine]] (or ''maniera greca'') painting is a term for [[panel painting]]s produced in Italy, and Western Europe generally, under heavy influence from the [[icon]]s of [[Byzantine art]], whose many variations of the subject of the [[Madonna and Child]] were copied, though the full Byzantine technique and style was not. This remained the predominant style in Italy until new developments came in [[Tuscany]] and Rome later in the century, and remained common in many areas well into the next century and beyond.
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The art of the region of Tuscany (and northern Italy) in the second half of the 13th century was dominated by two masters: [[Cimabue]] of [[Florence]] and [[Duccio]] of [[Siena]]. Their commissions were mostly religious paintings, several of them being very large altarpieces showing the Madonna and Child. These two painters, with their contemporaries, [[Guido of Siena]], [[Coppo di Marcovaldo]] and the mysterious painter upon whose style the school may have originated, the so-called Master of St Bernardino, all worked in a manner that was highly formalised and dependent upon the ancient tradition of icon painting.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=White |title=Duccio: Tuscan Art and the Medieval Workshop |year=1979 |publisher=[[Thames and Hudson]] |pages=280 |isbn=9780500091357 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sPmLkQEACAAJ |oclc=5976552}}</ref> Cimabue and Duccio both took steps in the direction of greater naturalism, as did their contemporary, [[Pietro Cavallini]] of Rome.
[[File:Giotto - Scrovegni - -31- - Kiss of Judas.jpg|thumb|[[Giotto]], ''Kiss of Judas'', [[Scrovegni Chapel]], c. 1305]]
[[Giotto]] (born in 1266) by tradition a shepherd boy from the hills north of Florence, became Cimabue's apprentice and emerged as the most outstanding painter of his time
==Sculpture==
[[File:Pisa Baptistery, architraves over east portal, c1200.jpg|thumb|Architrave of door to the [[Pisa Baptistery]], c. 1200]]
[[File:Pulpit - Baptistry - Pisa 2014 B.jpg|thumb|[[Nicola Pisano]], Nativity and [[Annunciation]] scene from the [[pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery]], 1260]]
[[Italian Gothic]] architecture began to appear in the early Duecento in northern Italy, under influence from France. The first Italian Gothic edifices were [[Cistercian]] abbeys. They spread in the whole Italian territory, often adapting the construction techniques to the local traditions. There were in fact [[brickwork]] edifices in the [[Pianura Padana]], while stone prevailed in central Italy and [[Tuscany]], where polychrome wall decoration sometimes continued from the local [[Romanesque style|Romanesque]] tradition.▼
[[Relief]]s, as opposed to [[Statue|sculpture in the round]], were a much larger proportion of fine sculpture than has been the case subsequently. Modern viewers are therefore relatively unused to the form, and inclined to overlook them. Until the ''[[Laocoön Group]]'' was dug up in the centre of Rome in 1506, the most dramatic and athletic poses in known [[Roman sculpture]]s were crowded reliefs on Late [[Roman sarcophagi]], while the known statues were nearly all dignified but rather static standing portraits.<ref>Clark, 219–221, 236–237; Avery, 181; Seymour, 8</ref>
[[Nicola Pisano]] (active c, 1240s to 1278) was the leading sculptor of what [[Erwin Panofsky]] called "the classicizing Proto-Renaissance". His major works were sets of reliefs, especially those on the large raised [[pulpit]]s of the [[pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery]] (dated 1260) and [[Siena Cathedral Pulpit]]. He had a large workshop, including his son [[Giovanni Pisano]], and the many sculptures on the [[Fontana Maggiore|Great Fountain]] at [[Perugia]] (1277–1278) were probably designed by Nicola, but mostly carved by them. His larger panels show crowded scenes, sometimes combining scenes in a single composition, for example the ''[[Annunciation]]'' and ''[[Nativity of Christ]]'' at the Pisa baptistery; most depictions at this period would have shown two scenes in different compartments. Pisano's youth in his native [[Apulia]] in the far south of Italy was passed when [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] reigned, and mostly lived there, promoting a Roman revival in the arts. Pisano is clearly influenced by study of [[Ancient Roman sarcophagi]].<ref>Hartt, 51–58; Avery, 11–18; White, 74–91; Osborne, 876–877</ref>
The most important edifices include the [[Chiaravalle Abbey]] in northern Italy and the [[Casamari Abbey]] in central Italy. Among the non-Cistercian buildings of this century which were influenced by the Gothic style, though still presenting important Romanesque features, are the [[Parma Baptistery]] by [[Benedetto Antelami]] and the church of [[Sant'Andrea, Vercelli|Sant'Andrea]] in [[Vercelli]], also featuring Antelami's influences.▼
The Pisa pulpit was probably originally polychrome, which had been usual for Italian Romanesque sculpture. It also seems to have largely carved by Nicola himself.<ref>White, 81-83</ref> The [[Arca di San Domenico]], a large free-standing tomb monument for [[Saint Dominic]] in [[Bologna]], was begun in 1264, though work by many other hands continued for centuries. Nicola and his team completed the reliefs around the [[sarcophagus]].
[[File:Giovanni pisano, pulpito di sant'andrea, 1298-1301, 05.jpg|thumb|[[Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia (Giovanni Pisano)|Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia]], by [[Giovanni Pisano]], 1297-1301]]
Nicola's son [[Giovanni Pisano]] took over his father's workshop in the 1280s, and was much more receptive to Gothic style than his father. His [[Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia (Giovanni Pisano)|Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia]] is similar in form to his father's ones in Pisa and Siena, but shows a different style.<ref>White, 113–142; Hartt, 55–58</ref> Over the next century Gothic and classical influences were found together in many large works, sometimes in contention.<ref>White, 591–614</ref>
The other leading sculptor of the period was [[Arnolfo di Cambio]] (c. 1240 – 1300/1310), who was also an architect. Born in [[Tuscany]], he also trained with Nicola Pisano, and was his chief assistant on the [[Siena Cathedral Pulpit]]. After he began working as an independent master he spent two periods in Rome, bringing the new Tuscan style there. He worked on a number of papal tombs.
==Architecture==
▲[[Italian Gothic
The Dominican and Franciscan orders of [[friar]]s, founded by [[Saint Dominic]] and Saint [[Francis of Assisi]] respectively, became popular and well-funded in the period, and embarked on large building programmes, mostly using a cheaper and less highly decorated version of Gothic. Large schemes of [[fresco]] murals were cheap, and could be used to instruct congregations. The [[Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi]], in effect two large churches, one above the other on a hilly site, is one of the best examples, begun in 1228 and painted with frescos by [[Cimabue]], [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]], and others in the next century.
▲The most important
This century saw the construction of numerous Gothic buildings for the Mendicant Orders. The most important ones include:
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*[[Castel del Monte (Apulia)|Castel del Monte]], in [[Apulia]]
*[[Castel Maniace]], in [[syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Sicily]]
*[[City Gate of Capua]], an imperial Romanesque evocation of a Roman [[triumphal arch]], in [[Capua]]. This is now destroyed though some of the sculpture is in museums.
In this period some cathedrals were also constructed or finished, such as
==Gallery==
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File:Bonaventura Berlinghieri Francesco.jpg|''Vita di San Francesco'', of [[Bonaventura Berlinghieri]], 1235
File:Cimabue 025.jpg|Cross of ''Santa Croce'', of [[Cimabue]]
File:Schema facciata.JPG|
File:Giotto - Legend of St Francis - -15- - Sermon to the Birds.jpg|[[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]]: St. Francis' Sermon to the Birds
File:Assisis Basilica superiore.jpg|[[Basilica of San Francesco of Assisi]]: Nave of the upper basilica (built 1228–1253)
File:Pisano's pulpit at Siena.JPG|
File:1010PerugiaFontanaMaggiore.JPG|[[Perugia]]'s
File:Guido da Siena - Fuga in Egitto.jpg|[[Guido da Siena]]'s "
</gallery>
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* Shaw, Prue. ''Reading Dante: From Here to Eternity''. Liveright Publishing. New York, 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-63149-006-4}}.
* Nolthenius, Helene. ‘’ Duecento: The Late Middle Ages in Italy’’. McGraw-Hill. New York, 1968.
*[[John White (art historian)|White, John]]. ''Art and Architecture in Italy, 1250 to 1400'', London, Penguin Books, 1966, 3rd edn 1993 (now Yale History of Art series). {{ISBN|0300055854}}
{{Italy topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
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[[Category:13th century in Italy]]
[[Category:Italian Renaissance]]
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