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[[File:Practical Demonstrations of Ergonomic Principles.webm|thumb|Practical demonstrations of ergonomic principles]]
'''Ergonomics''', also known as '''human factors''' or '''human factors engineering''' ('''HFE'''), is the application of [[Psychology|psychological]] and [[Physiology|physiological]] principles to the [[engineering]] and design of products, processes, and systems.
The field is a combination of numerous disciplines, such as [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[engineering]], [[biomechanics]], [[industrial design]], [[physiology]], [[anthropometry]], [[interaction design]], [[visual design]], [[user experience]], and [[user interface design]]. Human factors research employs methods and approaches from these and other knowledge disciplines to study human behavior and generate data relevant to previously stated goals. In studying and sharing learning on the design of equipment, devices, and processes that fit the human body and its [[Cognition|cognitive]] abilities, the two terms, "human factors" and "ergonomics", are essentially synonymous as to their [[referent]] and [[Meaning (psychology)|meaning]] in current literature.<ref name=iso6385>[[ISO 6385]] defines "ergonomics" and the "study of human factors" similarly, as the "scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles and methods to design to optimize overall human performance."</ref><ref name=IEHFdef>{{cite web|title=What is ergonomics?|date=9 September 2023|publisher=[[Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors]]|quote=Essentially yes, they are different terms with the same meaning but one term may be more in favour in one country or in one industry than another. They can be used interchangeably.|url=https://www.keytools-ergonomics.co.uk/ergonomics/what-is-ergonomics/|access-date=4 April 2021|archive-date=30 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730093236/https://www.keytools-ergonomics.co.uk/ergonomics/what-is-ergonomics/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=criop>{{cite web|title=CRIOP|url=https://www.sintef.no/upload/Teknologi_og_samfunn/Sikkerhet%20og%20p%c3%a5litelighet/Prosjekter/CRIOP/CRIOPReport.pdf|publisher=SINTEF|quote=Ergonomics is a scientific discipline that applies systematic methods and knowledge about people to evaluate and approve the interaction between individuals, technology and organisation. The aim is to create a working environment and the tools in them for maximum work efficiency and maximum worker health and safety ... Human factors is a scientific discipline that applies systematic methods and knowledge about people to evaluate and improve the interaction between individuals, technology and organisations. The aim is to create a working environment (that to the largest extent possible) contributes to achieving healthy, effective and safe operations.}}</ref>
The [[International Ergonomics Association]] defines ergonomics or human factors as follows:<ref name="IEAdef">International Ergonomics Association. [https://iea.cc/what-is-ergonomics/ ''Human Factors/Ergonomics (HF/E)'']. Website. Retrieved 7 June 2020.</ref>
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[[Ergonomic hazard|Physical ergonomics]] is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.<ref name="IEAdef"/> Physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in the [[industrial design|design]] of both consumer and industrial products for optimizing performance and to preventing / treating work-related disorders by reducing the mechanisms behind mechanically induced acute and chronic musculoskeletal injuries / disorders.<ref>Madeleine, P., Vangsgaard, S., de Zee, M., Kristiansen, M. V., Verma, R., Kersting, U. G., Villumsen, M., & Samani, A. (2014). Ergonomics in sports and at work. In Proceedings, 11th International Symposium on Human Factors in Organisational Design and Management, ODAM, & 46th Annual Nordic Ergonomics Society Conference, NES, 17–20 August 2014, Copenhagen, Denmark (pp. 57-62). International Ergonomics Association.</ref> Risk factors such as localized mechanical pressures, force and posture in a sedentary office environment lead to injuries attributed to an occupational environment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ehscp.org/resources/Documents/Ergonomics/Final%20Version%2011-06-07.pdf|title=Ergonomic Guidelines for Common Job Functions Within The Telecommunication Industry}}</ref> Physical ergonomics is important to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as [[arthritis]] (both chronic and temporary) or [[carpal tunnel syndrome]]. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful, or render a device unusable, for those who are. Many ergonomically designed products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders, and to treat pressure-related [[chronic pain]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kaplan|first=Sally|title=6 affordable products that have helped me deal with back pain and muscle tension|url=https://www.insider.com/products-that-reduce-back-pain|access-date=2021-03-15|website=Insider}}</ref>
One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs) result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and work disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1590/s0034-89102008000100014|pmid = 18200347|title = Clinical and functional aspects of work-related musculoskeletal disorders among active workers|journal = Revista de Saúde Pública|volume = 42|issue = 1|pages = 108–116|year = 2008|last1 = Walsh|first1 = Isabel A P.|last2 = Oishi|first2 = Jorge|last3 = Coury|first3 = Helenice J C Gil|doi-access = free}}</ref> Every year, 1.8 million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work.<ref>{{cite news | title=BEACON Biodynamics and Ergonomics Symposium | date=27 October 2000 | location=University of Connecticut, Farmington, Conn. | author = Charles N. Jeffress}}</ref> Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of worker complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or pain that does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions; frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions; or use of vibrating equipment.<ref name=NIOSH>{{cite web |url=http://www.buildings.com/articles/detail.aspx?contentID=1563 |title=Workplace Ergonomics: NIOSH Provides Steps to Minimize Musculoskeletal Disorders |year=2003 |access-date=2008-04-23 |archive-date=19 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619070428/http://www.buildings.com/articles/detail.aspx?contentID=1563 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has found substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers' compensation costs, increase productivity and decrease employee turnover.<ref>{{cite book | title=BEACON Biodynamics and Ergonomics Symposium | date=27 October 2000 |
[[File:Microsoft Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000.png|thumb|Ergonomically designed keyboard]]
Innovative workstations that are being tested include sit-stand desks, height adjustable desk, treadmill desks, pedal devices and cycle ergometers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What Is Ergonomics and Its Application in The Real World|url=https://www.spassway.com/blogs/office-ergonomics/what-is-ergonomics-and-its-application-in-the-real-world|access-date=2021-03-15|website=spassway|language=en}}</ref> In multiple studies these new workstations resulted in decreased waist circumference and improved psychological well-being. However a significant number of additional studies have seen no marked improvement in health outcomes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Neuhaus |first1=M. |last2=Eakin |first2=E. G.|last3=Straker |first3=L. |last4=Owen |first4=N. |last5=Dunstan| first5=D. W.|last6=Reid |first6=N. |last7=Healy |first7=G. N. |date=October 2014|title=Reducing occupational sedentary time: a systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence on activity-permissive workstations|journal=Obesity Reviews |volume=15|issue=10|pages=822–838|doi=10.1111/obr.12201|issn=1467-789X|pmid=25040784|s2cid=9092084|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:342216/OAUQ342216.pdf}}</ref>
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Bernardino Ramazzini was one of the first people to systematically study the illness that resulted from work earning himself the nickname "father of occupational medicine". In the late 1600s and early 1700s Ramazzini visited many worksites where he documented the movements of laborers and spoke to them about their ailments. He then published "De Morbis Artificum Diatriba" (Latin for Diseases of Workers) which detailed occupations, common illnesses, remedies.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.2105/AJPH.91.9.1382|pmid = 11527763|pmc = 1446786|title = Bernardino Ramazzini: The Father of Occupational Medicine|journal = American Journal of Public Health|volume = 91|issue = 9|pages = 1382|year = 2001|last1 = Franco|first1 = Giuliano|last2 = Franco|first2 = Francesca}}</ref> In the 19th century, [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]] pioneered the "[[scientific management]]" method, which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example, triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was reached.<ref name="Meister">[https://yeniisfikirleribul.com/ergonomi-nedir-ergonomik-tasarim-ornekleri-2021/ Nikolayevich Myasishchev estia.com/library/1358216/the-history-of-human-factors-and-ergonomics] The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics{{Dead link|date=January 2020|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, David Meister</ref> [[Frank Gilbreth|Frank]] and [[Lillian Moller Gilbreth|Lillian Gilbreth]] expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to develop the "[[time and motion study]]". They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in [[bricklaying]] from 18 to 4.5,{{clarify|reason =what is .5 of a motion?|date=July 2019}} allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.<ref name="Meister"/>
However, this approach was rejected by Russian researchers who focused on the well-being of the worker. At the [[First Conference on Scientific Organization of Labour]] (1921) [[Vladimir Bekhterev]] and [[Vladimir Nikolayevich Myasishchev]] criticised Taylorism. Bekhterev argued that "The ultimate ideal of the labour problem is not in it [Taylorism], but is in such organisation of the labour process that would yield a maximum of efficiency coupled with a minimum of health hazards, absence of fatigue and a guarantee of the sound health and all round personal development of the working people."<ref name =Moray>{{
|publisher = Routledge
|isbn = 9780415322577
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The [[Human Factors and Ergonomics Society]] (HFES) was founded in 1957. The Society's mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds.
The
The [[International Ergonomics Association]] (IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of September 2008, the International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies.
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</ref> and the first published study of posture appearing in 1955.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hewes | first1 = G | year = 1955 | title = World Distribution of Certain Postural Habits | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 57 | issue = 2| pages = 231–244 | jstor = 666393 | doi = 10.1525/aa.1955.57.2.02a00040 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
As the American workforce began to shift towards sedentary employment, the prevalence of [WMSD/cognitive issues/ etc..] began to rise. In 1900, 41% of the US workforce was employed in agriculture but by 2000 that had dropped to 1.9%<ref>C. Dimitri, A. Effland, and N. Conklin, (2005) The 20th Century Transformation of U.S. Agriculture and Farm Policy, Economic Information Bulletin Number</ref> This coincides with an increase in growth in desk-based employment (25% of all employment in 2000)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wyatt | first1 = I. D. | year = 2006 | title = Occupational changes during the 20th century | journal = Monthly Lab. Rev. | volume = 129 | page = 35 }}</ref> and the surveillance of non-fatal workplace injuries by OSHA and Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1971.<ref>{{
Currently, there is a large proportion of the overall workforce who is employed in low physical activity occupations.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1186/1471-2458-13-296|pmid = 23557495|pmc = 3651291|title = The contribution of office work to sedentary behaviour associated risk|journal = BMC Public Health|volume = 13|pages = 296|year = 2013|last1 = Parry|first1 = Sharon|last2 = Straker|first2 = Leon | doi-access=free }}</ref> Sedentary behavior, such as spending long periods of time in seated positions poses a serious threat for injuries and additional health risks.<ref name="ccohs.ca">Canadian Centre for Occupational Health. (2019, March 15). (none). Retrieved February, 2019, from https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/sitting/sitting_overview.html</ref> Unfortunately, even though some workplaces make an effort to provide a well designed environment for sedentary employees, any employee who is performing large amounts of sitting will likely experience discomfort.<ref name="ccohs.ca"/>
There are existing conditions that would predispose both individuals and populations to an increase in prevalence of living sedentary lifestyles, including: socioeconomic determinants, education levels, occupation, living environment, age (as mentioned above) and more.<ref name="Konevic, S. 2015">{{Cite journal |pmid = 26587469|pmc = 4645725|year = 2015|last1 = Konevic|first1 = S.|title = Association of Socioeconomic Factors and Sedentary Lifestyle in Belgrade's Suburb, Working Class Community|journal = Iranian Journal of Public Health|volume = 44|issue = 8|pages = 1053–60|last2 = Martinovic|first2 = J.|last3 = Djonovic|first3 = N.}}</ref> A study published by the Iranian Journal of Public Health examined socioeconomic factors and sedentary lifestyle effects for individuals in a working community. The study concluded that individuals who reported living in low income environments were more inclined to living sedentary behavior compared to those who reported being of high socioeconomic status.<ref name="Konevic, S. 2015"/> Individuals who achieve less education are also considered to be a high risk group to partake in sedentary lifestyles, however, each community is different and has different resources available that may vary this risk.<ref name="Konevic, S. 2015"/> Oftentimes, larger worksites are associated with increased occupational sitting. Those who work in environments that are classified as business and office jobs are typically more exposed to sitting and sedentary behavior while in the workplace. Additionally, occupations that are full-time, have schedule flexibility, are also included in that demographic, and are more likely to sit often throughout their workday.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.pmedr.2017.03.008|pmid = 28373929|pmc = 5374873|title = Work-related correlates of occupational sitting in a diverse sample of employees in Midwest metropolitan cities|journal = Preventive Medicine Reports|volume = 6|pages = 197–202|year = 2017|last1 = Yang|first1 = Lin|last2 = Hipp|first2 = J. Aaron|last3 = Lee|first3 = Jung Ae|last4 = Tabak|first4 = Rachel G.|last5 = Dodson|first5 = Elizabeth A.|last6 = Marx|first6 = Christine M.|last7 = Brownson|first7 = Ross C.}}</ref>
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==Methods==
Until recently, methods used to evaluate human factors and ergonomics ranged from simple questionnaires to more complex and expensive [[usability]] labs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stanton |first=N. |author2=Salmon, P. |author3=Walker G. |author4=Baber, C. |author5=Jenkins, D. |title=Human Factors Methods; A Practical Guide For Engineering and Design. |location=Aldershot, Hampshire |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Limited |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7546-4661-7 }}</ref> Some of the more common human factors methods are listed below:
* '''Ethnographic analysis:''' Using methods derived from [[ethnography]], this process focuses on observing the uses of technology in a practical environment. It is a qualitative and observational method that focuses on "real-world" experience and pressures, and the usage of technology or environments in the workplace. The process is best used early in the design process.<ref name=carrol>{{cite journal | last1 = Carrol | first1 = J.M. | year = 1997 | title = Human-Computer Interaction: Psychology as a Science of Design | journal = Annual Review of Psychology| volume = 48 | pages = 61–83 | doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.61| pmid = 15012476 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.24.5979 }}</ref>▼
* '''[[Focus groups]]''' are another form of qualitative research in which one individual will facilitate discussion and elicit opinions about the technology or process under investigation. This can be on a one-to-one interview basis, or in a group session. Can be used to gain a large quantity of deep qualitative data,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.betteroffice.net/articles/survey-methods-pros-cons/16 |title=Survey Methods, Pros & Cons |publisher=Better Office.net |access-date=2014-04-17}}</ref> though due to the small sample size, can be subject to a higher degree of individual bias.<ref name=wickens>Wickens, C.D.; Lee J.D.; Liu Y.; Gorden Becker S.E. (1997). An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering, 2nd Edition. Prentice Hall. {{ISBN|0-321-01229-1}}.</ref> Can be used at any point in the design process, as it is largely dependent on the exact questions to be pursued, and the structure of the group. Can be extremely costly.▼
▲*'''Ethnographic analysis:''' Using methods derived from [[ethnography]], this process focuses on observing the uses of technology in a practical environment. It is a qualitative and observational method that focuses on "real-world" experience and pressures, and the usage of technology or environments in the workplace. The process is best used early in the design process.<ref name=carrol>{{cite journal | last1 = Carrol | first1 = J.M. | year = 1997 | title = Human-Computer Interaction: Psychology as a Science of Design | journal = Annual Review of Psychology| volume = 48 | pages = 61–83 | doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.61| pmid = 15012476 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.24.5979 }}</ref>
* '''[[Iterative design]]:''' Also known as prototyping, the iterative design process seeks to involve users at several stages of design, to correct problems as they emerge. As prototypes emerge from the design process, these are subjected to other forms of analysis as outlined in this article, and the results are then taken and incorporated into the new design. Trends among users are analyzed, and products redesigned. This can become a costly process, and needs to be done as soon as possible in the design process before designs become too concrete.<ref name=carrol />▼
▲*'''[[Focus groups]]''' are another form of qualitative research in which one individual will facilitate discussion and elicit opinions about the technology or process under investigation. This can be on a one-to-one interview basis, or in a group session. Can be used to gain a large quantity of deep qualitative data,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.betteroffice.net/articles/survey-methods-pros-cons/16 |title=Survey Methods, Pros & Cons |publisher=Better Office.net |access-date=2014-04-17}}</ref> though due to the small sample size, can be subject to a higher degree of individual bias.<ref name=wickens>Wickens, C.D.; Lee J.D.; Liu Y.; Gorden Becker S.E. (1997). An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering, 2nd Edition. Prentice Hall. {{ISBN|0-321-01229-1}}.</ref> Can be used at any point in the design process, as it is largely dependent on the exact questions to be pursued, and the structure of the group. Can be extremely costly.
* '''[[Meta-analysis]]:''' A supplementary technique used to examine a wide body of already existing data or literature to derive trends or form hypotheses to aid design decisions. As part of a literature survey, a meta-analysis can be performed to discern a collective trend from individual variables.<ref name=wickens />▼
▲*'''[[Iterative design]]:''' Also known as prototyping, the iterative design process seeks to involve users at several stages of design, to correct problems as they emerge. As prototypes emerge from the design process, these are subjected to other forms of analysis as outlined in this article, and the results are then taken and incorporated into the new design. Trends among users are analyzed, and products redesigned. This can become a costly process, and needs to be done as soon as possible in the design process before designs become too concrete.<ref name=carrol />
* '''Subjects-in-tandem:''' Two subjects are asked to work concurrently on a series of tasks while vocalizing their analytical observations. The technique is also known as "Co-Discovery" as participants tend to feed off of each other's comments to generate a richer set of observations than is often possible with the participants separately. This is observed by the researcher, and can be used to discover usability difficulties. This process is usually recorded.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}▼
▲*'''[[Meta-analysis]]:''' A supplementary technique used to examine a wide body of already existing data or literature to derive trends or form hypotheses to aid design decisions. As part of a literature survey, a meta-analysis can be performed to discern a collective trend from individual variables.<ref name=wickens />
* '''Surveys and questionnaires:''' A commonly used technique outside of human factors as well, surveys and questionnaires have an advantage in that they can be administered to a large group of people for relatively low cost, enabling the researcher to gain a large amount of data. The validity of the data obtained is, however, always in question, as the questions must be written and interpreted correctly, and are, by definition, subjective. Those who actually respond are in effect self-selecting as well, widening the gap between the sample and the population further.<ref name=wickens />▼
▲*'''Subjects-in-tandem:''' Two subjects are asked to work concurrently on a series of tasks while vocalizing their analytical observations. The technique is also known as "Co-Discovery" as participants tend to feed off of each other's comments to generate a richer set of observations than is often possible with the participants separately. This is observed by the researcher, and can be used to discover usability difficulties. This process is usually recorded.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}
* '''[[Task analysis]]:''' A process with roots in [[activity theory]], task analysis is a way of systematically describing human interaction with a system or process to understand how to match the demands of the system or process to human capabilities. The complexity of this process is generally proportional to the complexity of the task being analyzed, and so can vary in cost and time involvement. It is a qualitative and observational process. Best used early in the design process.<ref name=wickens />▼
▲*'''Surveys and questionnaires:''' A commonly used technique outside of human factors as well, surveys and questionnaires have an advantage in that they can be administered to a large group of people for relatively low cost, enabling the researcher to gain a large amount of data. The validity of the data obtained is, however, always in question, as the questions must be written and interpreted correctly, and are, by definition, subjective. Those who actually respond are in effect self-selecting as well, widening the gap between the sample and the population further.<ref name=wickens />
* '''[[Human performance modeling]]:''' A method of quantifying human behavior, cognition, and processes; a tool used by human factors researchers and practitioners for both the analysis of human function and for the development of systems designed for optimal user experience and interaction.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A Mixed Reality system for the ergonomic assessment of industrial workstations|journal=International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing |date=2020|doi=10.1007/s12008-020-00664-x |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-020-00664-x|last1=Bruno |first1=Fabio |last2=Barbieri |first2=Loris |last3=Muzzupappa |first3=Maurizio |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=805–812 |s2cid=225517293 }}</ref>▼
▲*'''[[Task analysis]]:''' A process with roots in [[activity theory]], task analysis is a way of systematically describing human interaction with a system or process to understand how to match the demands of the system or process to human capabilities. The complexity of this process is generally proportional to the complexity of the task being analyzed, and so can vary in cost and time involvement. It is a qualitative and observational process. Best used early in the design process.<ref name=wickens />
* '''[[Think aloud protocol]]:''' Also known as "concurrent verbal protocol", this is the process of asking a user to execute a series of tasks or use technology, while continuously verbalizing their thoughts so that a researcher can gain insights as to the users' analytical process. Can be useful for finding design flaws that do not affect task performance, but may have a negative cognitive effect on the user. Also useful for utilizing experts to better understand [[procedural knowledge]] of the task in question. Less expensive than focus groups, but tends to be more specific and subjective.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kuusela | first1 = H. | last2 = Paul | first2 = P. | year = 2000 | title = A comparison of concurrent and retrospective verbal protocol analysis | journal = The American Journal of Psychology | volume = 113 | issue = 3| pages = 387–404 | doi=10.2307/1423365 | pmid=10997234| jstor = 1423365 }}</ref>▼
▲*'''[[Human performance modeling]]:''' A method of quantifying human behavior, cognition, and processes; a tool used by human factors researchers and practitioners for both the analysis of human function and for the development of systems designed for optimal user experience and interaction.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A Mixed Reality system for the ergonomic assessment of industrial workstations|journal=International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing |date=2020|doi=10.1007/s12008-020-00664-x |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12008-020-00664-x|last1=Bruno |first1=Fabio |last2=Barbieri |first2=Loris |last3=Muzzupappa |first3=Maurizio |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=805–812 |s2cid=225517293 }}</ref>
* '''[[User analysis]]:''' This process is based around designing for the attributes of the intended user or operator, establishing the characteristics that define them, creating a [[persona]] for the user.<ref>Obinna P. Fidelis, Olusoji A. Adalumo, Ephraim O. Nwoye (2018). Ergonomic Suitability of Library
▲*'''[[Think aloud protocol]]:''' Also known as "concurrent verbal protocol", this is the process of asking a user to execute a series of tasks or use technology, while continuously verbalizing their thoughts so that a researcher can gain insights as to the users' analytical process. Can be useful for finding design flaws that do not affect task performance, but may have a negative cognitive effect on the user. Also useful for utilizing experts to better understand [[procedural knowledge]] of the task in question. Less expensive than focus groups, but tends to be more specific and subjective.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kuusela | first1 = H. | last2 = Paul | first2 = P. | year = 2000 | title = A comparison of concurrent and retrospective verbal protocol analysis | journal = The American Journal of Psychology | volume = 113 | issue = 3| pages = 387–404 | doi=10.2307/1423365 | pmid=10997234| jstor = 1423365 }}</ref>
* '''"Wizard of Oz":''' This is a comparatively uncommon technique but has seen some use in mobile devices. Based upon the [[Wizard of Oz experiment]], this technique involves an operator who remotely controls the operation of a device to imitate the response of an actual computer program. It has the advantage of producing a highly changeable set of reactions, but can be quite costly and difficult to undertake.▼
▲*'''[[User analysis]]:''' This process is based around designing for the attributes of the intended user or operator, establishing the characteristics that define them, creating a [[persona]] for the user.<ref>Obinna P. Fidelis, Olusoji A. Adalumo, Ephraim O. Nwoye (2018). Ergonomic Suitability of Library Readers’ Furniture in a Nigerian University; AJERD Vol 1, Issue 3,366-370</ref> Best done at the outset of the design process, a user analysis will attempt to predict the most common users, and the characteristics that they would be assumed to have in common. This can be problematic if the design concept does not match the actual user, or if the identified are too vague to make clear design decisions from. This process is, however, usually quite inexpensive, and commonly used.<ref name=wickens />
* '''Methods analysis''' is the process of studying the tasks a worker completes using a step-by-step investigation. Each task in broken down into smaller steps until each motion the worker performs is described. Doing so enables you to see exactly where repetitive or straining tasks occur.▼
▲*'''"Wizard of Oz":''' This is a comparatively uncommon technique but has seen some use in mobile devices. Based upon the [[Wizard of Oz experiment]], this technique involves an operator who remotely controls the operation of a device to imitate the response of an actual computer program. It has the advantage of producing a highly changeable set of reactions, but can be quite costly and difficult to undertake.
* '''Time studies''' determine the time required for a worker to complete each task. Time studies are often used to analyze cyclical jobs. They are considered "event based" studies because time measurements are triggered by the occurrence of predetermined events.<ref name=Thomas>{{cite book | title=Measurement and Design of Work | year=2007 | author = Thomas J. Armstrong}}</ref>▼
▲*'''Methods analysis''' is the process of studying the tasks a worker completes using a step-by-step investigation. Each task in broken down into smaller steps until each motion the worker performs is described. Doing so enables you to see exactly where repetitive or straining tasks occur.
* '''[[Work sampling]]''' is a method in which the job is sampled at random intervals to determine the proportion of total time spent on a particular task.<ref name=Thomas/> It provides insight into how often workers are performing tasks which might cause strain on their bodies.▼
▲*'''Time studies''' determine the time required for a worker to complete each task. Time studies are often used to analyze cyclical jobs. They are considered "event based" studies because time measurements are triggered by the occurrence of predetermined events.<ref name=Thomas>{{cite book | title=Measurement and Design of Work | year=2007 | author = Thomas J. Armstrong}}</ref>
* '''[[Predetermined time systems]]''' are methods for analyzing the time spent by workers on a particular task. One of the most widely used predetermined time system is called Methods-Time-Measurement. Other common work measurement systems include MODAPTS and MOST.{{clarify|what do these letters mean?|date=November 2020}} Industry specific applications based on PTS are [[Seweasy]], MODAPTS and GSD as seen in paper: {{cite journal | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.2212100 | title=Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail | journal=SSRN Electronic Journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = Doug| year=2013 | s2cid=166733679 }} .{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}▼
▲*'''[[Work sampling]]''' is a method in which the job is sampled at random intervals to determine the proportion of total time spent on a particular task.<ref name=Thomas/> It provides insight into how often workers are performing tasks which might cause strain on their bodies.
* '''[[Cognitive walkthrough]]:''' This method is a [[usability inspection]] method in which the evaluators can apply user perspective to task scenarios to identify design problems. As applied to macroergonomics, evaluators are able to analyze the usability of work system designs to identify how well a work system is organized and how well the workflow is integrated.<ref name=Brookhuis>Brookhuis, K., Hedge, A., Hendrick, H., Salas, E., and Stanton, N. (2005). Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Models. Florida: CRC Press.</ref>
▲*'''[[Predetermined time systems]]''' are methods for analyzing the time spent by workers on a particular task. One of the most widely used predetermined time system is called Methods-Time-Measurement. Other common work measurement systems include MODAPTS and MOST.{{clarify|what do these letters mean?|date=November 2020}} Industry specific applications based on PTS are [[Seweasy]], MODAPTS and GSD as seen in paper: {{cite journal | doi = 10.2139/ssrn.2212100 | title=Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail | journal=SSRN Electronic Journal | last1 = Miller | first1 = Doug| year=2013 | s2cid=166733679 }} .{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}
* '''[[
* '''High Integration of Technology, Organization, and People:''' This is a manual procedure done step-by-step to apply technological change to the workplace. It allows managers to be more aware of the human and organizational aspects of their technology plans, allowing them to efficiently integrate technology in these contexts.<ref name=Brookhuis/>▼
* '''Top modeler:''' This model helps manufacturing companies identify the organizational changes needed when new technologies are being considered for their process.<ref name=Brookhuis/>
▲*'''High Integration of Technology, Organization, and People:''' This is a manual procedure done step-by-step to apply technological change to the workplace. It allows managers to be more aware of the human and organizational aspects of their technology plans, allowing them to efficiently integrate technology in these contexts.<ref name=Brookhuis/>
* '''
* '''Anthropotechnology:''' This method considers analysis and design modification of systems for the efficient transfer of technology from one culture to another.<ref name=Brookhuis/>
* '''
* '''
* '''Macroergonomic analysis
* '''Virtual manufacturing and response surface methodology:''' This method uses computerized tools and statistical analysis for workstation design.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ben-Gal | display-authors = etal | year = 2002 | title = The Ergonomic Design of Workstation Using Rapid Prototyping and Response Surface Methodology | url = http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/Ergonomics_Paper.pdf | journal = IIE Transactions on Design and Manufacturing | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 375–391 | doi = 10.1080/07408170208928877 | s2cid = 214650306 | access-date = 19 July 2012 | archive-date = 21 July 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721134155/http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/Ergonomics_Paper.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>▼
▲*'''Virtual manufacturing and response surface methodology:''' This method uses computerized tools and statistical analysis for workstation design.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ben-Gal | display-authors = etal | year = 2002 | title = The Ergonomic Design of Workstation Using Rapid Prototyping and Response Surface Methodology | url = http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/Ergonomics_Paper.pdf | journal = IIE Transactions on Design and Manufacturing | volume = 34 | issue = 4 | pages = 375–391 | doi = 10.1080/07408170208928877 | s2cid = 214650306 | access-date = 19 July 2012 | archive-date = 21 July 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721134155/http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~bengal/Ergonomics_Paper.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>
===Weaknesses===
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* [[ISO 9241]]
* [[Occupational Health Science (journal)]]
* [[Wojciech Jastrzębowski]] (1799–1882), a Polish pioneer of ergonomics
==References==
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==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Thomas J. Armstrong (2008), ''Chapter 10: Allowances, Localized Fatigue, Musculoskeletal Disorders, and Biomechanics'' (not yet published){{Clarify|reason=Chapter 10 of what?|date=February 2024}}
* Berlin C. & Adams C. & 2017. ''Production Ergonomics: Designing Work Systems to Support Optimal Human Performance''. London: Ubiquity Press. {{doi|10.5334/bbe}}.
* Jan Dul and Bernard Weedmaster, ''Ergonomics for Beginners''. A classic introduction on ergonomics—Original title: ''Vademecum Ergonomie'' (Dutch)—published and updated since the 1960s.
* Valerie J Gawron (2000), ''Human Performance Measures Handbook'' Lawrence Erlbaum Associates—A useful summary of human performance measures.
Line 193 ⟶ 195:
* Wilson & Corlett, ''Evaluation of Human Work'' A practical ergonomics methodology. Warning: very technical and not a suitable 'intro' to ergonomics
* Zamprotta, Luigi, ''La qualité comme philosophie de la production.Interaction avec l'ergonomie et perspectives futures'', thèse de [[Maîtrise]] ès [[Sciences Appliquées]] – [[Informatique]], Institut d'Etudes Supérieures L'Avenir, [[Brussels]], année universitaire 1992–93, TIU [http://www.tiuonline.com/] Press, Independence, [[Missouri]] (USA), 1994, {{ISBN|0-89697-452-9}}
{{refend}}
( * ''Behavior & Information Technology'' (0.915, 2008)
* ''Ergonomics'' (0.747, 2001–2003)
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