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The hormones of the pituitary have different actions in the body, and the symptoms of hypopituitarism therefore depend on which hormone is deficient. The symptoms may be subtle and are often initially attributed to other causes.<ref name=Schneider>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schneider HJ, Aimaretti G, Kreitschmann-Andermahr I, Stalla GK, Ghigo E |title=Hypopituitarism |journal=Lancet |volume=369 |issue=9571 |pages=1461–70 |date=April 2007 |pmid=17467517 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60673-4|s2cid=208789791 }}</ref><ref name=VanAken>{{cite journal |vauthors=van Aken MO, Lamberts SW |title=Diagnosis and treatment of hypopituitarism: an update |journal=Pituitary |volume=8 |issue=3–4 |pages=183–91 |year=2005 |pmid=16508719 |doi=10.1007/s11102-006-6039-z|s2cid=581096 }}</ref> In most of the cases, three or more hormones are deficient.<ref name=Regal>{{cite journal |vauthors=Regal M, Páramo C, Sierra SM, Garcia-Mayor RV |title=Prevalence and incidence of hypopituitarism in an adult Caucasian population in northwestern Spain |journal=Clin. Endocrinol. |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=735–40 |date=December 2001 |pmid=11895214 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2265.2001.01406.x|s2cid=41502818 }}</ref> The most common problem is insufficiency of [[follicle-stimulating hormone]] (FSH) and/or [[luteinizing hormone]] (LH) leading to [[sex steroid|sex hormone]] abnormalities. [[Growth hormone deficiency]] is more common in people with an underlying tumor than those with other causes.<ref name=Schneider/><ref name=Regal/>
Sometimes, there are additional symptoms that arise from the underlying cause; for instance, if the hypopituitarism is due to a growth hormone-producing tumor, there may be symptoms of [[acromegaly]] (enlargement of the hands and feet, coarse facial features), and if the tumor extends to the [[optic nerve]] or [[optic chiasm]], there may be [[visual field defect]]s. [[Headache]]s may also accompany pituitary tumors,<ref name=Schneider/> as well as [[pituitary apoplexy]] (infarction or haemorrhage of a pituitary tumor) and [[autoimmune hypophysitis|lymphocytic hypophysitis]] ([[autoimmune]] inflammation of the pituitary).<ref name=Prabhakar>{{cite journal |vauthors=Prabhakar VK, Shalet SM |title=Aetiology, diagnosis, and management of hypopituitarism in adult life |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=82 |issue=966 |pages=259–66 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16597813 |doi=10.1136/pgmj.2005.039768 |pmc=2585697}}</ref> Apoplexy, in addition to sudden headaches and rapidly worsening visual loss, may also be associated with [[diplopia|double vision]] that results from compression of the nerves in the adjacent [[cavernous sinus]] that control the [[Muscles of orbit|eye muscles]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rajasekaran S, Vanderpump M, Baldeweg S, etal | title=UK guidelines for the management of pituitary apoplexy | journal=Clin Endocrinol |date=Jan 2011 | volume=74 | issue=1 | pages=9–20 | pmid=21044119 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.2010.03913.x| s2cid=52867017 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
Pituitary failure results in many changes in the skin, hair and nails as a result of the absence of pituitary hormone action on these sites.<ref name="Andrews">{{cite book |vauthors=James W, Berger T, Elston D | year=2005 | title=Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology|url=https://archive.org/details/andrewsdiseasess00mdwi_659 |url-access=limited |edition= 10th | publisher=Saunders| isbn=978-0-7216-2921-6 | page=[https://archive.org/details/andrewsdiseasess00mdwi_659/page/n511 501]}}</ref>
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===Posterior pituitary===
[[Antidiuretic hormone]] (ADH) deficiency leads to the syndrome of ''[[diabetes insipidus]]'' (unrelated to [[diabetes mellitus]]): inability to concentrate the [[urine]], leading to [[polyuria]] (production of large amounts of clear urine) that is [[osmolarity|low in solutes]], [[dehydration]] and—in compensation—extreme thirst and constant need to drink ([[polydipsia]]), as well as [[hypernatremia]] (high sodium levels in the blood).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Maghnie M |title=Diabetes insipidus |journal=Horm. Res. |volume=59
[[Oxytocin]] (OXT) deficiency generally causes few symptoms,<ref name=Schneider/> however may lead to abnormal social developments due to its complex role as a social neuropeptide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Heon-Jin |last2=Macbeth |first2=Abbe H. |last3=Pagani |first3=Jerome |last4=Young |first4=W. Scott |title=Oxytocin: the Great Facilitator of Life |journal=Progress in Neurobiology |date=June 2009 |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=127–151 |doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.04.001 |pmid=19482229 |pmc=2689929 }}</ref>
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The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, and intimately connected with the [[hypothalamus]]. It consists of two lobes: the posterior pituitary, which consists of [[nervous tissue]] branching out of the hypothalamus, and the anterior pituitary, which consists of hormone-producing [[epithelium]]. The posterior pituitary secretes [[antidiuretic hormone]], which regulates [[osmolarity]] of the blood, and [[oxytocin]], which causes [[Contraction (childbirth)|contractions]] of the [[uterus]] in childbirth and participates in [[lactation|breastfeeding]].<ref name=MelmedJameson/>
The pituitary develops in the third week of [[embryogenesis]] from interactions between the [[diencephalon]] part of the brain and the nasal cavity. The brain cells secrete [[FGF8|FGF-8]], [[WNT5A|Wnt5a]] and [[Bone morphogenetic protein 4|BMP-4]], and the oral cavity [[Bone morphogenetic protein 2|BMP-2]]. Together, these cellular signals stimulate a group of cells from the oral cavity to form [[Rathke's pouch]], which becomes independent of the nasal cavity and develops into the anterior pituitary; this process includes the suppression of production of a protein called [[Sonic hedgehog]] by the cells of Rathke's pouch.<ref name=CohenRadovick>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen LE, Radovick S |title=Molecular basis of combined pituitary hormone deficiencies |journal=Endocr. Rev. |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=431–42 |date=August 2002 |pmid=12202459 |doi=10.1210/er.2001-0030 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The cells then [[cellular differentiation|differentiate]] further into the various hormone-producing cells of the pituitary. This requires particular [[transcription factor]]s that induce the expression of particular genes. Some of these transcription factors have been found to be deficient in some forms of rare combined pituitary hormone deficiencies (CPHD) in childhood. These are ''[[HESX1]]'', ''[[PROP1]]'', ''[[Pituitary-specific positive transcription factor 1|POU1F1]]'', ''[[LHX3]]'', ''[[LHX4]]'', ''[[TBX19]]'', ''[[SOX2]]'' and ''[[SOX3]]''. Each transcription factor acts in particular groups of cells. Therefore, various genetic mutations are associated with specific hormone deficiencies.<ref name=CohenRadovick/><ref name=KelbermanDattani>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kelberman D, Dattani MT |title=Hypothalamic and pituitary development: novel insights into the aetiology |journal=Eur. J. Endocrinol. |volume=157
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===Stimulation tests===
Growth hormone deficiency is almost certain if all other pituitary tests are also abnormal, and [[insulin-like growth factor 1]] (IGF-1) levels are decreased. If this is not the case, IGF-1 levels are poorly predictive of the presence of GH deficiency; stimulation testing with the [[insulin tolerance test]] is then required. This is performed by administering [[insulin]] to lower the [[blood sugar]] to [[hypoglycemia|a level below 2.2 mmol/
If morning [[cortisol]] levels are over 500 [[Mole (unit)|nmol/
Symptoms of diabetes insipidus should prompt a formal [[fluid deprivation test]] to assess the body's response to dehydration, which normally causes concentration of the urine and increasing osmolarity of the blood. If these parameters are unchanged, [[desmopressin]] (an ADH analogue) is administered. If the urine then becomes concentrated and the blood osmolarity falls, there is a lack of ADH due to lack of pituitary function ("cranial diabetes insipidus"). In contrast, there is no change if the kidneys are unresponsive to ADH due to a different problem ("nephrogenic diabetes insipidus").<ref name=Schneider/>
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There is only one study that has measured the [[prevalence]] (total number of cases in a population) and [[incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] (annual number of new cases) of hypopituitarism.<ref name=Schneider/> This study was conducted in [[Northern Spain]] and used hospital records in a well-defined population. The study showed that 45.5 people out of 100,000 had been diagnosed with hypopituitarism, with 4.2 new cases per year.<ref name=Regal/> 61% were due to tumors of the pituitary gland, 9% due to other types of lesions, and 19% due to other causes; in 11% no cause could be identified.<ref name=Schneider/><ref name=Regal/>
Recent studies have shown that people with a previous [[traumatic brain injury]], spontaneous [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]] (a type of stroke) or [[radiation therapy]] involving the head have a higher risk of hypopituitarism.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Schneider HJ, Kreitschmann-Andermahr I, Ghigo E, Stalla GK, Agha A |title=Hypothalamopituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=298 |issue=12 |pages=1429–38 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17895459 |doi=10.1001/jama.298.12.1429 |doi-access=free }}</ref> After traumatic brain injury, as much as a quarter have persistent pituitary hormone deficiencies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Behan LA, Phillips J, Thompson CJ, Agha A |title=Neuroendocrine disorders after traumatic brain injury |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry |volume=79 |issue=7 |pages=753–59 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18559460 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.2007.132837|s2cid=12153361 |doi-access= }}</ref> Many of these people may have subtle or [[non-specific symptom]]s that are not linked to pituitary problems but attributed to their previous condition. It is therefore possible that many cases of hypopituitarism remain undiagnosed, and that the annual incidence would rise to 31 per 100,000 annually if people from these risk groups were to be tested.<ref name=Schneider/>
==History==
The pituitary was known to the ancients, such as [[Galen]], and various theories were proposed about its role in the body, but major clues as to the actual function of the gland were not advanced until the late 19th century, when [[acromegaly]] due to pituitary tumors was described.<ref name=Sellwood>{{cite book |vauthors=Sellwood RA, Welbourn RB, Friesen SR |title=The History of Endocrine Surgery |publisher=Praeger Publishers |location=New York |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-275-92586-4}}{{page needed|date=August 2015}}</ref> The first known report of hypopituitarism was made by the [[Germany|German]] physician and pathologist Dr [[Morris Simmonds]]. He described the condition on [[autopsy]] in a 46-year-old woman who had had severe [[puerperal fever]] eleven years earlier, and subsequently had amenorrhea, weakness, signs of rapid aging, and anemia. The pituitary gland was very small and there were few remnants of both the anterior and the posterior pituitary.<ref name=Schneider/><ref name=Simmonds1914>{{cite journal |last1=Simmonds |first1=M. |title=Ueber Hypophysisschwund mit tödlichem Ausgang |trans-title=About hypophysis with fatal outcome |language=de |journal=Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift |date=February 1914 |volume=40 |issue=7 |pages=322–323 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1190185 |s2cid=76080976 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1429826 }}</ref> The eponym ''Simmonds' syndrome'' is used infrequently for acquired hypopituitarism, especially when [[cachexia]] (general ill health and malnutrition) predominates.<ref>{{WhoNamedIt|synd|2008}}</ref><ref>{{DorlandsDict|nine/000956983|Simmonds disease}}</ref> Most of the classic causes of hypopituitarism were described in the 20th century; the early 21st century saw the recognition of how common hypopituitarism could be in previous head injury victims.<ref name=Schneider/>
Until the 1950s, the diagnosis of pituitary disease remained based on clinical features and visual field examination, sometimes aided by [[pneumoencephalography]] and X-ray [[tomography]]. Nevertheless, the field of pituitary surgery developed during this time. The major breakthrough in diagnosis came with the discovery of [[radioimmunoassay]] by [[Rosalyn Yalow]] and [[Solomon Berson]] in the late 1950s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yalow RS, Berson SA |title=Immunoassay of endogenous plasma insulin in man |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=39 |issue= 7|pages=1157–75 |date=July 1960 |pmid=13846364 |pmc=441860 |doi=10.1172/JCI104130}}</ref> This allowed the direct measurement of the hormones of the pituitary, which as a result of their low concentrations in blood had previously been hard to measure.<ref name=Sellwood/> Stimulation tests were developed in the 1960s, and in 1973 the [[triple bolus test]] was introduced, a test that combined stimulation testing with insulin, GnRH and TRH.
<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Harsoulis P, Marshall JC, Kuku SF, Burke CW, London DR, Fraser TR |title=Combined test for assessment of anterior pituitary function |journal=Br Med J |volume=4 |issue=5888 |pages=326–29 |date=November 1973 |pmid=4202260 |pmc=1587416 |doi=10.1136/bmj.4.5888.326}}</ref> Imaging of the pituitary, and therefore identification of tumors and other structural causes, improved radically with the introduction of [[computed tomography]] in the late 1970s and magnetic resonance imaging in the 1980s.<ref name=Sellwood/>
== References ==
{{
== External links ==
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB = 6522
| ICD11 = {{ICD11|5A60}}
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|23|0|e|20}}, {{ICD10|E|89|3|e|70}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|253.7}}, {{ICD9|253.2}}
|