Content deleted Content added
No edit summary |
Undid revision 1245278831 by 2806:2f0:3181:f90e:ec2a:f574:ee7:8bb9 (talk): correct before |
||
| (37 intermediate revisions by 26 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{
{{redirect|Maoist|the novel by Roopesh|Vasanthathile Poomarangal{{!}}''Maoist'' (novel)}}
{{distinguish|Marxism–Leninism–Maoism}}
{{EngvarB|date=February 2023}}
Line 6:
| title = Mao Zedong Thought
| image = Mao Zedong in 1959 (cropped).jpg
| caption =
| t = 毛澤東思想
| s = 毛泽东思想
| p = Máo Zédōng sīxiǎng
| w = {{Tone superscript|Mao2 Tse2-tung1
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|m|ao|2|-|z|e|2|.|d|ong|1|-|s|^|1|.|x|iang|3}}
| bpmf = ㄇㄠˊ ㄗㄜˊ ㄉㄨㄥ ㄙ ㄒㄧㄤˇ
| j =
| y = Mòh Jaahk-dūng sī séung
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|m|o|4|-|z|aak|6|.|d|ung|1|-|s|i|1|-|s|oeng|2}}
| altname =
| order = st
Line 22 ⟶ 23:
{{Socialism sidebar}}
'''Maoism'''
From the 1950s until the [[Chinese economic reform]]s of [[Deng Xiaoping]] in the late 1970s, Maoism was the political and military ideology of the Chinese Communist Party and Maoist revolutionary movements worldwide.<ref>{{
The term "Maoism" is a creation of Mao's supporters; Mao himself always rejected it and preferred the use of the term "Mao Zedong Thought".<ref>{{
== History ==
Line 33 ⟶ 34:
=== Chinese intellectual tradition ===
At the turn of the
==== Iconoclastic revolution and anti-Confucianism ====
By the turn of the 20th century, a proportionately small yet socially significant cross-section of China's traditional elite (i.e., landlords and bureaucrats) found themselves increasingly sceptical of the efficacy and even the moral validity of [[Confucianism]].<ref>Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 10.</ref> These
The [[1911 Revolution|fall]] of the [[Qing
Chinese iconoclasm was expressed most clearly and vociferously by [[Chen Duxiu]] during the [[New Culture Movement]], which occurred between 1915 and 1919.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Pages 14" /> Proposing the "total destruction of the traditions and values of the past", the New Culture Movement, spearheaded by the ''[[New Youth]]'', a periodical published by Chen Duxiu, profoundly influenced the young Mao Zedong, whose first published work appeared in the magazine's pages.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Pages 14" />
==== Nationalism and the appeal of Marxism ====
Along with iconoclasm, radical [[anti-imperialism]] dominated the Chinese intellectual tradition and slowly evolved into a fierce nationalist fervor which influenced Mao's philosophy immensely and was crucial in adapting Marxism to the Chinese model.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Page 44">Meisner, Maurice. ''Mao's China and After''. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 44.</ref> Vital to understanding Chinese nationalist sentiments of the time is the [[Treaty of Versailles]], which was signed in 1919. The Treaty aroused a wave of bitter nationalist resentment in Chinese intellectuals as lands formerly ceded to Germany in [[Shandong]] were—without consultation with the Chinese—transferred to Japanese control rather than returned to Chinese sovereignty.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Page 17">Meisner, Maurice. ''Mao's China and After''. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 17.</ref>
The adverse reaction culminated in the [[
Another international event would have a significant impact not only on Mao but also on the Chinese intelligentsia. The [[Russian Revolution]] elicited great interest among Chinese intellectuals, although the socialist revolution in China was not considered a viable option until after the 4 May Incident.<ref name="After">Meisner, Maurice. ''Mao's China and After''. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 18.</ref> Afterward, "[t]o become a Marxist was one way for a Chinese intellectual to reject both the traditions of the Chinese past and Western domination of the Chinese present
=== Yan'an period between November 1935 and March 1947 ===
Immediately following the [[Long March]], Mao and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) were headquartered in the [[Yan'an Soviet]] in [[Shaanxi]]
Although the Yan'an period did answer some of the ideological and theoretical questions raised by the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]], it left many crucial questions unresolved, including how the Chinese Communist Party was supposed to launch a socialist revolution while wholly separated from the urban sphere.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Page 45" />
=== Mao Zedong's intellectual development ===
Line 65 ⟶ 66:
==== Initial Marxist period (1920–1926) ====
Marxist thinking employs immanent socioeconomic explanations, whereas Mao's reasons were declarations of his enthusiasm. Mao did not believe education alone would transition from [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalism]] to [[Communism#Marxist communism|communism]] for three main reasons. (1)
==== Formative Maoist period (1927–1935) ====
Line 78 ⟶ 79:
==== Civil War period (1940–1949) ====
Unlike the Mature period, this period was intellectually barren. Mao focused more on revolutionary practice and paid less attention to Marxist theory. He continued to emphasise theory as practice-oriented knowledge.<ref name="Lowe, Donald M 1966. Page 117">Lowe, Donald M. ''The Function of "China" in Marx, Lenin, and Mao''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. p. 117.</ref> The most crucial topic of the theory he delved into was in connection with the [[Cheng Feng]] movement of 1942. Here, Mao summarised the correlation between Marxist theory and Chinese practice: "The target is the Chinese revolution, the arrow is Marxism–Leninism. We Chinese communists seek this arrow for no other purpose than to hit the target of the Chinese revolution and the revolution of the east
In 1945, the party's first historical resolution put forward Mao Zedong Thought as the party's unified ideology.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last1=Doyon |first1=Jérôme |title=The Chinese Communist Party:
==== Post-Civil War period (1949–1976) ====
To Mao, the victory of 1949 was a confirmation of theory and practice. "Optimism is the keynote to Mao's intellectual orientation in the post-1949 period
In 1956, Mao first fully theorized his view of continual revolution.<ref name=":Laikwan" />{{Rp|page=92}}
=== Differences from Marxism ===
[[File:Pekín 1978 18.jpg|thumb|Beijing, 1978. The billboard reads, "Long Live
Maoism and [[Marxism]] differ in how the proletariat is defined and in which political and economic conditions would start a [[communist revolution]].
# For
# For Marx, the [[proletarian revolution]] was internally fuelled by the capitalist mode of production; as capitalism developed, "a tension arises between the [[productive forces]] and the [[mode of production]]
=== After Mao Zedong's death ===
Line 95 ⟶ 98:
==== China ====
[[File:Deng Xiaoping and Jimmy Carter at the arrival ceremony for the Vice Premier of China. - NARA - 183157-restored(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Deng Xiaoping]]]]
The CCP's ideological framework distinguishes between political ideas described as "Thought" (as in Mao Zedong Thought) or as "Theory" (as in [[Deng Xiaoping Theory]]).<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Hu |first=Richard |title=Reinventing the Chinese City |date=2023 |publisher=
Mao Zedong Thought is frequently described as the result of collaboration between the [[Generations of Chinese leadership#First generation|first-generation leaders]] of the Party and is principally based on Mao's analysis of Marxism and Chinese history.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Karl |first=Rebecca E. |title=Mao Zedong and China in the Twentieth-Century World:
Mao Zedong Thought asserts that class struggle continues even if the proletariat has already overthrown the bourgeoisie and there are capitalist restorationist elements within the CCP itself. Maoism provided the CCP's first comprehensive theoretical guideline regarding how to continue the socialist revolution, the creation of a socialist society, and socialist military construction and highlights various contradictions in society to be addressed by what is termed "socialist construction". While it continues to be lauded to be the major force that defeated "imperialism and feudalism" and created a "New China" by the Chinese Communist Party, the ideology survives only in name on the Communist Party's Constitution as Deng Xiaoping abolished most Maoist practices in 1978, advancing a guiding ideology called "[[socialism with Chinese characteristics]]".<ref>{{
Shortly after [[Death and state funeral of Mao Zedong|Mao died]] in 1976, Deng Xiaoping initiated socialist market reforms in 1978, thereby beginning the radical change in Mao's ideology in the People's Republic of China (PRC).<ref>{{
On June 27, 1981, the Communist Party's Central Committee adopted the ''[[Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China]]''.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=166}} The ''Resolution'' assesses the legacy of the Mao era, describing Mao as first among equals in the development of Mao Zedong Thought before 1949 and deeming Mao Zedong Thought as successful in establishing national independence, transforming China's social classes, the development of economic self-sufficiency, the expansion of education and health care, and China's leadership role in the Third World.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|pages=166–167}} The ''Resolution'' describes setbacks during the period 1957 to 1964 (although it generally affirms this period) and major mistakes beginning in 1965.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=167}} The ''Resolution'' describes upholding the guidance of Mao Zedong Thought and Marxism-Leninism as among the Communist Party's cardinal principles.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=168}}
Line 107 ⟶ 110:
Contemporary Maoists in China criticise the social inequalities created by the revisionist Communist Party. Some Maoists say that Deng's ''[[Reform and Opening]]'' economic policies that introduced market principles spelled the end of Maoism in China. However, Deng asserted that his reforms were upholding Mao Zedong Thought in accelerating the output of the country's productive forces. A recent example of a Chinese politician regarded as neo-Maoist in terms of political strategies and mass mobilisation via red songs was [[Bo Xilai]] in [[Chongqing]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Kerry |url=https://archive.org/details/chinanewmaoists0000brow |title=China and the New Maoists |last2=Nieuwenhuizen |first2=Simone van |date=2016-08-15 |publisher=Zed Books Ltd. |isbn=978-1-78360-762-4 |language=en}}</ref>
Although Mao Zedong Thought is still listed as one of the [[Four Cardinal Principles]] of the People's Republic of China, its historical role has been re-assessed. The Communist Party now says that Maoism was necessary to break China free from its feudal past, but it also says that the actions of Mao
The official view is that China has now reached an economic and political stage, known as the [[primary stage of socialism]], in which China faces new and different problems completely unforeseen by Mao, and as such, the solutions that Mao advocated are no longer relevant to China's current conditions. The
<blockquote>Chief responsibility for the grave 'Left' error of the 'cultural revolution,' an error comprehensive in magnitude and protracted in duration, does indeed lie with Comrade Mao Zedong [...] [and] far from making a correct analysis of many problems, he confused right and wrong and the people with the enemy [...] herein lies his tragedy.<ref>{{
Scholars outside China see this re-working of the definition of Maoism as providing an ideological justification for what they see as the restoration of the essentials of capitalism in China by Deng and his successors, who sought to "eradicate all ideological and physiological obstacles to economic reform".<ref>S. Zhao, "A State-Led Nationalism: The Patriotic Education Campaign in Post-Tiananmen China", Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 1998, 31(3): p. 288.</ref> In 1978, this led to the [[Sino-Albanian split]] when Albanian leader [[Enver Hoxha]] denounced Deng as a revisionist and formed [[Hoxhaism]] as an anti-revisionist form of Marxism.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}
[[File:Tsinghua University (Tsinghua Southern Road).jpg|right|thumb|"[[Ten thousand years|Long live]]
After the [[Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]], Mao's influence continued to be weaker. Although not very influential, some radical Maoists, disgruntled by the injustices suffered by migrant workers, organized a number of protests and strikes, including the [[Jasic incident]]. In the 2020s, influenced by the [[income inequality in China|growing wealth gap]] and the [[996 working hour system]], Mao's thoughts are being revived in China's [[generation Z]], as they question authority of the CCP. The Chinese government has censored some Maoist posts.<ref>{{
The 2021 The [[Resolution on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century|''Resolution'' ''on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century'']] describes Mao Zedong Thought as "a summation of theories, principles, and experience on China's revolution and construction that has been proven correct through practice, and [having] put forward a series of important theories for socialist construction."<ref name=":Hou">{{Cite book |last=Hou |first=Xiaojia |title=China under Xi Jinping: A New Assessment |publisher=[[Leiden University Press]] |year=2024 |isbn=9789087284411 |editor-last=Fang |editor-first=Qiang |chapter=China's Shift to Personalistic Rule: Xi Jinping's Centralization of Political Power |jstor=jj.15136086 |editor-last2=Li |editor-first2=Xiaobing}}</ref>{{Rp|page=91}}
==== Internationally ====
[[File:Prachanda.jpg|thumb|Maoist leader [[Prachanda]] speaking at a rally in [[Pokhara]],
After the death of Mao in 1976 and the resulting power struggles in China that followed, the international Maoist movement was divided into three camps. One group, composed of various ideologically nonaligned groups, gave weak support to the new Chinese leadership under Deng Xiaoping. Another camp denounced the new leadership as traitors to the cause of Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought. The third camp sided with the Albanians in denouncing the [[Three Worlds Theory]] of the CCP (see the [[Sino-Albanian split]]).{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}
The pro-Albanian camp would start to function as an international group as well<ref>{{
The new Chinese leadership showed little interest in the foreign groups supporting Mao's China. Many of the foreign parties that were [[fraternal party|fraternal parties]] aligned with the Chinese government before 1975 either disbanded, abandoned the new Chinese government entirely, or even renounced Marxism–Leninism and developed into non-communist, [[social democratic]] parties. What is today called the international Maoist movement evolved out of the second camp—the parties that opposed Deng and said they upheld the true legacy of Mao.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}
Line 129 ⟶ 134:
=== New Democracy ===
{{Marxism–Leninism sidebar|variants}}
The theory of the [[New Democracy]] was known to the Chinese revolutionaries from the late 1940s. This thesis held that for most people, the "long road to [[Socialist mode of production|socialism]]" could only be opened by a "national, popular, democratic, anti-feudal and anti-imperialist revolution, run by the
=== People's war ===
{{see also|People's war}}
Holding that "[[political power grows out of the barrel of a gun]]",<ref>{{
Maoism views the industrial-rural divide as a major division exploited by capitalism, identifying capitalism as involving industrial urban
=== Mass line ===
{{main|Mass line}}
Building on the theory of the [[vanguard party]]<ref>{{
# Gathering the diverse ideas of the masses.
# Processing or concentrating these ideas from the perspective of revolutionary Marxism, in light of the long-term, ultimate interests of the masses (which the masses may sometimes only dimly perceive) and in light of a scientific analysis of the objective situation.
# Returning these concentrated ideas to the masses in the form of a political line which will advance the mass struggle toward
These three steps should be applied repeatedly, reiteratively uplifting practice and knowledge to higher and higher stages.
Line 150 ⟶ 155:
The theory of cultural revolution - rooted in Marxism-Leninism thought<ref>Meisner, Maurice. “Leninism and Maoism: Some Populist Perspectives on Marxism-Leninism in China.” ''The China Quarterly'', no. 45 (1971): 2–36. {{JSTOR|651881}}.</ref> - states that the proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat do not wipe out bourgeois ideology; the class struggle continues and even intensifies during socialism. Therefore, a constant struggle against bourgeois ideology, traditional cultural values, and the social roots that encourage both of them must be conducted in order to create and maintain a society in which socialism can succeed.
Practical examples of this theory's application can be seen in the rapid social changes underwent by post-revolution Soviet Union in the late 1920s -1930s<ref>Michael David‐Fox. What Is Cultural Revolution? The Russian Review. Volume 58, Issue 2, pages 181—201, April 1999</ref> as well as pre-revolution China in the New Culture and May Fourth movements of the 1910s-1920s.<ref name=":5">{{Citation |last=Mertha |first=Andrew |title=Rectification |date=2019-06-25 |work=Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political Concepts from Mao to Xi |publisher=ANU Press |doi=10.22459/acc.2019.33 |isbn=9781788734769 |s2cid=242980910 |doi-access=free
The social upheavals that occurred from the New Culture Movement - as well as the May Fourth Movement that followed it<ref>{{
The cultural revolution experienced by the Soviet Union was similar to the New Culture and May Fourth movements experienced by China in that it also placed a great importance on mass education and the normalisation of challenging of traditional cultural norms in the realising of a socialist society. However, the movements occurring in the Soviet Union had a far more adversarial mindset towards proponents of traditional values, with leadership in the party taking action to censor and exile these "enemies of change" on over 200 occasions,<ref name="emg" /> rather than exclusively putting pressure on these forces by enacting additive social changes such as education campaigns.
The most prominent example of a Maoist application of cultural revolution can be seen in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s wherein Mao claimed that "Revisionist" forces had entered society and infiltrated the government, with the goal of reinstating traditionalism and capitalism in China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Yuan-Li |date=1968-03-01 |title=Economics, Ideology and the Cultural Revolution
Beginning in 1967, Mao and the PLA sought to restrain the mass organizations that had developed during the early phase of the Cultural Revolution, and began reframing the movement as one to study Mao Zedong Thought rather than using it as a guide to immediate action.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=133}}
Line 167 ⟶ 172:
The principal contradiction should be tackled with priority when trying to make the fundamental contradiction "solidify". Mao elaborates on this theme in the essay ''[[On Practice]]'', "on the relation between knowledge and practice, between knowing and doing". Here, ''Practice'' connects "contradiction" with "class struggle" in the following way, claiming that inside a mode of production, there are three realms where practice functions: economic production, scientific experimentation (which also takes place in economic production and should not be radically disconnected from the former) and finally class struggle. These are the proper objects of economy, scientific knowledge, and politics.<ref>Cfr. Mao Tse-Tung, [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-1/mswv1_16.htm "On practice. On the relation between knowledge and practice, between knowing and doing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211062705/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-1/mswv1_16.htm |date=2021-02-11 }}, Selected Readings from the Works of Mao Tse-Tung, op.cit., p. 55: "Man's social practice is not confined to activity in production, but takes many forms—class struggle, political life, scientific and artistic pursuits; in short, as a social being, man participates in all spheres of the practical life of society. Thus man, in varying degrees, comes to know the different relations between man and man, not only through his material life but also though his political and cultural life (both of which are intimately bound up with material life)".</ref>
These three spheres deal with matter in its various forms, socially mediated. As a result, they are the only realms where knowledge may arise (since truth and knowledge only make sense in relation to matter, according to Marxist epistemology). Mao emphasises—like Marx in trying to confront the "bourgeois idealism" of his time—that knowledge must be based on
[[File:Mao Zedong in Red.svg|thumb|Mao Zedong Thought is described as being Marxism–Leninism adapted to Chinese conditions, whereas its variant [[Marxism–Leninism–Maoism]] is considered universally applicable]]
=== Three Worlds Theory ===
In 1974, China announced its [[Three Worlds Theory]] at the UN.<ref name=":Laikwan">{{Cite book |last=Laikwan |first=Pang |title=One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty |date=2024 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=9781503638815 |location=Stanford, CA |doi=10.1515/9781503638822}}</ref>{{Rp|page=74}}
[[Three Worlds Theory]] states that during the [[Cold War]], two imperialist states formed the "first world"—the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. The second world consisted of the other imperialist states in their spheres of influence. The third world consisted of non-imperialist countries. Both the first and the second world exploit the third world, but the first world is the most aggressive party. The first- and second-world workers are "bought up" by imperialism, preventing socialist revolution. On the other hand, the people of the third world have not even a short-sighted interest in the prevailing circumstances. Hence revolution is most likely to appear in third-world countries, which again will weaken imperialism, opening up for revolutions in other countries too.<ref name="emg">[http://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/m/a.htm#maoism "Maoism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211005551/https://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/m/a.htm#maoism |date=2021-02-11 }}. Glossary of Terms. ''Encyclopedia of Marxism''.</ref>▼
▲
=== Agrarian socialism ===
Maoism departs from conventional European-inspired Marxism in that it focuses on the agrarian countryside rather than the urban industrial forces—this is known as [[agrarian socialism]]. Notably, Maoist parties in Peru, Nepal, and the Philippines have adopted equal stresses on urban and rural areas, depending on the country's focus on economic activity. Maoism broke with the framework of the Soviet Union under [[Nikita Khrushchev]], dismissing it as "[[
Although Maoism is critical of urban industrial capitalist powers, it views urban [[industrialisation]] as a prerequisite to expanding [[economic development]] and the socialist reorganisation of the countryside, with the goal being the achievement of rural industrialisation that would abolish the distinction between town and countryside.<ref>John H. Badgley, John Wilson Lewis. Peasant Rebellion and Communist Revolution in Asia. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press, 1974. p. 249.</ref>
== International influence ==
[[File:UCPN (Maoist) 7th General Convention Nepal.jpg|thumb|The [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)]] in February 2013]]
From 1962 onwards, the challenge to the Soviet
Various efforts have sought to regroup the international communist movement under Maoism since Mao's death in 1976. Many parties and organisations were formed in the West and Third World that upheld links to the CCP. Often, they took names such as Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) or Revolutionary Communist Party to distinguish themselves from the traditional pro-Soviet communist parties. The pro-CCP movements were, in many cases, based on the wave of student radicalism that engulfed the world in the 1960s and 1970s.
Line 191 ⟶ 197:
=== Afghanistan ===
The [[Progressive Youth Organization]] was a Maoist organisation in
The [[Communist (Maoist) Party of Afghanistan]] was founded in 2004 through the merger of five MLM parties.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-08-25 |title=Afghanistan Maoists Unite in a Single Party |url=http://www.awtw.org/current_issues/afrgan.htm
=== Australia ===
The [[Communist Party of Australia (Marxist-Leninist)]] is a Maoist organisation in
=== Bangladesh ===
Line 202 ⟶ 208:
=== Belgium ===
The Sino-Soviet split had a significant influence on communism in
Although the PCBML never really gained a foothold in [[Flanders]], there was a reasonably successful Maoist movement in this region. Out of the student unions that formed in the wake of the May 1968 protests, Alle Macht Aan De Arbeiders (AMADA), or All Power To The Workers, was formed as a vanguard party under construction. This Maoist group originated primarily from students from the universities of [[Leuven]] and [[Ghent]] but did manage to gain some influence among the striking miners during the shutdowns of the Belgian stone coal mines in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This group became the [[Workers' Party of Belgium]] (PVDA-PTB) in 1979 and still exists today, although its power base has shifted somewhat from Flanders towards Wallonia. The WPB stayed loyal to the teachings of Mao for a long time, but after a general congress held in 2008, the party formally broke with its Maoist/Stalinist past.<ref>D. Van Herrewegen, [http://www.ethesis.net/radicaal-links/radicaal-links.htm "De verdeeldheid van radicaal-links in Vlaanderen: De strategische -en praktische breuklijnen tussen AMADA, de KPB en de RAL tussen 1969-1972"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035427/http://www.ethesis.net/radicaal-links/radicaal-links.htm |date=2021-01-24 }}, unpublished masterpaper, Department of History, pp. 25–29.</ref>
Line 210 ⟶ 216:
=== France ===
After [[May 68]], the cultural influence of French Maoists increased.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2
=== India ===
{{See also|Naxalite–Maoist insurgency}}
The [[Communist Party of India (Maoist)]] is the leading Maoist organisation in India. The CPI (Maoist) is designated as a terrorist organization in India under the [[Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act]].<ref>{{
=== Iran ===
{{main|1982 Amol uprising}}
The [[Union of Iranian Communists (Sarbedaran)]] was an
Following the dissolution of the Union of Iranian Communists, the [[Communist Party of Iran (Marxist–Leninist–Maoist)]] was formed in 2001. The party is a continuation of the Sarbedaran Movement and the Union of Iranian Communists (Sarbedaran). CPI (MLM) believes Iran is a 'semifeudal-[[semicolonial]]' country and is trying to launch a 'People's war' in Iran.
Line 227 ⟶ 233:
=== Philippines ===
{{main|Communist Party of the Philippines}}
The Communist Party of the Philippines is the largest communist party in the Philippines, active since December 26, 1968 (Mao's birthday). It was formed due to the [[First Great Rectification Movement]] and a split between the old [[Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930]], which the founders saw as revisionist. The CPP was formed on Maoist lines in stark contrast with the old PKP, which focused primarily on the parliamentary struggle. The CPP was founded by [[Jose Maria Sison]] and other cadres from the old party.<ref name="saulo">{{
The CPP also has an armed wing that it exercises absolute control over, namely the [[New People's Army]]. It currently wages a guerrilla war against the government of the Republic of the Philippines in the countryside and is still currently active. The CPP and the NPA are part of the [[National Democratic Front of the Philippines]], a consolidation of Maoist sectoral organisations such as [[Kabataang Makabayan]] as part of the united front strategy. The NDFP also represents the people's democratic government in peace talks.<ref name="cppsbp">{{
=== Peru ===
Line 238 ⟶ 244:
Maoist movements in Portugal were very active during the 1970s, especially during the [[Carnation Revolution]] that led to the fall of the nationalist government (the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]]) in 1974.
Portugal's most significant Maoist movement was the [[Portuguese Workers' Communist Party]]. The party was among the most active resistance movements before the Portuguese democratic revolution of 1974, especially among the [[Marxist–Leninist Students' Federation
Intensely active between 1974 and 1975, during that time, the party had members that later came to be significant in national politics. For example, a future Prime Minister of Portugal, [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]], was active in Maoist movements in Portugal and identified as a Maoist. In the 1980s, the [[Forças Populares 25 de Abril]] was another far-left Maoist armed organisation operating in Portugal between 1980 and 1987, aiming to create socialism in post-revolutionary Portugal.
Line 246 ⟶ 252:
=== Sweden ===
In 1968, a small extremist Maoist sect called Rebels ({{lang-sv|Rebellerna}}) was established in [[Stockholm]]. Led by [[Francisco Sarrión]], the group unsuccessfully demanded that the Chinese embassy admit them into the Chinese Communist Party. The organisation only lasted a few months.<ref>{{
=== Turkey ===
{{see also|Maoist insurgency in Turkey}}
The [[Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist]] (TKP/ML) is a Maoist organisation in
=== United States ===
[[File:President Richard Nixon and Mao Zedong.jpg|thumb|
After the tumultuous 1960s (particularly the events of 1968, such as the launch of the [[Tet Offensive]], the [[assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Columbia University protests of 1968|nationwide university protests]], and the election of Richard Nixon), proponents of Maoist ideology constituted the "largest and most dynamic" branch of [[American socialism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Elbaum |first=Max |date=1998 |title=Maoism in the United States |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-1/maoism-us.htm |
Orchestrated by ''[[National Guardian|The Guardian]],'' in the spring of 1973, an attempt to conflate the strands of American Maoism was made with a series of sponsored forums titled "What Road to Building a New Communist Party?" The forums drew 1,200 attendees to a New York City auditorium that spring.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Elbaum |first=Max |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJaDwAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9CWhat+Road+to+Building+a+New+Communist+Party&pg=PA108 |title=Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao and Che |date=2018-02-06 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78663-459-7 |language=en |access-date=2020-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223073024/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJaDwAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9CWhat+Road+to+Building+a+New+Communist+Party&pg=PA108 |archive-date=2021-02-23 |url-status=live}}</ref> The central message of the event revolved around "building an anti-revisionist, non-Trotskyist, non-anarchist party".<ref>{{Cite web |title=MIM Notes |url=https://www.prisoncensorship.info/archive/etext/mn/mn.php?issue=070 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035301/https://www.prisoncensorship.info/archive/etext/mn/mn.php?issue=070 |archive-date=2021-01-24 |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=www.prisoncensorship.info}}</ref> From this, other forums were held worldwide, covering topics such as "The Role of the Anti-Imperialist Forces in the Antiwar Movement" and "The Question of the Black Nation"—each forum rallying, on average, an audience of 500 activists, and serving as a "barometer of the movement's strength."<ref name=":1" />
The Americans' burgeoning Maoist and [[Marxist–Leninist]] movements proved optimistic for a potential revolution, but "a lack of political development and rampant rightist and ultra-leftist opportunism" thwarted the advancement of the greater communist initiative.<ref name=":1" /> In 1972, Richard Nixon made a landmark visit to the People's Republic of China to shake hands with Chairman Mao Zedong; this simple handshake marked the gradual pacification of [[Hemispheres of Earth|Eastern–Western]] hostility and the re-formation of relations between "the most powerful and most populous" global powers: the United States and China.<ref>{{Cite web|last=CDT|first=Posted on 04 21 09 10:42 AM|title=RealClearSports - Richard Nixon - Mao Zedong|url=https://www.realclearpolitics.com/lists/famous_political_handshakes/nixon_mao.html|access-date=2020-06-23|website=www.realclearpolitics.com|archive-date=2021-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035254/https://www.realclearpolitics.com/lists/famous_political_handshakes/nixon_mao.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Times|first=Max Frankel;Special to The New York|date=1972-02-21|title=HISTORIC HANDSHAKE: President Nixon being welcomed by Premier Chou En-lal. At the left is Mrs. Nixon.|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/02/21/archives/a-quiet-greeting-no-airport-speeches-plane-stops-in-shanghai-an.html|access-date=2020-06-23|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2021-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035334/https://www.nytimes.com/1972/02/21/archives/a-quiet-greeting-no-airport-speeches-plane-stops-in-shanghai-an.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Nearly a decade after the Sino-Soviet split, this newfound amiability between the two nations quieted American-based counter-capitalist rumblings and marked the steady decline of American Maoism until its unofficial cessation in the early-1980s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Saba|first=Paul|date=22 May 1981|title=End of the Line for American Maoism|url=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/wv-end-maoism.htm|access-date=2020-06-23|website=www.marxists.org|archive-date=2021-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035242/https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/wv-end-maoism.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>▼
▲The Americans' burgeoning Maoist and
The [[Black Panther Party]] (BPP) was another American-based, left-wing revolutionary party to oppose American global imperialism; it was a self-described [[African Americans|Black]] [[militant]] organization with metropolitan chapters in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[New York City|New York]], [[Chicago metropolitan area|Chicago]], [[Seattle]], and [[Los Angeles]], and an overt sympathizer with global anti-imperialistic movements (e.g., Vietnam's resistance of American neo-colonial efforts).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vietnam War|url=https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-history|access-date=2020-06-24|website=HISTORY|language=en|archive-date=2021-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211015440/https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/vietnam-war-history|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Oliver|first=Pamela|title=Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panthers – Race, Politics, Justice|date=19 October 2017 |url=https://www.ssc.wisc.edu/soc/racepoliticsjustice/2017/10/19/black-against-empire-the-history-and-politics-of-the-black-panthers/|access-date=2020-06-24|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035229/https://www.ssc.wisc.edu/soc/racepoliticsjustice/2017/10/19/black-against-empire-the-history-and-politics-of-the-black-panthers/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hermidda|first=Ariane|title=Mapping the Black Panther Party - Mapping American Social Movements|url=https://depts.washington.edu/moves/BPP_map-cities.shtml|access-date=2020-06-24|website=depts.washington.edu|archive-date=2021-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213212029/https://depts.washington.edu/moves/BPP_map-cities.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Earl|first=Anthony|title=Black Panther Party|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~ccarson/articles/am_left.htm|access-date=2020-06-24|website=web.stanford.edu|archive-date=2020-07-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704132738/http://web.stanford.edu/~ccarson/articles/am_left.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1971, a year before Nixon's monumental visit, BPP leader [[Huey P. Newton]] landed in China, whereafter he was enthralled with the mystical [[Eastern world|East]] and the achievements of the Chinese Communist Revolution.<ref name=":2">Ren, Chao (2009) "“[https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=constructing Concrete Analysis of Concrete Conditions”: A Study of the Relationship between the Black Panther Party and Maoism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222022414/https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1090&context=constructing |date=2021-02-22 }}," Constructing the Past: Vol. 10 : Iss. 1, Article 7.</ref> After his return to the United States, Newton said that "[e]verything I saw in China demonstrated that the People's Republic is a free and liberated territory with a socialist government" and "[t]o see a classless society in operation is unforgettable".<ref name=":3">Huey P. Newton, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Writers and Readers Publishing Inc., 1995), 323.</ref> He extolled the Chinese police force as one that "[served] the people" and considered the Chinese antithetical to American law enforcement, which, according to Newton, represented "one huge armed group that was opposed to the will of the people".<ref name=":3" /> In general, Newton's first encounter with anti-capitalist society commenced a psychological liberation and embedded within him the desire to subvert the American system in favor of what the BPP called "revolutionary [[intercommunalism]]".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vasquez|first=Delio|date=2018-06-11|title=Intercommunalism: The Late Theorizations of Huey P. Newton, 'Chief Theoretician' of the Black Panther Party|url=https://www.viewpointmag.com/2018/06/11/intercommunalism-the-late-theorizations-of-huey-p-newton-chief-theoretician-of-the-black-panther-party/|access-date=2020-06-24|website=Viewpoint Magazine|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035204/https://viewpointmag.com/2018/06/11/intercommunalism-the-late-theorizations-of-huey-p-newton-chief-theoretician-of-the-black-panther-party/|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, the BPP was founded on a similar politico-philosophical framework as that of Mao's CCP, that is, "the philosophical system of dialectical materialism" coupled with traditional Marxist theory.<ref name=":2" /> The words of Mao, quoted liberally in BPP speeches and writings, served as a guiding light for the party's analysis and theoretical application of Marxist ideology.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chao|first=Eveline|date=2016-10-14|title=Let One Hundred Panthers Bloom|url=https://www.chinafile.com/viewpoint/let-one-hundred-panthers-bloom|access-date=2020-06-24|website=ChinaFile|language=en|archive-date=2021-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205005009/https://www.chinafile.com/viewpoint/let-one-hundred-panthers-bloom|url-status=live}}</ref>▼
▲The [[Black Panther Party]] (BPP) was another American-based, left-wing revolutionary party to oppose American global imperialism; it was a self-described [[
[[File:Mao Tse-Tung Memorial Meetings Poster.jpg|thumb|1978 [[Revolutionary Communist Party, USA|Revolutionary Communist Party USA]] poster commemorating Mao's legacy.]]
In his autobiography ''[[Revolutionary Suicide]],'' published in 1973, Newton wrote:
<blockquote>Chairman Mao says that death comes to all of us, but it varies in its significance: to die for the reactionary is lighter than a feather; to die for the revolution is heavier than Mount Tai. [...] When I presented my solutions to the problems of Black people, or when I expressed my philosophy, people said, "Well, isn't that socialism?" Some of them were using the socialist label to put me down, but I figured that if this was socialism, then socialism must be a correct view. So I read more of the works of the socialists and began to see a strong similarity between my beliefs and theirs. My conversion was complete when I read the four volumes of Mao Tse-tung to learn more about the Chinese Revolution.<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>
== Criticism and implementation ==
[[File:ForbiddenCity MaoZedongPortrait (pixinn.net).jpg|thumb|Despite falling out of favor within the Chinese Communist Party by 1978, Mao is still revered, with Deng's famous "70% right, 30% wrong" line]]
Maoism has fallen out of favor within the Chinese Communist Party, beginning with [[Deng Xiaoping]]'s reforms in 1978. Deng believed that Maoism showed the dangers of "ultra-leftism", manifested in the harm perpetrated by the various mass movements that characterized the Maoist era. In Chinese communism, the term "left" can be considered a euphemism for Maoist policies. However, Deng stated that the revolutionary side of Maoism should be considered separate from the governance side, leading to his famous epithet that Mao was "70% right, 30% wrong".<ref>{{
Critic Graham Young says that Maoists see Joseph Stalin as the last true socialist leader of the Soviet Union but allows the Maoist assessments of Stalin to vary between the extremely positive and the more ambivalent.<ref>{{
[[Enver Hoxha]] critiqued Maoism from a Marxist–Leninist perspective, arguing that New Democracy halts class struggle<ref name=":4">{{
Some say Mao departed from Leninism not only in his near-total lack of interest in the urban working class but also in his concept of the nature and role of the party. On the other hand, for Mao, this question would always be virtually impossible to answer.<ref>"Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 44.</ref>
The implementation of Maoist thought in China was responsible for as many as 70 million deaths during peacetime,<ref>Jung Chang and Jon Halliday,'' Mao: The Untold Story'' (Jonathan Cape, 2005) p. 3.</ref><ref>[http://www.cis.org.au/Policy/autumn06/autumn06_10.pdf policy autumn 06_Edit5.indd<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100216200515/http://www.cis.org.au/Policy/autumn06/autumn06_10.pdf|date=16 February 2010}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=June 2023}} with the [[Cultural Revolution]], the [[Anti-Rightist Campaign]] of 1957–1958,<ref>Teiwes, Frederick C., and Warren Sun. 1999. 'China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of the great leap forward, 1955-1959''.'' Contemporary China papers. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 52–55.</ref> and the [[Great Leap Forward]]. Some historians have argued that because of Mao's [[land reform]]s during the Great Leap Forward which resulted in [[famine]]s, thirty million perished between 1958 and 1961. By the end of 1961, the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition.<ref>MacFarquhar, Roderick. 1974. The origins of the Cultural Revolution. London: Published for Royal Institute of International Affairs, East Asian Institute of Columbia University and Research Institute on Communist Affairs of Columbia by Oxford University Press. p. 4.</ref> Critiquing discourses on deaths under Maoism, Academics Christian Sorace, Ivan Franeschini, and Nicholas Loubere observe that these discourses attribute responsibility for deaths in manner not typical of discourses on other ideologies, such as liberalism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sorace |first1=Christian |title=Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political Concepts from Mao to Xi |last2=Franeschini |first2=Ivan |last3=Loubere |first3=Nicholas |date=2019 |publisher=[[Australian National University Press]] |isbn=
Active campaigns, including party purges and "reeducation", resulted in imprisonment or the execution of those deemed contrary to the implementation of Maoist ideals.<ref>{{
=== Populism ===
Mao also believed strongly in the concept of a unified people. These notions prompted him to investigate the peasant uprisings in Hunan while the rest of China's communists were in the cities and focused on the orthodox Marxist proletariat.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Page 43">Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 43.</ref> Many of the pillars of Maoism, such as the distrust of intellectuals and the abhorrence of occupational speciality, are typical populist ideas.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Page 44" /> The concept of "people's war", central to Maoist thought, is directly populist in its origins. Mao believed that intellectuals and party cadres would first become students of the masses and teachers of the masses later. This concept was vital to the aforementioned "people's war" strategy.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Page 44" />
=== Nationalism ===
Mao's nationalist impulses also played a crucially important role in adapting Marxism to the Chinese model and in the formation of Maoism.<ref>Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 42.</ref> Mao believed that China was to play a crucial preliminary role in the socialist revolution internationally. This belief, or the fervor with which Mao held it, separated Mao from the other Chinese communists and led Mao onto the path of what [[Leon Trotsky]] called "Messianic Revolutionary Nationalism", which was central to his philosophy.<ref name="Meisner, Maurice 1999. Page 43" /> German post–World War II far-right activist [[Michael Kühnen]], a former Maoist, once praised Maoism as a Chinese form of [[Nazism]].<ref name="Lee2013">{{
=== Mao-Spontex ===
[[Mao-Spontex]] refers to a Maoist interpretation in western Europe that stresses the importance of the cultural revolution and overthrowing hierarchy.<ref name="Levy1971" /> A political movement in the Marxist and [[anarchist|libertarian]] movements in Western Europe from 1968 to 1971,<ref name="Bourg2017">{{
== References ==
Line 300 ⟶ 306:
* ''Marxism in the Chinese Revolution'' by Arif Dirlik.
* Feigon, Lee. ''Mao: A Reinterpretation''. Ivan R. Dee, Publisher.
* {{
* ''Trotskyism and Maoism: Theory and Practise in France and the United States''. A. Belden Fields (1988).
* {{
* Kang, Liu. "Maoism: Revolutionary globalism for the Third World revisited." ''Comparative Literature Studies'' 52.1 (2015): 12–28. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info:Nit3OGBGmUoJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=1,27&as_ylo=2014&scillfp=8304684927723402367&oi=lle online]{{Dead link|date=November 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* ''Rethinking Mao: Explorations in Mao Zedong's Thought'' by Nick Knight.
Line 309 ⟶ 315:
* ''The Function of "China" in Marx, Lenin, and Mao'' by Donald Lowe.
* ''Maoism and the Chinese Revolution: A Critical Introduction'' by Elliott Liu.
* {{
* {{
* ''Li Ta-chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism'' by Maurice Meisner.
* ''Marxism, Maoism, and Utopianism: Eight Essays'' by Maurice Meisner.
* ''[[Mao's China and After]]'' by Maurice Mesiner.
* {{
* ''[[Continuity and Rupture|Continuity and Rupture: Philosophy in the Maoist Terrain]]'' by [[J. Moufawad-Paul]] (2017).
*
* Palmer, David Scott. ed. ''The Shining Path of Peru'' (2nd ed 1994) [https://www.amazon.com/Shining-Path-Peru-NA-1994-09-15/dp/B01K17EEX0/ excerpt]
* ''The Political Thought of Mao Tse-Tung'' by [[Stuart Schram]].
* ''Mao Tse-Tung Unrehearsed'' by Stuart Schram (Pelican).
* Seth, Sanjay. “India Maoism: The Significance of Naxalbari,” in ''Critical Perspectives on Media and Society,'' ed. R. Avery and D. Easton (Guilford Press, 1991), 289–313.
* {{
* Srivastava, Arun. ''Maoism in India'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/MAOISM-INDIA-Arun-Srivastava/dp/9351865134/
*
* ''Mao Tse-Tung, the Marxist Lord of Misrule: On Practice and Contradiction'' by Slavoj Zizek.
| |||