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=== Pre-WWII ===
Prior to [[World War II]], in
By November 1937, there had only been slow progress, because of a serious lack of data on which to base any design recommendations and the Committee proposed that the Home Office should have its own department for research into structural precautions, rather than relying on research work done by the Bombing Test Committee to support the development of bomb design and strategy. This proposal was eventually implemented in January 1939.{{sfn|Baker|1978|p=5}}
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The theory behind the Winkeltürme was that the curved walls would deflect any bomb hitting the tower, directing it down towards the base. The towers had a small footprint, which was probably a greater protection. A US bomb did hit one tower in Bremen in October 1944; the bomb exploded through the roof, killing five people inside.
=== Israel ===
Miklat ({{He|מקלט}}, {{Literally|protected place}})<ref>{{Citation |title=מקלט (מיגון) |date=2024-07-01 |work=ויקיפדיה |url=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%98_(%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9F) |access-date=2024-09-16 |language=he}}</ref> Is a type of air raid shelters found in Israel, Inside homes, near residential areas and in other places across the country.
These places are also called [[Merkhav Mugan]] ({{He|מרחב מוגן}}, {{Literally|protected space}}). They are reinforced [[Safe room|security room]] required in all new buildings by [[Israel|Israeli]] law.
==== Types ====
* ''Miklat Tzibury'' (מקלט ציבורי) – lit. public shelter, a partly underground facility, installed in residential areas. They are commonly used for community needs (clubs, education etc). Maintained by the local governance and Home Front. They are located in streets and near public facilities.<ref>[http://www.oref.org.il/Mobile/10818-he/Pakar.aspx Responsibility for Miklat Zibury and Miklat in a Condominium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023083329/http://www.oref.org.il/Mobile/10818-he/Pakar.aspx|date=2018-10-23}},</ref>
[[File:AirRaidShelterHolon02.JPG|thumb|Public ''miklat'' in [[Holon]]]]
* ''Miklat BeBayit Meshutaf'' (מקלט בבית משותף) – lit. shelter in a [[Condominium (living space)|condominium]], a facility built into a building which has been declared as a condominium (commonly in a [[low-rise building]]) it includes all the facilities that a public shelter has, but is maintained by the building residents.
* ''Merkhav Mugan Dirati'' (מרחב מוגן דירתי or ממ״ד) – installed in residential apartments and private houses.
* ''Merkhav Mugan Komati'' (מרחב מוגן קומתי or ממ״ק) – common floor space in apartment buildings in which there is no ''Merkhav Mugan Dirati'' in every apartment and in other multi-storey buildings (mostly offices and industry).
* ''Merkhav Mugan Mosadi'' (מרחב מוגן מוסדי or ממ״מ) – installed in every public structure.
===United Kingdom===
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However, the highest death toll was caused during an accident at the unfinished [[Bethnal Green tube station]] on 8 March 1943, when 1,500 people entered the station. The crowd suddenly surged forward upon hearing the unfamiliar sound of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket being launched nearby. Someone stumbled on the stairs, and the crowd pushing on, were falling on top of one another, and 173 people were crushed to death in the disaster.
Nevertheless, the London Underground system during the war was considered one of the safest means of protecting relatively many people in a high-density area of the capital. An estimated 170,000 people sheltered in the tunnels and stations during World War II. Although not a great number in comparison to the total number of the inhabitants of the capital, it almost certainly saved many lives of the people who probably would have had to find alternative, less secure means of protection.<ref>[http://www.worldwar2exraf.co.uk/Online%20Museum/Museum%20Docs/airraidshelterspage7.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403035111/http://www.worldwar2exraf.co.uk/Online%20Museum/Museum%20Docs/airraidshelterspage7.htm
Artists and photographers such as [[Henry Moore]] and [[Bill Brandt]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lgfl.net/lgfl/accounts/holnet/upload/learningzone/londonatwar/shelter/index.html |title=HOLNET - London at War 1939–1945 - Shelter |publisher=Lgfl.net |access-date=2010-06-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228044832/http://www.lgfl.net/lgfl/accounts/holnet/upload/learningzone/londonatwar/shelter/index.html |archive-date=2010-12-28}}</ref> were employed as war artists to document life in London's shelters during the Second World War.
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====Anderson shelter====
[[File:AndersonShelterBedfordMuseum.JPG|thumb|right|250px|An unburied Anderson Shelter in 2007, showing the distinctive curved shape of its walls; this shelter had seen use after the war as a shed]]
[[File:Anderson3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Children preparing to sleep in the Anderson shelter installed in their
{{Commons|Category:Anderson shelters}}
The '''Anderson shelter''' was designed in 1938 by William Paterson and Oscar Carl (Karl) Kerrison in response to a request from the Home Office. It was named after Sir [[John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley|John Anderson]], then [[Lord Privy Seal]] with special responsibility for preparing air-raid precautions immediately prior to the outbreak of World War II, and it was he who then initiated the development of the shelter.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.andersonshelters.org.uk/history.html |title=Anderson Shelters - History |website=www.andersonshelters.org.uk |access-date=2018-08-21}}</ref><ref name="Lavelle">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/21/how-britains-abandoned-anderson-shelters-are-being-brought-back-to-life |title=How Britain's abandoned Anderson shelters are being brought back to life |last=Lavelle |first=Daniel |date=2018-08-21 |website=The Guardian |access-date=2018-08-21}}</ref> After evaluation by David Anderson, Bertram Lawrence Hurst, and Sir Henry Jupp, of the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]], the design was released for production.
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Anderson shelters were designed to accommodate up to six people. The main principle of protection was based on curved and straight [[corrugated galvanised iron|galvanised corrugated steel]] [[Structural insulated panel|panels]]. Six curved panels were bolted together at the top, so forming the main body of the shelter, three straight sheets on either side, and two more straight panels were fixed to each end, one containing the door—a total of fourteen panels. A small drainage [[sump]] was often incorporated in the floor to collect rainwater seeping into the shelter.
The shelters were {{convert|6|ft|m}} high, {{convert|4.5|ft|m}} wide, and {{convert|6.5|ft|m}} long. They were either buried 4 ft (1.2 m) deep in the soil and then covered with a minimum of {{convert|15|in|cm}} of soil above the roof
Anderson shelters were issued free to all householders who earned less than £5 a week (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{inflation|UK|5|1939|{{Inflation-year|UK}}|r=-1}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}, when adjusted for [[inflation]]). Those with a higher income were charged £7 (£{{inflation|UK|7|1939|{{Inflation-year|UK}}|r=-1}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}) for their shelter. One and a half million shelters of this type were distributed between February 1939 and the outbreak of war. During the war a further 2.1 million were erected.<ref>Lawrence James. Warrior Race: A History of the British at War (2003) p. 623.</ref> Large numbers were manufactured at [[John Summers & Sons]] ironworks at [[Shotton, Flintshire|Shotton]] on Deeside with production peaking at 50,000 units per week.<ref>{{citation |url=
The Anderson shelters performed well under blast and ground shock, because they had good connectivity and ductility, which meant that they could absorb a great deal of energy through plastic deformation without falling apart. (This was in marked contrast to other trench shelters which used concrete for the sides and roof, which were inherently unstable when disturbed by the effects of an explosion – if the roof slab lifted, the walls fell in under the static earth pressure; if the walls were pushed in, the roof would be unsupported at one edge and would fall.) However, when the pattern of all-night alerts became established, it was realised that in winter Anderson shelters installed outside were cold damp holes in the ground and often flooded in wet weather, and so their occupancy factor would be poor. This led to the development of the indoor [[#Morrison shelter|Morrison shelter]].{{sfn|Baker|1978|p={{page needed|date=March 2014}}}}
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All shelters must have:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2011/20110506|title=Sisäasiainministeriön asetus väestönsuojien teknisistä vaatimuksista ja väestönsuojien laitteiden kunnossapidosta (legal degree in Finnish)|publisher=Ministry of the Interior |access-date=2020-12-08}}</ref>
* an electric and hand-
* a radiometer
* dry toilets
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===Greece===
During the pre-WW2 period the [[4th of August Regime|Metaxas regime]] initiated an extensive Civil Defence system designed to protect civilians in the event of enemy bombing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.athenssocialatlas.gr/en/article/athens-air-raid-shelters-1936-40/ |title=Athens' air-raid shelters 1936-40 |website=athenssocialatlas.gr|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928023425/https://www.athenssocialatlas.gr/en/article/athens-air-raid-shelters-1936-40/#top |archive-date=2022-09-28}}</ref> The system included extensive training of civilians as well as the construction of more than 12,000 air raid shelters in [[Attica (region)|Attica]], equipped with German made blast doors and air filtering systems. From 1939 forward virtually all new apartment buildings contained built-in hardened basements and cellars that functioned as (unofficial) bunkers, although these lacked the more sophisticated equipment of the state built shelters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.athensvoice.gr/life/life-in-athens/512823/mia-poli-kato-apo-tin-poli/ |title=Shelters of Athens: A city under the city |first=Elena |last=Dakoula |publisher=[[Lifo (magazine)|LiFO]] |language=el |date=2019-01-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.enimerotiko.gr/ellada/ta-katafygia-tis-attikis-taxidi-sti-mystiki-kai-ypogeia-poli-kato-apo-tin-athina/ |title=The shelters of Attica: A journey to the secret and underground city under Athens |language=el |date=2020-03-01 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815125232/https://www.enimerotiko.gr/ellada/ta-katafygia-tis-attikis-taxidi-sti-mystiki-kai-ypogeia-poli-kato-apo-tin-athina/ |archive-date=2022-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://popaganda.gr/citylife/konstantinos-kirimis-katafygia-athina/|title=Konstantinos Kyrimis infiltrated the secret shelters of the city and introduces us to underground Athens |first=Anastasia |last=Vaitsopoulou |language=el |date=2017-08-31|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518125547/https://popaganda.gr/citylife/konstantinos-kirimis-katafygia-athina/|archive-date=2022-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.greece-is.com/hidden-city-discover-athens-arcades/|title=Hidden City: Discover Athens’s Arcades|first=Valia|last=Dimitrakopoulou |date=2024-06-17|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621061620/https://www.greece-is.com/hidden-city-discover-athens-arcades/|archive-date=2024-06-21}}</ref>
After the war, most of these shelters were either abandoned or demolished along with the apartment buildings they were built in. Public shelters were covered to make way for the modern street network. The last public inspection of the remaining shelters was performed in the 70s. Nowadays very few state built shelters remain intact, although hardened cellars still remain in the basements of most buildings in the older districts of [[Thessaloniki]] and [[Athens]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=We have shelters in Greece, but it's as if we don't have |url=https://www.news247.gr/sunday-edition/echoyme-katafygia-stin-ellada-alla-einai-san-na-min-echoyme.9549946.html |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=news247.gr |date=2022-03-04 |language=el}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://opac.kozlib.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=80292&shelfbrowse_itemnumber=105969 |via=Koventareios Municipal Library of Kozani |first=Konstantinos |last=Kyrimis |others=Supervised by George Nikas |title=The Shelters of Attica, 1936-1956 |date=2016 |volume=A |language=el |location=[[Athens]] |isbn=978-960-7897-76-3 |quote=It has also published ''The Shelters of Attica, 1936-1956'' (2017), Volume B}}</ref><ref>{{cite interview|url=https://www.ekathimerini.com/society/1233364/the-forgotten-invisible-safe-spaces-under-athens/ |title=The forgotten, invisible safe spaces under Athens|first=Konstantinos |last=Kyrimis |interviewer=Dimitris Karaiskos |publisher=[[Kathimerini]] |location=[[Athens]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Konstantinos |last=Kyrimis |title=Underground Naval Fortifications in Attica (1936-44) |publisher=Hellenic Institute of Naval History |date=2021 |language=el |url=https://elinis.gr/ypogeies-oxyrvseis/ |isbn= 978-618-84878-1-9}}</ref>
Notable surviving shelters include the Likavitos shelter, built inside the mountain of the same name, the [[Ministry of Finance (Greece)|Ministry of Finance]] bunker and the [[Piraeus]] bunkers in Athens, and the nuclear bunker under the Military Hospital no 414 in Thessaloniki.<ref>{{cite web|last=Papadakis |first=Panagiotis |date=2022-02-24 |title=Where are the shelters in Athens in case of war |url=https://www.f-news.gr/katafygia-athina-periptosi-polemou/ |access-date=2022-04-23 |publisher=FNews |website=f-news.gr |language=el}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The mapping of the shelters of Thessaloniki |first=Dimitra |last=Paligianni |date=2022-03-13 |url=https://www.makthes.gr/h-khartoghrafisi-ton-katafighion-tis-thessalonikis-529189 |publisher=[[Makedonia (newspaper)|Makedonia]] |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=makthes.gr |language=el |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708085204/https://www.makthes.gr/h-khartoghrafisi-ton-katafighion-tis-thessalonikis-529189|archive-date=2022-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ekathimerini.com/leisure/destinations/1242206/tourism-in-the-tunnels-of-war-on-greeces-northern-border/ |title=Tourism in the tunnels of war on Greece’s northern border|first=Alexia|last=Kalaitzi|publisher=Kathimerini|date=2024-06-22|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623072315/https://www.ekathimerini.com/leisure/destinations/1242206/tourism-in-the-tunnels-of-war-on-greeces-northern-border/|archive-date=2024-06-23}}</ref>
===Ukraine===
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<gallery class="center" widths="267px" heights="275px">
The Home Front in Britain during the Second World War HU36196.jpg|Three Anderson shelters
Morrison Shelter on Trial- Testing the New Indoor Shelter, 1941 D2294.jpg|A Morrison shelter containing a dummy, after the house it was in had been destroyed as a test
ValenciaRefugio.JPG|Air-raid shelter built during the Spanish Civil War in Valencia
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