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{{Marxism sidebar}}
'''Marxism''' is a [[political philosophy]] and method of [[socioeconomic]] analysis. It uses a
In addition to the various schools of thought, which emphasise or modify elements of [[classical Marxism]], several Marxian concepts have been incorporated into an array of [[Social theory|social theories]]. This has led to widely varying conclusions.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Hara |first=Phillip |title=Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0415241878 |page=107 |quote=Marxist political economists differ over their definitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These differences are so fundamental, the arguments among differently persuaded Marxist political economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to political economies that celebrate capitalism.}}</ref> Alongside Marx's [[critique of political economy]], the defining characteristics of Marxism have often been described using the terms "[[dialectical materialism]]" and "historical materialism", though these terms were coined after Marx's death and their tenets have been challenged by some self-described Marxists.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Lucia |last1=Pradella |author1-link=Lucia Pradella |chapter=Foundation: Karl Marx (1818–83) |editor1-first=Alex |editor1-last=Callinicos |editor1-link=Alex Callinicos |editor2-first=Stathis |editor2-
As a [[school of thought]], Marxism has had a profound effect on society and global academia. To date, it has influenced many fields, including [[anthropology]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=O'Laughlin |first=Bridget |title=Marxist Approaches in Anthropology |journal=[[Annual Review of Anthropology]] |date=October 1975 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=341–370 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013 |s2cid=2730688 |issn=0084-6570}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Roseberry |first=William |title=Marx and Anthropology |journal=[[Annual Review of Anthropology]] |date=21 October 1997 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=25–46 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25}}</ref> [[Marxist archaeology|archaeology]],<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Archaeological Thought |edition=2nd |last=Trigger |first=Bruce G. |author-link=Bruce G. Trigger |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-60049-1 |location=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuoekuMtIIsC |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511813016 |page=337}}</ref> [[Marxist art theory|art theory]], [[Marxist criminology|criminology]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Criminological Theory: The Essentials |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPA44ThcnJkC |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |date=6 April 2011 |isbn=9781412992343 |first=Stephen G. |last=Tibbetts}}</ref> [[cultural studies]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Dworkin |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Dworkin |date=1997 |title=Cultural Marxism in Post-War Britain: History, the New Left, and the Origins of Cultural Studies |location=Durham |publisher=[[Duke University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hartley |first1=John |chapter=Culture from Arnold to Schwarzenegger: Imperial Literacy to Pop Culture (destination democracy?) |title=A Short History of Cultural Studies |date=2003 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=London |pages=31–57}}</ref> [[Marxian economics|economics]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Sperber |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Sperber |date=16 May 2013 |title=Is Marx still relevant? |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/may/16/karl-marx-ideas-resonate-today |access-date=1 October 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208211516/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/may/16/karl-marx-ideas-resonate-today |archive-date=8 December 2021}}</ref> [[education]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Malott |first1=Curry |last2=Ford |first2=Derek |title=Marx, capital, and education: towards a critical pedagogy of becoming |date=2015 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-4539-1602-5 |oclc=913956545}}{{page needed|date=April 2022}}</ref> [[Marxist ethics|ethics]], [[Marxist film theory|film theory]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Mike |editor-last=Wayne |title=Understanding Film: Marxist Perspectives |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |date=2005 |page=24}}</ref> [[Marxist geography|geography]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Don |title=Mean streets: homelessness, public space, and the limits of capital |publisher=University of Georgia Press |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-8203-5691-4 |oclc=1151767935}}{{page needed|date=April 2022}}</ref> [[Marxist historiography|historiography]], [[Marxist literary criticism|literary criticism]],<ref>{{cite book |first=Terry |last=Eagleton |author-link=Terry Eagleton |title=Marxism and Literary Criticism |location=Berkeley |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=1976}}</ref> [[media studies]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Becker |first=Samuel L. |title=Marxist approaches to media studies: The British experience |journal=[[Critical Studies in Mass Communication]] |date=18 May 2009 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=66–80 |doi=10.1080/15295038409360014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Alvarado |first1=Manuel |author1-link=Manuel Alvarado |last2=Gutch |first2=Robin |last3=Wollen |first3=Tana |date=1987 |title=Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=62, 76}}</ref> [[Marxist philosophy|philosophy]], [[political science]], [[political economy]], [[Freudo-Marxism|psychology]],<ref name="Pavón-Cuéllar 2017">{{cite book |last=Pavón-Cuéllar |first=David |author-link=:es:David Pavón-Cuéllar |year=2017 |chapter=Marxism, Psychoanalysis, and Critique of Psychology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCQlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 |title=Marxism and Psychoanalysis: In or Against Psychology? |location=[[New York City|New York]] and [[London]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |edition=1st |series=Concepts for Critical Psychology |pages=113–149 |isbn=9781138916586 |lccn=2016032101}}</ref> [[science studies]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sheehan |first=Helena |title=Marxism and Science Studies: A Sweep through the Decades |journal=[[International Studies in the Philosophy of Science]] |date=July 2007 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=197–210 |doi=10.1080/02698590701498126 |s2cid=143737257 |url=http://doras.dcu.ie/508/ |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224101154/http://doras.dcu.ie/508/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Marxist sociology|sociology]],<ref name="Johnson-2000"/> [[urban planning]], and [[theatre]].
== Overview ==
[[File:Karl Marx 001.jpg|thumb|[[Karl Marx]] in 1875]]
[[File:Friedrich Engels portrait (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Friedrich Engels]] in 1877]]
Marxism seeks to explain [[social phenomena]] within any given society by analysing the material conditions and [[Economics|economic activities]] required to fulfill human material needs. It assumes that the form of economic organisation, or [[mode of production]], influences all other social phenomena, including broader social relations, political institutions, legal systems, cultural systems, aesthetics and ideologies. These social relations and the economic system form a [[base and superstructure]]. As [[forces of production]] (i.e. [[technology]]) improve, existing forms of organising production become obsolete and hinder further progress. [[Karl Marx]] wrote: "At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or—this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms—with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of [[social revolution]]."<ref name="Critique of Political Economy">{{cite book |title=[[A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy]] |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |date=1859 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>
These inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society which are, in turn, fought out at the level of [[Class conflict|class struggle]].<ref name="ComparingEconomic">{{cite book |title=Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century |date=2003 |first1=Paul R. |last1=Gregory |first2=Robert C. |last2=Stuart |pages=62 |chapter=Marx's Theory of Change |publisher=[[South-Western College]] Publishing |isbn=0618261818}}</ref> Under the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]], this struggle materialises between the minority who own the [[means of production]] (the [[bourgeoisie]]) and the vast majority of the population who produce goods and services (the [[proletariat]]).<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/10/karl-marx-yesterday-and-today |title=Karl Marx, Yesterday and Today |first=Louis |last=Menand |author-link=Louis Menand |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=3 October 2016 |access-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704201500/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/10/karl-marx-yesterday-and-today |archive-date=4 July 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Starting with the conjectural premise that [[social change]] occurs due to the struggle between different [[Social class|classes]] within society who contradict one another,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Marx's Theory of Classes: Science and Ideology |first=Edward |last=Andrew |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Political Science|Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique]] |volume=8 |number=3 |date=September 1975 |pages=454–466 |publisher=Canadian Political Science Association |doi=10.1017/S0008423900046084 |jstor=3231070 |s2cid=154040628}}</ref> a Marxist would conclude that [[capitalism]] exploits and oppresses the proletariat; therefore, capitalism will inevitably lead to a [[proletarian revolution]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Historical Inevitability and Human Agency in Marxism [and Discussion] |first1=G. A. |last1=Cohen |author1-link=G. A. Cohen |first2=R. |last2=Veryard |first3=D. H. |last3=Mellor |author3-link=Hugh Mellor |first4=A. G. M. |last4=Last |first5=Randolph |last5=Quirk |author5-link=Randolph Quirk |first6=John |last6=Mason |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences |volume=07 |number=1832 |date=8 September 1986 |pages=65–87 |publisher=[[Royal Society]] |jstor=2397783}}</ref> In a [[socialist]] society, [[private property]]—as the means of production—would be replaced by [[co-operative|cooperative]] ownership.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Karl Marx on the Individual and the Conditions for His Freedom and Development |last=Simirnov |first=G. |journal=The Marxist |volume=3 |number=3–4 |date=July–December 1985 |url=https://www.cpim.org/marxist/198504_marxist_marxism&indv_simirnov.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210184046/https://www.cpim.org/marxist/198504_marxist_marxism&indv_simirnov.htm |archive-date=10 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Marx's Vision of Sustainable Human Development |first=Paul |last=Burkett |title=Karl Marx |editor1-first=Bertell |editor1-last=Ollman |editor2-first=Kevin B. |editor2-last=Anderson |edition=1st |date=2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=9781315251196}}</ref> A [[socialist economy]] would not base production on the creation of private profits but on the criteria of satisfying human needs—that is, [[production for use]]. [[Friedrich Engels]] explained that "the capitalist mode of appropriation, in which the product enslaves first the producer, and then the appropriator, is replaced by the mode of appropriation of the products that is based upon the nature of the modern means of production; upon the one hand, direct social appropriation, as means to the maintenance and extension of production—on the other, direct individual appropriation, as means of subsistence and of enjoyment."<ref name="Engels-3"/>
[[Marxian economics]] and its proponents view capitalism as [[Economic stability|economically unsustainable]] and incapable of improving the population's [[Standard of living|living standards]] due to its need to compensate for the [[falling rate of profit]] by cutting employees' wages and [[Welfare|social benefits]] while pursuing military aggression. The [[socialist mode of production]] would succeed [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalism]] as humanity's [[mode of production]] through [[revolution]] by workers. According to Marxian [[crisis theory]], socialism is not an inevitability but an economic necessity.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte]] |first=Karl |last=Marx |author-link=Karl Marx |quote=Men make their own history. |date=1852}}</ref>
=== Etymology ===
The term ''Marxism'' was popularised by [[Karl Kautsky]], who considered himself an ''[[orthodox Marxist]]'' during the dispute between Marx's orthodox and ''[[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionist]]'' followers.<ref>{{
Engels did not support using ''Marxism'' to describe either Marx's or his views.{{sfn|Haupt|2010|p=12}} He claimed that the term was being abusively used as a rhetorical [[Grammatical modifier|qualifier]] by those attempting to cast themselves as genuine followers of Marx while casting others in different terms, such as ''[[Lassallians]]''.{{sfn|Haupt|2010|p=12}} In 1882, Engels claimed that Marx had criticised self-proclaimed Marxist [[Paul Lafargue]] by saying that if Lafargue's views were considered Marxist, then "one thing is certain and that is that I am not a Marxist."{{sfn|Haupt|2010|p=12}}
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{{see also|Historical determinism|Historicism|Historiography|People's history|Philosophy of history}}
{{quote box|quote=The discovery of the materialist conception of history, or rather, the consistent continuation and extension of materialism into the domain of social phenomenon, removed two chief defects of earlier historical theories. In the first place, they at best examined only the ideological motives of the historical activity of human beings, without grasping the objective laws governing the development of the system of social relations. ... in the second place, the earlier theories did not cover the activities of the ''masses'' of the population, whereas historical materialism made it possible for the first time to study with scientific accuracy the social conditions of the life of the masses and the changes in these conditions.|source=— Russian Marxist theoretician and revolutionary [[Vladimir Lenin]], 1913{{sfn|Lenin|1967|p=15}}|align=right|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7}}
{{blockquote|text=Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand.|sign=[[Karl Marx]], {{lang|de|[[Grundrisse]]}}, 1858<ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |orig-date=1858 |date=1993 |title=[[Grundrisse|Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy]] |translator-first=M. |translator-last=Nicolaus |publisher=[[Penguin Classics]] |isbn=0140445757 |
Marxism uses a [[materialist]] methodology, referred to by Marx and [[Engels]] as the materialist conception of history and later better known as historical materialism, to analyse the underlying causes of societal development and change from the perspective of the collective ways in which humans make their living.{{sfn|Evans|1975|p=53}}{{sfn|Johnston|2015|p=4}} Marx's account of the theory is in ''[[The German Ideology]]'' (1845)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |author1-link=Karl Marx |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |date=1932 |orig-date=1845 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/11/russia.htm |chapter=The German Ideology |title=Marx/Engels Collected Works |volume=5 |location=Moscow |publisher=[[Progress Publisher]] |access-date=11 July 2020 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929180136/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/11/russia.htm/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the preface ''[[A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy]]'' (1859).<ref name="Critique of Political Economy"/> All constituent features of a society ([[social class]]es, political pyramid and [[ideologies]]) are assumed to stem from economic activity, forming what is considered the [[base and superstructure]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Pawel |last=Zaleski |title=Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality |journal=Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte |publisher=Felix Meiner Verlag GmbH |volume=50 |date=2008 |pages=260–266 |jstor=24360940}}</ref>{{sfn|Johnston|2015|p=4}} The base and superstructure metaphor describes the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, the "sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society" and forms a society's economic base.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Chambre |editor1-first=Henri |editor2-last=McLellan |editor2-first=David T. |editor2-link=David McLellan (political scientist) |date=2020 |orig-date=1998 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism#ref35144 |title=Historical materialism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=6 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706145958/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Marxism#ref35144 |url-status=live}}</ref>
The base includes the material [[forces of production]] such as the [[Means of labor|labour]], [[means of production]] and [[relations of production]], i.e. the social and political arrangements that regulate production and distribution. From this base rises a superstructure of legal and political "forms of [[social consciousness]]" that derive from the economic base that conditions both the superstructure and the [[dominant ideology]] of a society. Conflicts between the development of material productive forces and the relations of production provoke [[social revolution]]s, whereby changes to the economic base lead to the superstructure's [[social transformation]].<ref name="Critique of Political Economy"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |orig-date=1877 |date=1947 |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/introduction.htm |chapter=Introduction |title=[[Anti-Dühring|Anti-Dühring: Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science]] |location=Moscow |publisher=[[Progress Publishers]] |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=24 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524035517/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/introduction.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
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# [[Capitalism]]: capitalists are the ruling class who create and employ the [[proletariat]].
While historical materialism has been referred to as a materialist theory of history, Marx did not claim to have produced a master key to history and that the materialist conception of history is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the {{lang|fr|marche générale}}, imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself."<ref>{{citation |last=Weber |first=Cameron |date=January 2023 |title=Did Karl Marx's "Turn" the Original Social Theory of Class Struggle? |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/115897/1/MPRA_paper_115897.pdf |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> In a letter to the editor of the Russian newspaper paper {{lang|ru-latn|Otechestvennyje Zapiski}} (1877),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |author1-link=Karl Marx |last2=Engels |first2=Friedrich |author2-link=Friedrich Engels |date=1968 |orig-date=1877 |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/11/russia.htm |chapter=Letter from Marx to Editor of the Otecestvenniye Zapisky |title=Marx and Engels Correspondence |location=New York |publisher=International Publishers |access-date=11 July 2020 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929180136/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/11/russia.htm/ |url-status=live}}</ref> he explained that his ideas were based upon a concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wittfogel |first=Karl A. |date=July 1960 |title=The Marxist View of Russian Society and Revolution |journal=[[World Politics]] |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=487–508 [493] |doi=10.2307/2009334 |jstor=2009334 |s2cid=155515389}}
=== Criticism of capitalism ===
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[[File:Pyramid of Capitalist System.jpg|thumb|The "[[Pyramid of Capitalist System]]" cartoon made by the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] in 1911 [[Criticism of capitalism|criticising capitalism]] and [[social stratification]].]]
According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary socialist
[[Exploitation of labour|Exploitation]] is a matter of [[surplus labour]]—the amount of labour performed beyond what is received in goods.<ref name="Holmstrom 1977">{{cite journal |last=Holmstrom |first=Nancy |date=June 1977 |title=Exploitation |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Philosophy]] |volume=7 |number=2 |pages=353–369 |doi=10.1080/00455091.1977.10717024 |jstor=40230696}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |title=[[Capital, Volume I]] |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]] |date=1976 |page=647}}</ref> Exploitation has been a [[socioeconomic]] feature of every [[class society]] and is one of the principal features distinguishing the social classes.{{sfn|Callinicos|2010|pp=98–99}}{{sfn|Johnston|2015|p=5}} The power of one social class to control the [[means of production]] enables its exploitation of other classes.{{sfn|Callinicos|2010|pp=100–103}} Under capitalism, the [[labour theory of value]] is the operative concern, whereby the [[Value (economics)|value]] of a [[Commodity (Marxism)|commodity]] equals the socially necessary labour time required to produce it. Under such conditions, [[surplus value]]—the difference between the value produced and the value received by a labourer—is synonymous with ''surplus labour,'' and capitalist exploitation is thus realised as deriving surplus value from the worker.<ref name="Holmstrom 1977"/>{{sfn|Callinicos|2010|pp=97–100}}
In [[Pre-industrial society|pre-capitalist economies]], exploitation of the worker was achieved via physical [[coercion]]. Under the capitalist mode of production, workers do not own the means of production and must "voluntarily" enter into an exploitative work relationship with a capitalist to earn the necessities of life. The worker's entry into such employment is voluntary because they choose which capitalist to work for. However, the worker must work or starve. Thus, exploitation is inevitable, and the voluntary nature of a worker participating in a capitalist society is illusory; it is production, not circulation, that causes exploitation. Marx emphasised that capitalism ''per se'' does not cheat the worker.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Allen W. Wood |last=Wood |first=Allen W. |date=2004 |title=Karl Marx |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415316989}} {{page needed|date=June 2024}}</ref>
[[Marx's theory of alienation|Alienation]] ({{lang-de|Entfremdung}}) is the estrangement of people from their humanity and a systematic result of capitalism. Under capitalism, the fruits of production belong to employers, who expropriate the surplus created by others and generate alienated labourers. In Marx's view, alienation is an objective characterisation of the worker's situation in capitalism—his or her self-awareness of this condition is not prerequisite.<ref>"Alienation". ''A Dictionary of Sociology''.</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=June 2024}}
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In addition to criticism, Marx has also praised some of the results of capitalism stating that it "has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together"<ref name="The Communist Manifesto"/> and that it "has put an end to all feudal, patriarchal arrangements."<ref name="The Communist Manifesto"/>
Marx posited that the remaining feudalist societies in the world and forms of socialism that did not conform with his writings would be replaced by communism in the future in a similar manner as with capitalism.<ref name="World History">{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |title=World History |last2=Brewer |first2=Paul |last3=Shaw |first3=Anthony |last4=Chandler |first4=Malcolm |last5=Cheshire |first5=Gerard |last6=Cranfield |first6=Ingrid |last7=Ralph Lewis |first7=Brenda |last8=Sutherland |first8=Joe |last9=Vint |first9=Robert |publisher=Parragon Books |year=2003 |isbn=0-75258-227-5 |location=[[Bath, Somerset]] |
=== Social classes ===
{{main|Marxian class theory}}
{{see also|Class conflict|Classless society|Social class|Three-component theory of stratification}}
Marx distinguishes social classes based on two criteria, i.e. ownership of means of production and control over the [[labour power]] of others. Following this criterion of class based on property relations, Marx identified the [[social stratification]] of the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] with the following social groups:
* [[Proletariat]]: "[T]he class of modern [[wage labour]]ers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to selling their labour power in order to live."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Engels |first1=Friedrich |author1-link=Friedrich Engels |title=Manifesto of the Communist Party |date=1888 |location=London |
** [[Lumpenproletariat]]: the outcasts of society, such as the criminals, [[Vagrancy|vagabonds]], [[Begging|beggars]], or [[Prostitution|prostitutes]], without any [[Political consciousness|political]] or [[class consciousness]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=Justin P. |title=The Social Thought of Karl Marx |date=2014 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE]] |isbn=9781412997843 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oc45DQAAQBAJ&dq=dangerous+class&pg=PT117 105] |chapter=Class}}</ref> Having no interest in national, let alone [[International economics|international]], economic affairs, Marx claimed that this specific sub-division of the proletariat would play no part in the eventual social revolution.
* Bourgeoisie: those who "own the means of production" and buy labour power from the proletariat, thus exploiting the proletariat. They subdivide as bourgeoisie and the petite bourgeoisie.<ref name="Siegrist">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Siegrist |first=Hannes |date=2001 |title=Bourgeoisie and Middle Classes, History of |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=James D. |editor-link=James D. Wright |encyclopedia=[[International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences]] |volume=2 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |pages=784–789 |isbn=9780080430768 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.62013-5}}</ref>
** [[Petite bourgeoisie]]: those who work and can afford to buy little labour power (i.e. [[Small business|small business owners]], [[peasant]]s, [[landlord]]s and trade workers). Marxism predicts that the continual reinvention of the means of production eventually would destroy the petite bourgeoisie, degrading them from the [[middle class]] to the proletariat.<ref name="Siegrist"/>
* [[Landlords]]: a historically significant social class that retains some wealth and power.
* [[Peasantry]] and farmers: a scattered class incapable of organising and effecting [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] change, most of whom would enter the proletariat while some would become landlords.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wolf |first=Eric R. |author-link=Eric Wolf |date=1999 |title=Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |chapter=Conclusion |page=294}}</ref>
Class consciousness denotes the awareness—of itself and the social world—that a social class possesses and its capacity to act rationally in its best interests.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parenti |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Parenti |title=Power and the Powerless |chapter=Class Consciousness and Individualized Consciousness |pages=94–113 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |date=1978 |isbn=0-312-63373-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Class consciousness - Social Stratification, Marxism {{&}} Class Conflict |first=André |last=Munro |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/class-consciousness |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> Class consciousness is required before a social class can effect a successful revolution and, thus, the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sociological Theory in the Classical Era |first1=Laura Desfor |last1=Edles |first2=Scott |last2=Appelrouth |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1506347820 |page=48}}</ref>
Without defining ''[[Ideology#Ideology as an instrument of social reproduction|ideology]]'',<ref>{{cite book |last=McCarney |first=Joseph |date=2005 |chapter-url=http://marxmyths.org/joseph-mccarney/article.htm |chapter=Ideology and False Consciousness |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509062317/http://marxmyths.org/joseph-mccarney/article.htm |archive-date=9 May 2013 |title=Marx Myths and Legends |editor1-first=R. |editor1-last=Lucas |editor2-first=A. |editor2-last=Blunden}}</ref> Marx used the term to describe the production of images of social reality. According to Engels, "ideology is a process accomplished by the so-called thinker consciously, it is true, but with a false consciousness. The real motive forces impelling him remain unknown to him; otherwise it simply would not be an ideological process. Hence he imagines false or seeming motive forces."<ref>{{cite book |last=Engels |first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Engels |orig-date=14 July 1893 |date=1968 |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1893/letters/93_07_14.htm |chapter=Letter to Franz Mehring |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222215623/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1893/letters/93_07_14.htm |archive-date=22 December 2012 |title=Marx and Engels Correspondence |translator-link=Dona Torr |translator-first=D. |translator-last=Torr |location=London |publisher=[[International Publishers]]}}</ref>
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}}
This new way of thinking was invented because [[socialists]] believed that [[common ownership]] of the means of production (i.e. the [[Industry (economics)|industries]], land, wealth of nature, trade apparatus and wealth of the society) would abolish the exploitative working conditions experienced under capitalism.<ref name="Engels-3">{{cite book |last=Engels |first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Engels |date=Spring 1880 |chapter=III [Historical Materialism
Through [[common ownership]] of the means of production, the [[profit motive]] is eliminated, and the motive of furthering human flourishing is introduced. Because the surplus produced by the workers is the property of the society as a whole, there are no classes of producers and appropriators. Additionally, as the state originates in the bands of retainers hired by the first ruling classes to protect their economic privilege, it will [[Withering away of the state|wither away]] as its conditions of existence have disappeared.<ref name="Origins of the Family- Chapter IX">{{cite book |first=Friedrich |last=Engels |author-link=Friedrich Engels |chapter-url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/ch09.htm |title=[[Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]] |chapter=IX. Barbarism and Civilization |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |access-date=26 December 2012 |archive-date=22 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022225930/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/ch09.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ZhaoDickson2001">{{cite book |first1=Jianmin |last1=Zhao |first2=Bruce J. |last2=Dickson |title=Remaking the Chinese State: Strategies, Society, and Security |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Mm2BEf4iiwC&pg=PA2 |access-date=26 December 2012 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0415255837 |page=2 |archive-date=6 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606012544/http://books.google.com/books?id=5Mm2BEf4iiwC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="cq">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kurian |first=George Thomas |author-link=George Kurian |date=2011 |title=Withering Away of the State |page=1776 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Political Science |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[CQ Press]] |doi=10.4135/9781608712434.n1646 |isbn=9781933116440 |s2cid=221178956}}</ref>
=== Communism, revolution and socialism ===
[[File:Madrid may day375.jpg|thumb|
According to ''The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx'', "Marx used many terms to refer to a post-capitalist society—positive humanism, socialism, Communism, realm of free individuality, free association of producers, etc. He used these terms completely interchangeably. The notion that 'socialism' and 'Communism' are distinct historical stages is alien to his work and only entered the lexicon of Marxism after his death."<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Hudis |editor1-first=Peter |editor2-last=Vidal |editor2-first=Matt |editor3-last=Smith |editor3-first=Tony |editor4-last=Rotta |editor4-first=Tomás |editor5-last=Prew |editor5-first=Paul |date=September 2018 – June 2019
According to [[orthodox Marxist]] theory, overthrowing capitalism by a [[socialist revolution]] in contemporary society is inevitable. While the inevitability of an eventual socialist revolution is a controversial debate among many different [[Marxist schools of thought]], all Marxists believe socialism is a necessity. Marxists argue that a [[socialist]] society is far better for most of the populace than its capitalist counterpart. Prior to the [[Russian Revolution]], [[Vladimir Lenin]] wrote: "The [[Socialization as a process|socialisation of production]] is bound to lead to the conversion of the means of production into the property of society. ... This conversion will directly result in an immense increase in productivity of labour, a reduction of working hours, and the replacement of the remnants, the ruins of small-scale, primitive, disunited production by collective and improved labour."{{sfn|Lenin|1967|pp=35–36}} The failure of the [[1905 Russian Revolution]], along with the failure of socialist movements to resist the outbreak of [[World War I]], led to renewed theoretical effort and valuable contributions from Lenin and [[Rosa Luxemburg]] towards an appreciation of Marx's [[crisis theory]] and efforts to formulate a [[theory of imperialism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kuruma |first=Samezo |date=1929 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/kuruma/crisis-intro.htm |title=An Introduction to the Theory of Crisis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331084713/https://www.marxists.org/archive/kuruma/crisis-intro.htm |archive-date=31 March 2020 |translator-first=M. |translator-last=Schauerte |journal=Journal of the Ohara Institute for Social Research |volume=4 |number=1}}</ref>
=== Democracy ===
[[File:Lev Trotsky 1906-3.3 V1.jpg|
Karl Marx criticised [[liberal democracy]] as not democratic enough due to the unequal socio-economic situation of the workers during the Industrial Revolution which undermines the democratic agency of citizens.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2010.07.002 |doi=10.1016/j.soscij.2010.07.002 |title=Karl Marx's sociological theory of democracy: Civil society and political rights |date=2011 |last1=Niemi |first1=William L. |journal=[[The Social Science Journal]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=39–51}}</ref> Marxists differ in their positions towards democracy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miliband |first=Ralph |author-link=Ralph Miliband |title=Marxism and politics |publisher=Aakar Books |date=2011 |pages= |isbn=}}</ref>{{pn|date=June 2024}}<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/191498 |jstor=191498 |title=Karl Marx on Democracy, Participation, Voting, and Equality |last1=Springborg |first1=Patricia |journal=[[Political Theory (journal)|Political Theory]] |date=1984 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=537–556 |doi=10.1177/0090591784012004005}}</ref> Types of [[democracy in Marxism]] include [[Soviet democracy]], [[New Democracy]], [[Whole-process people's democracy]] and can include voting on how surplus
== Schools of thought ==
{{main|Marxist schools of thought}}
{{see also|List of communist ideologies}}
=== Classical ===
{{main|Classical Marxism}}
Classical Marxism denotes the collection of socio-eco-political theories expounded by [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://isj.org.uk/classical-marxism-and-the-question-of-reformism/ |title=Classical Marxism and the question of reformism |last=Gluckstein |first=Donny |author-link=Donny Gluckstein |date=26 June 2014 |journal=[[International Socialism (magazine)|International Socialism]] |number=143 |access-date=19 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813092715/http://isj.org.uk/classical-marxism-and-the-question-of-reformism/ |archive-date=13 August 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> As [[Ernest Mandel]] remarked, "Marxism is always open, always critical, always self-critical."<ref>{{cite book |last=Mandel |first=Ernest |author-link=Ernest Mandel |date=1994 |title=Revolutionary Marxism and Social Reality in the 20th Century |publisher=[[Humanities Press International]] |isbn=0-391-03800-1 |page=50}}</ref> Classical Marxism distinguishes ''Marxism'' as broadly perceived from "what Marx believed." In 1883, Marx wrote to his son-in-law [[Paul Lafargue]] and French labour leader [[Jules Guesde]]—both of whom claimed to represent Marxist principles—accusing them of "revolutionary phrase-mongering" and denying the value of reformist struggle.<ref name="PPO"/> From Marx's letter derives Marx's famous remark that, if their politics represented Marxism, '{{lang|fr|ce qu'il y a de certain c'est que moi, je ne suis pas Marxiste}}' ('what is certain is that I myself am not a Marxist')."<ref name="PPO">{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |author1-link=Karl Marx |last2=Guesde |first2=Jules |author2-link=Jules Guesde |date=1880 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/05/parti-ouvrier.htm |title=The Programme of the Parti Ouvrier |access-date=11 July 2020 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |archive-date=1 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701023827/https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/05/parti-ouvrier.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Stuart |first2=Dave |last2=Morely |first3=Kuan-Hsing |last3=Chen |title=Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0415088039 |page=418 |access-date=4 March 2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPENAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA418 |quote=I have no hesitation in saying that this represents a gigantic crudification and simplification of Marx's work—the kind of simplification and reductionism which once led him, in despair, to say "if that is marxism, then I am not a marxist. |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319081927/https://books.google.com/books?id=EPENAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA418 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
<!-- American Marxist scholar [[Hal Draper]] responded: "There are few thinkers in modern history whose thought has been so badly misrepresented, by Marxists and anti-Marxists alike."
=== Libertarian ===
{{main|List of communist ideologies#Libertarian Marxism}}
{{See also|Libertarian socialism#Marxist}}
Libertarian Marxism emphasises the [[anti-authoritarian]] and [[libertarian]] aspects of Marxism. Early currents of libertarian Marxism, such as [[left communism]], emerged in opposition to [[Marxism–Leninism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Memos |first=Christos |date=2012 |title=Anarchism and Council Communism on the Russian Revolution |journal=[[Anarchist Studies]] |volume=20 |number=2 |issn=0967-3393 |pages=22–47 [30]}}</ref><ref name="Non-Leninist Marxism">{{cite book |title=Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils |date=2007 |publisher=Red and Black Publishers |isbn=978-0979181368 |location=St. Petersburg, Florida |first1=Hermann |last1=Gorter |author1-link=Herman Gorter |first2=Antonie |last2=Pannekoek |author2-link=Antonie Pannekoek |first3=Sylvia |last3=Pankhurst |author3-link=Sylvia Pankhurst |first4=Otto |last4=Rühle |author4-link=Otto Rühle}}{{page needed|date=June 2024}}</ref>
Libertarian Marxism is often critical of [[reformist]] positions such as those held by [[social democrats]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://libcom.org/library/social-democracy-1-aufheben-8 |title=The Retreat of Social Democracy ... Re-imposition of Work in Britain and the 'Social Europe' |magazine=Aufheben |issue=8 |date=1999 |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405120630/https://libcom.org/library/social-democracy-1-aufheben-8 |url-status=live}}</ref> Libertarian Marxist currents often draw from
Libertarian Marxism includes currents such as [[autonomism]], [[council communism]], [[De Leonism]], [[Letterist International|Lettrism]], parts of the [[New Left]], [[Situationism]], [[Freudo-Marxism]] (a form of [[psychoanalysis]]),<ref>{{cite book |title=Orgone Addicts: Wilhelm Reich Versus The Situationists. |url=http://www.lust-for-life.org/Lust-For-Life/ReichVersusTheSituationists/ReichVersusTheSituationists.htm |first=Jim |last=Martin |quote=I will also discuss other left-libertarians who wrote about Reich, as they bear on the general discussion of Reich's ideas...In 1944, Paul Goodman, author of [[Growing Up Absurd]], [[The Empire City]], and co-author of ''Gestalt Therapy'', began to discover the work of Wilhelm Reich for his American audience in the tiny libertarian socialist and anarchist milieu. |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=8 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308103733/http://www.lust-for-life.org/Lust-For-Life/ReichVersusTheSituationists/ReichVersusTheSituationists.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Socialisme ou Barbarie]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Howard |first=Dick |title=Introduction to Castoriadis |journal=Telos |year=1975 |issue=23 |page=118}}</ref> and [[workerism]].<ref name="map">{{cite web |url=http://libcom.org/library/libertarian-marxist-tendency-map |title=A libertarian Marxist tendency map |publisher=Libcom.org |access-date=11 October 2013 |archive-date=10 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110232041/http://libcom.org/library/libertarian-marxist-tendency-map |url-status=live}}</ref> Libertarian Marxism has often strongly influenced both [[Post-left anarchy|post-left]] and [[Social anarchism|social anarchists]]. Notable theorists of libertarian Marxism have included [[Maurice Brinton]], [[Cornelius Castoriadis]], [[Guy Debord]], [[Raya Dunayevskaya]], [[Daniel Guérin]], [[C. L. R. James]], [[Rosa Luxemburg]], [[Antonio Negri]], [[Anton Pannekoek]], [[Fredy Perlman]], [[Ernesto Screpanti]], [[E. P. Thompson]], [[Raoul Vaneigem]], and [[Yanis Varoufakis]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ted.com/speakers/yanis_varoufakis |title=Yanis Varoufakis thinks we need a radically new way of thinking about the economy, finance and capitalism |last=Varoufakis |first=Yanis |author-link=Yanis Varoufakis |publisher=[[TED (conference)|TED]] |access-date=14 April 2019 |quote=Yanis Varoufakis describes himself as a "libertarian Marxist |archive-date=2 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402234100/https://www.ted.com/speakers/yanis_varoufakis |url-status=live}}</ref> the latter claiming that Marx himself was a libertarian Marxist.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/yanis-varoufakis-we-leftists-are-not-necessarily-pro-public-sector-marx-was-anti-state-1-7861928 |title=Yanis Varoufakis: We leftists are not necessarily pro public sector – Marx was anti state |last=Lowry |first=Ben |work=The NewsLetter |date=11 March 2017 |access-date=14 April 2019 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402234059/https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/yanis-varoufakis-we-leftists-are-not-necessarily-pro-public-sector-marx-was-anti-state-1-7861928 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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=== Sociology ===
{{main|Marxist criminology|Marxist sociology}}
Marxist sociology, as the study of [[sociology]] from a Marxist perspective,<ref name="
Influenced by the thought of [[Karl Marx]], Marxist sociology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. With Marx, [[Max Weber]] and [[Émile Durkheim]] are considered seminal influences in [[History of sociology|early sociology]]. The first Marxist school of sociology was known as [[Austro-Marxism]], of which [[Carl Grünberg]] and [[Antonio Labriola]] were among its most notable members. During the 1940s, the [[Western Marxist]] school became accepted within Western academia, subsequently fracturing into several different perspectives, such as the [[Frankfurt School]] or [[critical theory]]. The legacy of Critical Theory as a major offshoot of Marxism is controversial. The common thread linking Marxism and Critical theory is an interest in struggles to dismantle structures of oppression, exclusion, and domination.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139196598.007 |last=Fuchs |first=Christian |author-link=Christian Fuchs |chapter=What is Critical Theory? |title=Foundations of Critical Theory |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2021 |pages=17–51}}</ref> Due to its former state-supported position, there has been a backlash against Marxist thought in [[post-communist]] states, such as [[Sociology in Poland|Poland]]. However, it remains prominent in the sociological research sanctioned and supported by communist states, such as [[Sociology in China|in China]].<ref> {{cite journal |last=Xiaogang |first=Wu |url=http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/intl_0509.html |title=Between Public and Professional: Chinese Sociology and the Construction of a Harmonious Society |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111425/http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/intl_0509.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 |journal=ASA Footnotes |date=May–June 2009 |volume=37 |number=5}}</ref>
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=== Economics ===
{{main|Marxian economics}}
Marxian economics is a school of economic thought tracing its foundations to the critique of classical [[political economy]] first expounded upon by
=== Education ===
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* the pedagogical function of the Communist Party<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boughton |first1=Bob |title=Popular education and the 'party line' |journal=[[Globalisation, Societies and Education]] |date=June 2013 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=239–257 |doi=10.1080/14767724.2013.782189 |s2cid=143914501}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Derek R. |title=Studying like a communist: Affect, the Party, and the educational limits to capitalism |journal=[[Educational Philosophy and Theory]] |date=16 April 2017 |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=452–461 |doi=10.1080/00131857.2016.1237347 |s2cid=151616793|url=https://scholarship.depauw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=educ_facpubs}}</ref>
The latest field of research examines and develops Marxist pedagogy in the postdigital era.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Derek R. |last2=Jandrić |first2=Petar |title=Postdigital Marxism and education |journal=[[Educational Philosophy and Theory]] |date=19 May 2021 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1080/00131857.2021.1930530 |s2cid=236356457 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carmichael |first1=Patrick |title=Postdigital Possibilities: Operaismo, Co-research, and Educational Inquiry |journal=Postdigital Science and Education |date=April 2020 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=380–396 |doi=10.1007/s42438-019-00089-0 |s2cid=214035791 |doi-access=free |hdl=10547/623793 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Derek R. |title=Pedagogically Reclaiming Marx's Politics in the Postdigital Age: Social Formations and Althuserrian Pedagogical Gestures |journal=Postdigital Science and Education |date=October 2021 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=851–869 |doi=10.1007/s42438-021-00238-4 |s2cid=237850324}}</ref>
=== Historiography ===
{{main|Marxist historiography}}
Marxist historiography is a school of [[historiography]] influenced by Marxism, the chief tenets of which are the centrality of [[social class]] and [[economic]] constraints in determining historical outcomes. Marxist historiography has contributed to the history of the [[working class]], oppressed nationalities, and the [[methodology]] of [[People's history|history from below]].
▲Marxist historiography is a school of [[historiography]] influenced by Marxism, the chief tenets of which are the centrality of [[social class]] and [[economic]] constraints in determining historical outcomes. Marxist historiography has contributed to the history of the [[working class]], oppressed nationalities, and the [[methodology]] of [[People's history|history from below]]. [[Friedrich Engels]]' most important historical contribution was ''Der deutsche Bauernkrieg'' about the [[German Peasants' War]] which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany regarding emerging capitalist classes. ''The German Peasants' War'' indicates the Marxist interest in [[People's history|history from below]] with class analysis and attempts a dialectical analysis.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
Engels' short treatise ''[[The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844]]'' was salient in creating the [[socialist]] impetus in British politics. Marx's most important works on social and political history include ''[[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon]]'', ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'', ''[[The German Ideology]]'', and those chapters of ''Capital'' dealing with the historical emergence of [[Capitalism|capitalists]] and [[Proletariat|proletarians]] from [[Pre-industrial society|pre-industrial]] English society.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Krieger |first=Leonard |date=June 1953 |title=Marx and Engels as Historians |journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]] |volume=14 |number=3 |pages=381–403 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |doi=10.2307/2707808 |jstor=2707808}}</ref> Marxist historiography suffered in the [[Soviet Union]] as the government requested overdetermined historical writing. Notable histories include the ''[[History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)]]'', published in the 1930s to justify the nature of Bolshevik party life under [[Joseph Stalin]]. A [[Communist Party Historians Group|circle of historians]] inside the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]] (CPGB) formed in 1946.<ref>{{
While some members of the group, most notably [[Christopher Hill (historian)|Christopher Hill]] and
=== Literary criticism ===
{{main|Marxist literary criticism}}
{{
Marxist literary criticism is a loose term describing [[literary criticism]] based on [[Socialism|socialist]] and [[dialectic]] theories.<ref>{{cite book |first=Terry |last=Eagleton |author-link=Terry Eagleton |title=Marxism and Literary Criticism |location=Berkeley |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=1976}}</ref> Marxist criticism views [[Literature|literary works]] as reflections of the [[Institution|social institutions]] from which they originate. According to Marxists, even literature is a social institution with a specific ideological function based on the background and ideology of the author. Marxist literary critics include [[Mikhail Bakhtin]], [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Terry Eagleton]], and [[Fredric Jameson]].<ref>{{
=== Aesthetics ===
{{main|Marxist aesthetics}}
{{
Marxist aesthetics is a theory of [[aesthetics]] based on or derived from the theories of [[Karl Marx]]. It involves a [[dialectical]] and [[materialist]], or [[dialectical materialist]], approach to the application of Marxism to the cultural sphere, specifically areas related to taste, such as art and beauty, among others. Marxists believe that economic and social conditions, and especially the class relations that derive from them affect every aspect of an individual's life, from religious beliefs to legal systems to cultural frameworks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marcuse |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Marcuse |date=1978 |title=The Aesthetic Dimension: Toward a Critique of Marxist Aesthetics |title-link=The Aesthetic Dimension |chapter=Preface |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |isbn=0-8070-1518-0 |pages=ix–xiii}}</ref> Some notable Marxist aestheticians include [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], [[Mikhail Lifshitz]], [[William Morris]], [[Theodor W. Adorno]], [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Antonio Gramsci]], [[Georg Lukács]], [[Ernst Fischer (writer)|Ernst Fischer]], [[Louis Althusser]], [[Jacques Rancière]], [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]], and [[Raymond Williams]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
== History ==
=== Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ===
{{main|Karl Marx|Friedrich Engels}}
[[File:Marx_and_Engels.jpg|thumb|Marx and Engels]]
Marx addressed the [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]] and [[Exploitation of labour|exploitation]] of the working class, the [[Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] and historical materialism.{{sfn|Guo|2011|p=1495}}{{sfn|Krupavičius|2011|p=314}} He is famous for analysing history in terms of class struggle, summarised in the initial line introducing ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' (1848): "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."<ref name="The Communist Manifesto">{{cite book |last1=Marx |first1=Karl |author1-link=Karl Marx |chapter=Bourgeois and Proletarians |title=The Communist Manifesto |date=1848 |location=London |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007
Together with Marx, Engels co-developed communist theory. Marx and Engels first met in September 1844. Discovering that they had similar views of philosophy and socialism, they collaborated and wrote works such as {{lang|de|Die heilige Familie}} (''[[The Holy Family (book)|The Holy Family]]''). After Marx was deported from France in January 1845, they moved to Belgium, which permitted greater [[freedom of expression]] than other European countries. In January 1846, they returned to Brussels to establish the [[Communist Correspondence Committee]].<ref>{{
In 1847, they began writing ''The Communist Manifesto'' (1848), based on Engels' ''The Principles of Communism''. Six weeks later, they published the 12,000-word pamphlet in February 1848. In March, Belgium expelled them, and they moved to [[Cologne]], where they published the {{lang|de|
After Marx died in 1883, Engels became the editor and translator of Marx's writings. With his ''[[Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]]'' (1884)—analysing [[Monogamy|monogamous]] [[marriage]] as guaranteeing male social domination of women, a concept analogous, in communist theory, to the capitalist class's economic domination of the working class—Engels made [[intellectual]]ly significant contributions to [[feminist theory]] and [[Marxist feminism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carver |first=Terrell |date=Winter 1985 |title=
=== Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union ===
{{main|Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Leninism|Marxism–Leninism|October Revolution|Trotskyism}}
=== Onset ===
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}}
With the [[October Revolution]] in 1917, the [[Bolsheviks]] took power from the [[Russian Provisional Government]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Wade |first=Rex A. |author-link=Rex A. Wade |date=2004 |chapter="All Power to The Soviets": The Bolsheviks Take Power |title=Revolutionary Russia: New Approaches |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-203-33984-3 |page=211}}</ref> The Bolsheviks established the first [[socialist state]] based on the ideas of [[soviet democracy]] and [[Leninism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Acton |first=Edward |title=Critical Companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914-1921 |editor1-first=Edward |editor1-last=Acton |editor2-first=Vladimir Iu. |editor2-last=Cherniaev |editor3-first=William G. |editor3-last=Rosenberg |year=1997 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn= |page=8}}</ref> Their newly formed federal state promised to end Russian involvement in [[World War I]] and establish a revolutionary worker's state. Lenin's government also instituted a number of progressive measures such as [[Universal access to education|universal education]], [[universal healthcare]] and [[Women in Russia|equal rights for women]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Katherine H. |last2=Keene |first2=Michael L. |title=After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists |date=10 January 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5647-5 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyaxYvSG6gAC&dq=lenin+universal+literacy+after+the+vote+was+won&pg=PA109}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ugri͡umov |first=Aleksandr Leontʹevich |title=Lenin's Plan for Building Socialism in the USSR, 1917–1925 |date=1976 |publisher=Novosti Press Agency Publishing House |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXknAQAAMAAJ&q=lenin+universal+literacy}}</ref> 50,000 workers had passed a resolution in favour of Bolshevik demand for transfer of power to the [[soviets]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Head |first=Michael |title=Evgeny Pashukanis: A Critical Reappraisal |date=12 September 2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-30787-5 |pages=71–72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYGNAgAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PT83}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shukman |first=Harold |title=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the Russian Revolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ScabEAAAQBAJ&dq=october+revolution+50+000+workers&pg=PA21 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |date=5 December 1994 |page=21 |isbn=978-0-631-19525-2}}</ref> Following the October Revolution, the Soviet government struggled with the [[White Movement]] and several independence movements in the [[Russian Civil War]]. This period is marked by the establishment of many socialist policies and the development of new socialist ideas, with [[Marxism–Leninism]] becoming the dominant ideological strain.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bullock |editor1-first=Alan |editor1-link=Alan Bullock |editor2-last=Trombley |editor2-first=Stephen |editor2-link=Stephen Trombley |title=The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought |edition=Third |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |date=1999 |isbn=978-0006863830 |page=506}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Lisichkin |first=G. |date=1989 |script-title=ru:Мифы и реальность |title=Mify i real'nost' |language=ru |trans-title=Myths and reality |magazine=[[Novy Mir]] |volume=3 |pages=59}}</ref>
In 1919, the nascent Soviet Government established the [[Communist Academy]] and the [[Marx–Engels–Lenin Institute]] for doctrinal Marxist study and to publish official ideological and research documents for the Russian Communist Party.<ref>{{cite book |last=David-Fox |first=Michael |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/9781501705397 |title=Revolution of the Mind: Higher Learning among the Bolsheviks, 1918–1929 |date=1 November 2016 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5017-0539-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Barber |first=John |date=1981 |title=Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928-1932 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-349-05239-4 |page=16}}</ref> With Lenin's death in 1924, there was an internal struggle in the Soviet Communist movement, mainly between [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Leon Trotsky]], in the form of the [[Right Opposition]] and [[Left Opposition]], respectively. These struggles were based on both sides' different interpretations of Marxist and Leninist theory based on the situation of the [[Soviet Union]] at the time.
=== Chinese Revolution ===
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From Stalin's death until the late 1960s, there was increased conflict between China and the Soviet Union. [[De-Stalinisation]], which first began under [[Nikita Khrushchev]], and the policy of [[detente]], were seen as [[Revisionism (Marxism)|revisionist]] and insufficiently Marxist. This ideological confrontation spilt into a broader global crisis centred around which nation was to lead the international socialist movement.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/1964/phnycom.htm |title=1964: On Khrushchov's Phoney Communism and Its Historical Lessons for the World |last=Mao |first=Zedong |author-link=Mao Zedong |date=July 1964 |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=30 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200530131843/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/1964/phnycom.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>
Following Mao's death and the ascendancy of [[Deng Xiaoping]], Maoism and official Marxism in China were reworked.
=== Late 20th century ===
{{Further|Cold War}}
[[File:Fidel Castro - UN General Assembly 1960.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|[[Fidel Castro]] at the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1960]]
In 1959, the [[Cuban Revolution]] led to the victory of [[Fidel Castro]] and his [[July 26 Movement]]. Although the revolution was not explicitly socialist, upon victory, Castro ascended to the position of prime minister and adopted the [[Leninist]] model of socialist development, allying with the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Bourne|1986}}{{sfn|Coltman|2003}} One of the leaders of the revolution, the Argentine Marxist revolutionary [[Che Guevara]], subsequently went on to aid revolutionary socialist movements in [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo-Kinshasa]] and Bolivia, eventually being killed by the Bolivian government, possibly on the orders of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), although the CIA agent sent to search for Guevara, Felix Rodriguez, expressed a desire to keep him alive as a possible bargaining tool with the Cuban government. He posthumously went on to become an internationally recognised icon.<ref>
In the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Maoist]] government undertook the [[Cultural Revolution]] from 1966 to 1976 to purge Chinese society of capitalist elements and achieve socialism. Upon [[Mao Zedong]]'s death, his rivals seized political power, and under the leadership of [[Deng Xiaoping]], many of Mao's Cultural Revolution era policies were revised or abandoned, and a large increase in privatised industry was encouraged.<ref>{{cite news |date=22 October 2011 |title=Deng Xiaoping's legacy: The Great Stabiliser |
|{{cite news |url=http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/mediafile/200607/05/F2006070515295500635.swf |title=Selected Works of Deng Xiaopeng Volume 1 (1938–1965) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510060245/http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/mediafile/200607/05/F2006070515295500635.swf |archive-date=10 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}
|{{cite news |url=http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/mediafile/200607/05/F2006070515261400629.swf |title=Selected Works of Deng Xiaopeng Volume 2 (1975–1982) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403035549/http://english.cpc.people.com.cn/mediafile/200607/05/F2006070515261400629.swf |archive-date=3 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}
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[[File:VISITA DE ESTADO - XI JINPING (30930224182).jpg|thumb|[[Xi Jinping]], [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] since 2012]]
[[Chinese Communist Party]] [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|General Secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]] has announced a deepening commitment of the
The fidelity of those varied revolutionaries, leaders and parties to the work of [[Karl Marx]] is highly contested and has been rejected by many Marxists and other socialists alike.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Ben |year=1981 |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/cpml-ussr.htm |title=USSR: Capitalist or Socialist? |journal=The Call |volume=10 |issue=8 |access-date=16 July 2020 |archive-date=29 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629124947/https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-7/cpml-ussr.htm |url-status=live |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Garner |first=Dwight |date=18 August 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/books/19garner.html |title=Fox Hunter, Party Animal, Leftist Warrior |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727061411/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/books/19garner.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Socialists in general and socialist writers, including [[Dimitri Volkogonov]], acknowledge that the actions of [[authoritarian socialist]] leaders have damaged "the enormous appeal of socialism generated by the October Revolution."<ref>{{cite book |last=Volkogonov |first=Dimitri |date=1991 |title=Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy |translator-first=Harold |translator-last=Shukman |location=London |publisher=[[Weidenfeld & Nicolson]] |pages=173 |isbn=978-0297810803}}</ref>
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Criticism of Marxism has come from various political ideologies and academic disciplines.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kirby |first=Mark |title=Sociology in Perspective |year=2000 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0435331603 |page=273}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ollman |first=Bertell |title=Criticisms of Marxism 1880–1930 |year=1957 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |pages=1, 6}}</ref> This includes general criticism about lack of internal consistency, criticisms related to historical materialism, that it is a type of historical determinism, the necessity of suppression of individual rights, issues with the implementation of communism and economic issues such as the distortion or absence of price signals and reduced incentives. In addition, empirical and epistemological problems are frequently identified.<ref>{{cite book |first1=M. C. |last1=Howard |first2=J. E. |last2=King |date=1992 |title=A History of Marxian Economics |volume=II, 1929–1990 |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]}}</ref><ref name=popper>{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Popper |title=Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-0415285940 |page=49}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link=John Maynard Keynes |last=Keynes |first=John Maynard |date=1991 |title=Essays in Persuasion |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |pages=300 |isbn=978-0393001907}}</ref>
Some Marxists have criticised the academic [[institution]]alisation of Marxism for being too shallow and detached from political action.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Horton |first=John |title=A Contribution to the Critique of Academic Marxism: Or How the Intellectuals Liquidate Class Struggle |journal=Synthesis–Fall 1977 |date=1977 |volume=2 |number=1/2 |pages=78–104 |publisher=Social Justice/Global Options |jstor=43783343}}</ref> Zimbabwean [[Trotskyist]] [[Alex Callinicos]], himself a professional academic, stated: "Its practitioners remind one of [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]], who in the Greek legend fell in love with his own reflection. ... Sometimes it is necessary to devote time to clarifying and developing the concepts that we use, but indeed for Western Marxists this has become an end in itself. The result is a body of writings incomprehensible to all but a tiny minority of highly qualified scholars."{{sfn|Callinicos|2010|p=12}}
Additionally, some intellectual critiques of Marxism contest certain assumptions prevalent in Marx's thought and Marxism after him without rejecting Marxist politics.<ref>{{cite book |last=Baudrillard |first=Jean |author-link=Jean Baudrillard |year=1975 |orig-date=1973 |title=[[The Mirror of Production]] |translator-first=Mark |translator-last=Poster |location=New York |publisher=[[Telos Press]] |isbn=978-0914386063}}</ref> Other contemporary supporters of Marxism argue that many aspects of Marxist thought are viable but that the corpus is incomplete or outdated regarding certain aspects of economic, political or [[social theory]]. They may combine some Marxist concepts with the ideas of other theorists such as [[Max Weber]]—the [[Frankfurt School]] is one example.<ref>{{cite book |last=Held |first=David |date=October 1980 |title=Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |pages=16 |isbn=9780520041752}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jameson |first1=Fredric |chapter=The Theoretical Hesitation: Benjamin's Sociological Predecessor |pages=11–30 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSL3gr4m_k8C&pg=PA11 |editor1-last=Nealon |editor1-first=Jeffrey T. |editor2-last=Irr |editor2-first=Caren |title=Rethinking the Frankfurt School: Alternative Legacies of Cultural Critique |date=2002 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-0791454923 |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407083202/https://books.google.com/books?id=XSL3gr4m_k8C&pg=PA11 |url-status=live |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
=== General ===
Philosopher and historian of ideas [[Leszek Kołakowski]] pointed out that "Marx's theory is incomplete or ambiguous in many places, and could be 'applied' in many contradictory ways without manifestly infringing its principles." Specifically, he considers "the laws of dialectics" as fundamentally erroneous, stating that some are "truisms with no specific Marxist content", others "philosophical dogmas that cannot be proved by scientific means", and some just "nonsense"; he believes that some Marxist laws can be interpreted differently, but that these interpretations still in general fall into one of the two categories of error.
[[Okishio's theorem]] shows that if capitalists use cost-cutting techniques and real wages do not increase, the rate of profit must rise, which casts doubt on Marx's view that the rate of profit would tend to fall.<ref>{{cite book |first1=M. C. |last1=Howard |first2=J. E. |last2=King |date=1992 |title=A History of Marxian Economics |volume=II, 1929–1990 |chapter=7 |at=§§II–IV |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]}}</ref>
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=== Anarchist and libertarian ===
{{main|Anarchism and
[[Anarchism]] has had a strained relationship with Marxism. Anarchists and many non-Marxist libertarian socialists reject the need for a [[Dictatorship of the proletariat|transitory state phase]], claiming that socialism can only be established through decentralised, non-coercive organisation.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Benjamin |last=Franks |date=2012 |title=Between Anarchism and Marxism: the beginnings and ends of the schism… |journal=[[Journal of Political Ideologies]] |volume=17 |number=2 |pages=207–227 |doi=10.1080/13569317.2012.676867}}</ref> Anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] criticised Marx for his authoritarian bent.<ref name=Bakunin1872>{{citation |last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |author-link=Mikhail Bakunin |title=Letter to ''La Liberté'', quoted in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971 |date=5 October 1872 |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/la-liberte.htm |
=== Economic ===
Other critiques come from an economic standpoint. [[Vladimir Karpovich Dmitriev]] writing in 1898,<ref>{{cite book |first=V. K. |last=Dmitriev |author-link=Vladimir Karpovich Dmitriev |date=1974 |orig-date=1898 |title=Economic Essays on Value, Competition and Utility |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref> [[Ladislaus Bortkiewicz|Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz]] writing in 1906–1907,<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite journal |first=Ladislaus |last=von Bortkiewicz |author-link=Ladislaus Bortkiewicz |date=1952 |orig-date=1906–1907 |title=Value and Price in the Marxian System |journal=International Economic Papers |volume=2 |pages=5–60}}
|{{cite book |first=Ladislaus |last=von Bortkiewicz |author-link=Ladislaus Bortkiewicz |date=1984 |orig-date=1907 |chapter=On the Correction of Marx's Fundamental Theoretical Construction in the Third Volume of Capital |editor-first=Eugen von |editor-last=Böhm-Bawerk |editor-link=Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk |title=Karl Marx and the Close of his System |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Orion Editions}}
}}</ref> and subsequent critics have alleged that Marx's [[value theory]] and the law of the [[tendency of the rate of profit to fall]] are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx drew conclusions that do not follow his theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and profit are determined by and equal to the aggregate value and surplus value no longer holds. This result calls into question his theory that exploiting workers is the sole source of profit.<ref>{{cite book |first1=M. C. |last1=Howard |first2=J. E. |last2=King |date=1992 |title=A History of Marxian Economics |volume=II, 1929–1990 |chapter=12 |at=§III |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]}}</ref>
Marxism and socialism have received considerable critical analysis from multiple generations of [[Austrian School|Austrian economists]] regarding scientific methodology, economic theory and political implications.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mises.org/library/what-we-can-know-about-world |title=What We Can Know About the World |date=1 December 2009 |website=Mises.org |access-date=4 August 2019 |publisher=[[Ludwig von Mises Institute]] |archive-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213094330/https://mises.org/library/what-we-can-know-about-world |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=von Mises |first1=Ludwig |author1-link=Ludwig von Mises |title=Omnipotent Government |date=2008 |publisher=Read Books |isbn=978-1443726467 |url=https://mises.org/library/omnipotent-government-rise-total-state-and-total-war |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412085854/https://mises.org/library/omnipotent-government-rise-total-state-and-total-war |url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=July 2020}}</ref> During the [[Marginal utility#Marginal Revolution|marginal revolution]], a theory of subjective value
[[Daron Acemoglu]] and [[James A. Robinson (economist)|James A. Robinson]] argue that Marx's economic theory was fundamentally flawed because it attempted to simplify the economy into a few general laws that ignored the impact of institutions on the economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |author1-link=Daron Acemoglu |last2=Robinson |first2=James A. |author2-link=James A. Robinson (economist) |title=The Rise and Decline of General Laws of Capitalism |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |date=1 February 2015 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=3–28 |doi=10.1257/jep.29.1.3 |url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w20766 |hdl=1721.1/113636 |s2cid=14001669 |hdl-access=free |access-date=24 April 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417165543/https://www.nber.org/papers/w20766 |url-status=live}}</ref> These charges have been disputed by other influential economists, like [[John Roemer]]<ref name="Roemer1982">{{cite book |last=Roemer |first=John |title=A General Theory of Exploitation and Class |date=1982 |author-link=John Roemer |language=English |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |page=iv |isbn=978-0674344402}}</ref> and [[Nicholas Vrousalis]].<ref name="Vrousalis2020">{{cite journal |last1=Vrousalis |first1=Nicholas |title=Review of Ernesto Screpanti's Labour and Value: Rethinking Marx's Theory of Exploitation. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2019, 131 pp. |journal=Erasmus Journal for Philosophy and Economics |date=27 May 2020 |volume=13 |issue=1 |doi=10.23941/ejpe.v13i1.472 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501164010/https://www.ejpe.org/journal/article/view/472 |archive-date=1 May 2024 |url=https://www.ejpe.org/journal/article/view/472 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== See also ==
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* [[Outline of Marxism]]
* [[Post-Marxism]]
* [[Marxian economics]]
{{colend}} == References ==
Line 301 ⟶ 295:
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
<!-- AAA -->
* {{cite book |last=Alderson |first=David |year=2017 |title=For Humanism |location=United States |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |isbn=978-0745336145}}
<!-- BBB -->
* {{cite book |last=Bourne |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Bourne |title=Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro |date=1986 |publisher=[[Dodd, Mead & Company]] |location=New York}}
<!-- CCC -->
* {{cite book |last=Callinicos |first=Alex |author-link=Alex Callinicos |title=The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx |publisher=Bookmarks |location=London |date=2010 |orig-date=1983 |isbn=978-1905192687}}
* {{cite book |last1=Castro |first1=Fidel |author-link=Fidel Castro |title=My Life: A Spoken Autobiography |date=2009 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=978-1416562337 |id=Ignacio Ramonet (interviewer)}}
* {{cite book |last=Coltman |first=Leycester |author-link=Leycester Coltman |title=The Real Fidel Castro |url=https://archive.org/details/realfidelcastro00colt_0 |url-access=registration |date=2003 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=New Haven, CT / London |isbn=978-0300107609}}
<!-- DDD -->
* {{cite book |last=D'Amato |first=Paul |title=[[The Meaning of Marxism]] |publisher=[[Haymarket Books]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1931859295}}
<!-- EEE -->
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Edgley |first=Roy |editor1-last=Bottomore |editor1-first=Tom |editor1-link=Tom Bottomore |editor2-last=Harris |editor2-first=Laurence |editor3-last=Kiernan |editor3-first=V. G. |editor3-link=V. G. Kiernan |editor4-last=Miliband |editor4-first=Ralph |editor4-link=Ralph Miliband |encyclopedia=The Dictionary of Marxist Thought |title=Philosophy |year=1991 |orig-date=1983 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishers]] |isbn=978-0631164814 |pages=419–423}}
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Michael |title=Karl Marx |location=London |date=1975 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] Ltd |isbn=978-0415436779}}
<!-- FFF -->
* {{cite book |last=Fromm |first=Erich |author-link=Erich Fromm |year=1966 |orig-date=1961 |title=Marx's Concept of Man |url=https://archive.org/details/marxsconceptofma00from |url-access=limited |location=New York |publisher=Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. |isbn=978-0804461610 |access-date=9 October 2021}}
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* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Sally |title=Prehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe |date=1981 |publisher=Moonraker Press |location=Bradford-on-Avon, UK |isbn=978-0239002068}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Guo |first=Dingping |encyclopedia=[[International Encyclopedia of Political Science]] |title=Marxism |pages=1495–1501 |editor1-last=Badie |editor1-first=Bertrand |editor1-link=Bertrand Badie |editor2-first=Dirk |editor2-last=Berg-Schlosser |editor2-link=Dirk Berg-Schlosser |editor3-first=Leonardo |editor3-last=Morlino |editor3-link=Leonardo Morlino |volume=5 |date=2011 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |doi=10.4135/9781412994163 |isbn=9781412959636}}
<!-- HHH -->
* {{cite book |last=Haupt |first=Georges |author-link=Georges Haupt |editor1-first=Peter |editor1-last=Fawcett |editor2-first=Eric |editor2-last=Hobsbawm |editor2-link=Eric Hobsbawm |date=2010 |title=Aspects of International Socialism, 1871–1914: Essays by Georges Haupt |edition=paperback |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}
<!-- JJJ -->
* {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=Les |date=2015 |title=Marxism, Class Analysis And Socialist Pluralism: A Theoretical and Political Critique of Marxist Conceptions of Politics |orig-date=1986 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |series=Routledge Library Editions: Marxism |volume=15 |isbn=978-1-315-71497-4}}
<!-- KKK -->
* {{cite book |last=Kliman |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Kliman |date=2007 |title=Reclaiming Marx's "Capital": A Refutation of the Myth of Inconsistency |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=[[Lexington Books]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Kołakowski |first=Leszek |author-link=Leszek Kołakowski |year=2005 |title=Main Currents of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden age, the Breakdown |translator-last=Falla |translator-first=P. S. |publisher=[[W. W. Norton and Company]] |isbn=978-0393329438 |oclc=213085194 |location=New York}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Krupavičius |first=Algis |author-link=:lt:Algis Krupavičius |encyclopedia=[[International Encyclopedia of Political Science]] |title=Communist Parties |pages=314–320 |editor1-first=Bertrand |editor1-last=Badie |editor1-link=Bertrand Badie |editor2-first=Dirk |editor2-last=Berg-Schlosser |editor2-link=Dirk Berg-Schlosser |editor3-first=Leonardo |editor3-last=Morlino |editor3-link=Leonardo Morlino |volume=2 |date=2011 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |doi=10.4135/9781412994163 |isbn=9781412959636}}
<!-- LLL -->
* {{cite book |last=Lenin |first=Vladimir |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |title=Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism |date=1967 |orig-date=1913 |publisher=Foreign Languages Press |location=Peking |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm |access-date=17 June 2014 |archive-date=2 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702055230/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm |url-status=live |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Lichtheim |first=George |date=2015 |title=Marxism: An Historical and Critical Study |orig-date=1961 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |series=Routledge Library Editions: Marxism |volume=13 |isbn=978-1-315-71310-6}}
<!-- MMM -->
* {{cite book |last=Marcuse |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Marcuse |chapter=The Foundation of Historical Materialism |year=1972 |orig-date=1932 |title=Studies in Critical Philosophy |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/works/historical-materialism/index.htm |publisher=Beacon Press Boston |isbn=0807015288 |pages=1–48 |access-date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025951/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/works/historical-materialism/index.htm |url-status=live |via=Marxists Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last=Marx |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Marx |title=Wage Labour and Capital |date=1849 |publisher=[[Neue Rheinische Zeitung]] |location=Germany |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/index.htm |access-date=17 June 2014 |archive-date=8 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608082512/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/index.htm |url-status=live |via=Marxists Internet Archive}}
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* {{cite book |last=Petrović |first=Gajo |author-link=Gajo Petrović |year=1967 |title=Marx in the Mid-twentieth Century: A Yugoslav Philosopher Considers Karl Marx's Writings |url=https://archive.org/details/marxinmidtwentie00petr |url-access=limited |location=Garden City, New York |publisher=[[Anchor Books]] |oclc=1036708143 |access-date=9 October 2021}}
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* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Cyril |author-link=Cyril Smith (Marxist) |year=1998 |title=Marx at the Millennium |chapter=The Standpoint of Socialised Humanity |chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/smith-cyril/works/millenni/smith3.htm |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/smith-cyril/works/millenni/index.htm |access-date=18 October 2020 |via=Marxists Internet Archive |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108105507/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/smith-cyril/works/millenni/index.htm |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last=Trigger |first=Bruce G. |author-link=Bruce Trigger |title=A History of Archaeological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarchaeo0000trig |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0521600491 |ref=Tri07}}
{{refend}}
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* {{cite book |last=Dahrendorf |first=Ralf |title=Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society |url=https://archive.org/details/classclassconfli0000dahr |url-access=registration |date=1959 |author-link=Ralf Dahrendorf |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0804705608}}
* {{cite book |last=Elster |first=Jon |author-link=Jon Elster |title=An Introduction to Karl Marx |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1986 |isbn=0521329221}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kuznicki |first=Jason T. |author-link=Tibor R. Machan |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter=Marxism |chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n193.xml |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n193 |isbn=978-1412965804 |oclc=750831024 |lccn=2008009151 |pages=318–320 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
* {{cite book |last=McLellan |first=David |title=Marxism After Marx |date=2007 |location=Basingstoke |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |author-link=David McLellan (academic) |isbn=978-1403997289}}
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