Shailendra dynasty: Difference between revisions

The '''Shailendra dynasty''' ({{IAST3|Śailēndra}}, {{IPA-|id|ʃaɪlenˈdraː}} derived from [[Sanskrit]] combined words ''Śaila'' and ''Indra'', meaning "King of the Mountain",<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cœdes|first1=G|others=translated by H.M. Wright|title=The making of South East Asia|date=1983|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520050617|page=96|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgrAFlAC4-QC|access-date=11 September 2015}}</ref> also spelled '''Sailendra''', '''Syailendra''' or '''Selendra''') was the name of a notable [[Indianized kingdom|Indianised]] dynasty that emerged in 8th-century [[Java]], whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the region.<ref name="ISEAS-Zakharov">{{cite journal web| title last= The Sailendras Reconsidered Zakharov| first = Anton O.|date=August 2012| last title=The ZakharovŚailendras Reconsidered|url=https://iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps12.pdf|website=nsc.iseas.edu.sg|publisher=The journalNalanda-Srivijaya =Centre Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | location = Singapore | date = August 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131101014301/http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/imagesdocuments/pdfworking_papers/nsc_working_paper_series_12nscwps012.pdf|archive-date=November 1, 2013|access-date=2013-10-30|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Shailendras were active promoters of [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]] with the glimpses of [[Hinduism]], and covered the [[Kedu Plain]] of [[Central Java]] with Buddhist [[Candi of Indonesia|monuments]], one of which is the colossal [[stupa]] of [[Borobudur]], now a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|access-date=2006-12-05|title=Borobudur Temple Compounds|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|work=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref>"Patrons of Buddhism, the Śailēndras during the height of their power in central Java constructed impressive monuments and temple complexes, the best known of which is the Borobudur on the Kedu Plain" (quoted from Hall 1985: 109).</ref><ref name=eb>{{cite web|title=Shailendra dynasty|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Shailendra-dynasty|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=11 September 2015}}</ref>

The Shailendras are considered to have been a [[thalassocracy]] and ruled vast swathes of maritime Southeast Asia,; however, they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of intensive rice cultivation on the [[Kedu Plain]] of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family of both the [[Mataram Kingdom]] of Central Java, and for some period, and the [[Srivijaya]] Kingdom in Sumatra.

The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; [[Old MalayJavanese]], [[Old JavaneseMalay]], and [[Sanskrit]] -— written either in the [[Kawi alphabet]], or pre-[[Nāgarī script]]. The use of Old Malay has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On the other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The use of Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of the event described in any given inscription.

The [[Sojomerto inscription]] (c.9th century 725CE) discovered in [[Batang Regency]], Central Java, mentioned the name ''Dapunta Selendra'' and ''Selendranamah''. The name 'Selendra' washas been suggested as another spelling of Shailendra, suggestedmeaning that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of Shailendra family in Central Java.<ref name="Boechari">{{cite journal |last=Boechari|author-link=Boechari|title=Preliminary report on the discovery of an Old Malay inscription at Sojomerto |journal =MISI|year=1966|volume=III|pages=241–251}}</ref> However, recent analysis suggested that this was not true: The inscription ishas [[Shaivism|Shaivist]]diphthong ''ai'' in natureit, whichso suggestsit thatis theunlikely familythat Selendra was probablyanother initiallyname [[Hindu]]for ShaivistShailendra, beforeand convertingthe toSumatran [[Mahayana]]origin [[Buddhism]]of Sailendra dynasty was thus unproven.<ref name="ISEAS-Zakharov" />{{rp|24–25}}

Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in [[Kedu Plain]] in the Javanese heartland, their origin has been the subject of discussion.<ref>{{cite journal| title=Why the Shailendras were not a Javanese dynasty |journal=Indonesia and the Malay World |author=Roy E. Jordaan |volume=34 |issue=98 |pages=3–22 |year=2006 |doi=10.1080/13639810600650711|s2cid=162972179 }}</ref> Apart from Java itself, an earlier homeland in [[Sumatra]], [[India]], [[Funan]], or [[Cambodia]] has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favour a native origin of the dynasty. Despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin.<ref name="ISEAS-Zakharov" />{{cite webrp|27}}

===IndiaJava===

Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of [[Srivijaya]] was involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java.<ref>e.g. Munoz (2006: 139)</ref> Supporters of this connection emphasize the shared Mahayana patronage; the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact that some of Shailendra's inscriptions were written in [[old Malay]], which suggested Srivijaya or Sumatran connections. The name 'Selendra' was first mentioned in [[Sojomerto inscription]] (725) as "Dapunta Selendra". Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The title Dapunta is similar to those of Srivijayan King [[Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa]], and the inscription — although discovered in Central Java north coast — was written in old Malay, which suggested the Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection to this family. The Sojomerto inscription is often used as evidence that the Shailendra dynasty came from Sumatra because it assumes the word ''Selendra'' as the Malay designation for Shailendra and assumed that Dapunta Selendra was the predecessor of the dynasty. Recent studies show no such evidence: According to Damais, the Sojomerto inscription dates from early 9th century,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Degroot |first1=Véronique M. Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2HzduME8OcC&dq=sojomerto+inscription&pg=PA84 |title=Candi, Space and Landscape. A study on the distribution, orientation and spatial organization of Central Javanese temple remains |date=2009 |publisher=Sidestone Press |isbn=978-90-8890-039-6 |location=Leiden, Netherlands |page=84 |access-date=7 November 2014}}</ref> placing it after the [[Kedukan Bukit inscription]] (683 AD). In addition, the name Selendra from the Sojomerto inscription does not seem to have anything to do with Shailendra: The inscription mentions the words ''hakairu'' and ''daiva'' which have the diphthong ai, so that diphthong should also be used in the name ''Dapunta Selendra''. In addition, this theory is obsolete because there is no data on the existence of the Shailendra dynasty in Sumatra earlier than the ninth century and Srivijaya was unable to conquer Java. What happened was the opposite — the Shailendra dynasty subdued Srivijaya and its area on the Malay peninsula.<ref name="ISEAS-Zakharov" />{{rp|22–27}}

===JavaOdisha (Kalinga)===

[[File:Borobudur-Nothwest-view.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Borobudur]], the largest Buddhist structure in the world.]]

Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga. His daughter named [[Pramodhawardhani]] has inaugurated a ''Jinalaya'', a sacred buddhist sanctuary. The inscription also mentioned a sacred Buddhist building called ''Venuvana'' to place the cremated ashes of King Indra. The [[Tri Tepusan inscription]] dated 842 mentioned about the ''sima'' (tax free) lands awarded by Śrī Kahulunan (Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a ''Kamūlān'' called ''Bhūmisambhāra''.<ref>{{cite book | author= Drs. R. Soekmono| title= ''Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2'', 2nd ed. | publisher = Penerbit Kanisius | orig-year= 1973 |year=1988 |edition=5th reprint | location =Yogyakarta| page =46 }}</ref> ''Kamūlān'' itself from the word ''mula'' which means 'the place of origin', a sacred building to honor the [[ancestors]]. These findings suggested that either the ancestors of the Shailendras were originated from Central Java, or as the sign that Shailendra have established their holds on Java. Casparis suggested that ''Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra'' which in [[Sanskrit]] means "The mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of [[Boddhisattva]]hood", was the original name of Borobudur.<ref>{{cite web|last=Walubi|title=Borobudur : Candi Berbukit Kebajikan|url=http://www.walubi.or.id/waisak2004/Borobudur%20-%20Candi%20Berbukit%20Kebajikan.shtml|access-date=2009-12-10|archive-date=2013-05-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510142025/http://www.walubi.or.id/waisak2004/Borobudur%20-%20Candi%20Berbukit%20Kebajikan.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 851 an [[Arab]]ic merchant named Sulaiman recorded an event about Javanese Sailendras staging a surprise attack on the Khmers by approaching the capital from the river, after a sea crossing from Java. The young king of Khmer was later punished by the Maharaja, and subsequently the kingdom became a vassal of Sailendra dynasty.<ref name="Rooney-Angkor">{{Cite book|last=Rooney|first=Dawn|url=https://www.bookdepository.com/Angkor-Dawn-Rooney/978-9622178021|title=Angkor, Cambodia's Wondrous Khmer Temples|date=16 April 2011|website=www.bookdepository.com|publisher=Odyssey Publications|isbn=978-9622178021|location=Hong Kong|access-date=2019-01-21}}</ref>{{rp|35}} In 916 CE, Abu Zaid Hasan mentioned that a polity called [[JavaneseZabag people(ancient territory)|JavaneseZabag]] kingdom invaded [[the Khmer Empire]]kingdom, using 1000 "medium-sized" vessels, which resultsresulted in Javanesea Zabag victory. The head of the Khmer's king was then brought to JavaZabag.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Munoz |first=Paul Michel |title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and Malay Peninsula |publisher=Editions Didier MillerMillet |year=2006 |location=Singapore}}</ref>{{rp|187–189137–138}} Regardless of whether the story was true or not or just a legend, it may have a connection with the independence of Cambodia from Javanese suzerainty in 802 CE. Zabag might corresponds to Jawaka/Javaka, which may refer to Java or South Sumatra.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Miksic |first1=John N. |title=Ancient Southeast Asia |last2=Goh |first2=Geok Yian |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}</ref>{{rp|269, 302}}

After 824, there are no more references to the Shailendra house in the Javanese epigraphic record. Around 860 the name re-appears in the [[Nalanda inscription]] in India. According to the text, the king Devapaladeva of Bengala ([[Pala Empire]]) had granted '[[Balaputra]], the king of Suvarna-dvipa' (Sumatra) the revenues of 5 villages to a Buddhist monastery near [[Bodh Gaya]]. Balaputra was styled a descendant from the [[Shailendra dynasty]] and grandson of the king of Java.<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|108–109}}<ref>Hall (1985: 109)</ref>

From Sumatra, the Shailendras also maintained overseas relations with the [[Chola]] kingdom in Southern India, as shown by several south Indian inscriptions. An 11th-century inscription mentioned the grant of revenues to a local Buddhist sanctuary, built in 1005 by the king of the Srivijaya. In spite the relations were initially fairly cordial, hostilities had broken out in 1025.<ref>Hall (1985: 200)</ref> [[Rajendra Chola I]] the Emperor of the [[Chola dynasty]] conquered some territories of the Shailendra Dynastydynasty in the 11th century.<ref>Indian Civilization and Culture by Suhas Chatterjee p. 499</ref> The devastation caused by [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]] in 1025, marked the end of Shailendra family as the ruling dynasty in Sumatra. The last king of Shailendra dynasty — the Maharaja [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]] — was imprisoned and taken as hostage. Nevertheless, amity was re-established between the two states, before the end of the 11th century. In 1090 a new charter was granted to the old Buddhist sanctuary, it is the last known inscription with a reference to the Shailendras. With the absence of legitimate successor, Shailendra dynasty seems ceased to rule. Other family within Srivijaya mandala took over the throne, a new Maharaja named [[Sri Deva]] according to Chinese source establishing new dynasty to rule Srivijaya. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.

[[Sri Kesari Warmadewa]] was said to be a Buddhist king of the Shailendra Dynastydynasty who led a military expedition<ref>''Bali handbook with Lombok and the Eastern Isles'' by Liz Capaldi, Joshua Eliot p. 98 ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-iPvaB380_8C&pg=PA98]''</ref> to establish a [[Mahayana]] Buddhist government in [[Bali]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=JlcL6HeY-uAC&pg=PA156 ''Bali & Lombok'' Lesley Reader, Lucy Ridout p.156]</ref> In 914, he left a record of his endeavour in the [[Belanjong pillar]] in [[Sanur (Bali)|Sanur]] in Bali. According to this inscription, the [[Warmadewa dynasty]] was probably the branch of Shailendras that ruled Bali.

Traditionally, the Shailendra period was viewed to span from the 8th to the 9th century, confined only in Central Java, from the era of Panangkaran to Samaratungga. However the recent interpretation suggests the longer period of Shailendra family might existed, from midthe 7thearly 9th century (edict of Sojomerto inscription) to early 11th century (the fall of Shailendran dynasty of Srivijaya under Chola invasion). For certain period, Shailendras ruled both Central Java and Sumatra. Their alliance and intermarriage with Srivijayan ruling family resulted with the merging of two royal houses, with Shailendran finally emerge as the ruling family of both Srivijaya and Mataram (Central Java).

|Sanjaya, the nephew (or son?) of Sanna restore the order and ascend to throne, some early historian took this event as the establishment of new [[Sanjaya Dynastydynasty]], while other hold that this only the continuation of Shailendras

|[[Sumatrabhumi]]

* {{cite journal|author=M. Vickery| title=Funan reviewed: Deconstructing the Ancients |journal=Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient | volume=90 |pages=101&ndash;143 |date=2003–2004| doi=10.3406/befeo.2003.3609 | s2cid=192026203 }}

[[Category:PrecolonialMataram states of Indonesiakingdom]]

[[Category:Deified peoplemonarchs]]