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In 1970, [[Takeo Kanade]] publicly demonstrated a face-matching system that located anatomical features such as the chin and calculated the distance ratio between facial features without human intervention. Later tests revealed that the system could not always reliably identify facial features. Nonetheless, interest in the subject grew and in 1977 Kanade published the first detailed book on facial recognition technology.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The History of Information Security: A Comprehensive Handbook|last1=de Leeuw| first1=Karl| last2=Bergstra| first2=Jan| publisher=Elsevier| year=2007| isbn=9780444516084|pages=266}}</ref>
In 1993, the [[Defense Advanced Research Project Agency]] (DARPA) and the [[Army Research Laboratory]] (ARL) established the face recognition technology program [[FERET (facial recognition technology)|FERET]] to develop "automatic face recognition capabilities" that could be employed in a productive real life environment "to assist security, intelligence, and law enforcement personnel in the performance of their duties." Face recognition systems that had been
Following the 1993 FERET face-recognition vendor test, the [[Department of Motor Vehicles]] (DMV) offices in [[West Virginia]] and [[New Mexico]] became the first DMV offices to use automated facial recognition systems to prevent people from obtaining multiple driving licenses using different names. [[Driver's licenses in the United States]] were at that point a commonly accepted form of [[photo identification]]. DMV offices across the United States were undergoing a technological upgrade and were in the process of establishing databases of digital ID photographs. This enabled DMV offices to deploy the facial recognition systems on the market to search photographs for new driving licenses against the existing DMV database.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance|last1=Gates| first1=Kelly| publisher=NYU Press| year=2011| isbn=9780814732090|pages=52}}</ref> DMV offices became one of the first major markets for automated facial recognition technology and introduced US citizens to facial recognition as a standard method of identification.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance|last1=Gates| first1=Kelly| publisher=NYU Press| year=2011| isbn=9780814732090|pages=53}}</ref> The increase of the [[Incarceration in the United States|US prison population]] in the 1990s prompted U.S. states to established connected and automated identification systems that incorporated digital [[biometric]] databases, in some instances this included facial recognition. In 1999, [[Minnesota]] incorporated the facial recognition system FaceIT by Visionics into a [[mug shot]] booking system that allowed police, judges and court officers to track criminals across the state.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Our Biometric Future: Facial Recognition Technology and the Culture of Surveillance|last1=Gates| first1=Kelly| publisher=NYU Press| year=2011| isbn=9780814732090|pages=54}}</ref>
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In 2018, researchers from the [[United States Army Research Laboratory|U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL)]] developed a technique that would allow them to match facial imagery obtained using a thermal camera with those in databases that were captured using a conventional camera.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm?article=3199|title=Army develops face recognition technology that works in the dark|date=April 16, 2018|work=Army Research Laboratory|access-date=August 17, 2018}}</ref> Known as a cross-spectrum synthesis method due to how it bridges facial recognition from two different imaging modalities, this method synthesize a single image by analyzing multiple facial regions and details.<ref name=":7">{{Cite conference|last1=Riggan|first1=Benjamin|last2=Short|first2=Nathaniel|last3=Hu|first3=Shuowen |title=Thermal to Visible Synthesis of Face Images Using Multiple Regions |date=March 2018 |conference=2018 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV) |pages=30–38 |doi=10.1109/WACV.2018.00010|bibcode=2018arXiv180307599R|arxiv=1803.07599|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323932058}}</ref> It consists of a non-linear regression model that maps a specific thermal image into a corresponding visible facial image and an optimization issue that projects the latent projection back into the image space.<ref name=":6" /> ARL scientists have noted that the approach works by combining global information (
== Application ==
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Police forces in the United Kingdom have been trialing live facial recognition technology at public events since 2015.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://bigbrotherwatch.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Face-Off-final-digital-1.pdf|title=Face Off: The lawless growth of facial recognition in UK policing|website=Big Brother Watch}}</ref> In May 2017, a man was arrested using an automatic facial recognition (AFR) system mounted on a van operated by the South Wales Police. [[Ars Technica]] reported that "this appears to be the first time [AFR] has led to an arrest".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2017/06/police-automatic-face-recognition/|title=UK police arrest man via automatic face-recognition tech|first=Sebastian|last=Anthony|date=June 6, 2017|website=Ars Technica}}</ref> However, a 2018 report by [[Big Brother Watch]] found that these systems were up to 98% inaccurate.<ref name=":0" /> The report also revealed that two UK police forces, [[South Wales Police]] and the [[Metropolitan Police]], were using live facial recognition at public events and in public spaces.<ref name="Rees">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-49565287|title=Police use of facial recognition ruled lawful|last=Rees|first=Jenny|date=September 4, 2019|access-date=November 8, 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref>
In September 2019, South Wales Police use of facial recognition was ruled lawful.<ref name="Rees"/> Live facial recognition has been trialled since 2016 in the streets of London and will be used on a regular basis from [[Metropolitan Police]] from beginning of 2020.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/london-met-police-facial-recognition|title=The Met Police will start using live facial recognition across London|last=Burgess|first=Matt|date=January 24, 2020|magazine=Wired UK|access-date=January 24, 2020|issn=1357-0978}}</ref> In August 2020 the [[Court of Appeal (England and Wales)|Court of Appeal]] ruled that the way the facial recognition system had been used by the South Wales Police in 2017 and 2018 violated human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://techxplore.com/news/2020-08-uk-court-recognition-violates-human.html |author= Danica Kirka |title= UK court says face recognition violates human rights| date = August 11, 2020|access-date=October 4, 2020 |website= TechPlore}}</ref>
However, by 2024 the Metropolitan Police were using the technique with a database of 16,000 suspects, leading to over 360 arrests, including rapists and someone wanted for [[grievous bodily harm]] for 8 years. They claim a [[False positives and false negatives|false positive]] rate of only 1 in 6,000. The photos of those not identified by the system are deleted immediately.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sylvester |first1=Rachel |title='No human could do this': how facial recognition is transforming policing. |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/86256fe3-a218-4c00-97c3-f1021a8f8c11 |access-date=5 October 2024 |work=The Times |date=5 October 2024}}</ref>
==== United States ====
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The [[U.S. Department of State]] operates one of the largest face recognition systems in the world with a database of 117 million American adults, with photos typically drawn from driver's license photos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2016/10/18/facial-recognition-database/|title=Here's How Many Adult Faces Are Scanned From Facial Recognition Databases|date=2016-10-18|website=Fortune}}</ref> Although it is still far from completion, it is being put to use in certain cities to give clues as to who was in the photo. The FBI uses the photos as an investigative tool, not for positive identification.<ref name="phys.org2">{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2016-12-facial-recognition-technology-real-world.html|title=The trouble with facial recognition technology (in the real world)|first1=Robin|last1=Kramer|first2=Kay|last2=Ritchie|date=2016-12-14|website=phys.org}}</ref> {{As of|2016|post=,}} facial recognition was being used to identify people in photos taken by police in [[San Diego]] and Los Angeles (not on real-time video, and only against booking photos)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2018/05/10/609422158/real-time-facial-recognition-is-available-but-will-u-s-police-buy-it|title=Real-Time Facial Recognition Is Available, But Will U.S. Police Buy It?|date=2018-05-10|website=NPR.org |publisher=NPR}}</ref> and use was planned in [[West Virginia]] and [[Dallas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2016/10/23/499042369/police-facial-recognition-databases-log-about-half-of-americans|title=Police Facial Recognition Databases Log About Half Of Americans|date=2016-10-23|website=NPR.org |publisher=NPR}}</ref>
In recent years Maryland has used face recognition by comparing people's faces to their driver's license photos. The system drew controversy when it was used in Baltimore to arrest unruly protesters after the [[death of Freddie Gray]] in police custody.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/crime/bs-md-facial-recognition-20161017-story.html|title=Maryland's use of facial recognition software questioned by researchers, civil liberties advocates|
The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] has also instituted its [[Next Generation Identification]] program to include face recognition, as well as more traditional biometrics like [[fingerprint]]s and [[Iris recognition|iris scans]], which can pull from both criminal and civil databases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/fingerprints_biometrics/ngi|title=Next Generation Identification|website=FBI|access-date=April 5, 2016}}</ref> The federal [[Government Accountability Office]] criticized the FBI for not addressing various concerns related to privacy and accuracy.<ref name="ICE" />
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* [https://uwe-repository.worktribe.com/output/1024266 ''A Photometric Stereo Approach to Face Recognition''] (master's thesis). The [[University of the West of England, Bristol]].
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