Anti-aircraft warfare: Difference between revisions

[[File:DGLC systemen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Artist's rendition of short and long range AA systems used by the Dutch [[Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command]] in 2017]]

{{warWar}}

'''Anti-aircraft warfare''', '''counter-air''', '''anti-air''', '''AA''', '''flak''', '''layered air defence''' or '''air defence forces''' is the counter to [[aerial warfare]].<ref>{{cite book |titlelast=A Dictionary of AviationWragg |first=David W. |lasttitle=WraggA |isbn=9780850451634Dictionary |edition=firstof Aviation |publisher=Osprey |year=1973 |page=37}}</ref> and It is defined by [[NATO]] asincludes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".<ref name="AAP-6">AAP-6</ref> It includesencompasses [[Surfacesurface-to-air missile|surface based]], subsurface ([[Submarine#Armament|submarine -launched]]), and air-based weapon systems, in addition to associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements, and passive measures (e.g. [[barrage balloon]]s). It may be used to protect [[naval]], [[army|ground]], and [[air force]]s in any location. However, for most countries, the main effort has tended to be [[homeland defence]]. [[Missile defense|Missile defence]] is an extension of air defence, as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight.

Most modern anti-aircraft (AA) weapons systems are optimized for short-, medium-, or long-range air defence, although some systems may incorporate multiple weapons (such as both [[autocannons]] and [[surface-to-air missiles]]). ‘Layered air defence’ usually refers to multiple ‘layers’‘tiers’ of air defence systems which, when combined, an airborne threat must penetrate in order to reach its target; This defence is usually accomplished via the combined use of systems optimized for either short-, medium-, or long-range air defence.

In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the [[World War II|Second World War]], the [[Soviet Union]], and modern NATO and the United States, ground-based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence (including military facilities), forces in the field, wherever they are, provide their own defences against airairborne threats.

== Terminology ==

The British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning the altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly approaching target at {{convert|400 |mph|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation".<ref>Hogg WW2 pg 99–100</ref>

* Accompanying defence, specialist aidair defence elements accompanying armoured or infantry units.

The basic air defence unit is typically a battery with 2 to 12 guns or missile launchers and fire control elements.{{CnCitation needed|date=February 2024}} These batteries, particularly with guns, usually deploy in a small area, although batteries may be split; this is usual for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries often deploy across an area with individual launchers several kilometres apart. When MANPADS is operated by specialists, batteries may have several dozen teams deploying separately in small sections; self-propelled air defence guns may deploy in pairs.

Turks carried out the first ever anti-airplane operation in history during the [[Italo-Turkish war]]. Although lacking anti-aircraft weapons, they were the first to shoot down an aeroplaneairplane by rifle fire. The first aircraft to crash in a war was the one of Lieutenant Piero Manzini, shot down on August 25, 1912.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.turkeyswar.com/prelude/turcoitalianwar/|title = Turco-Italian War}}</ref><ref>James D. Crabtree: On air defense, {{ISBN|0275947920}}, Greenwood Publishing Group, page 9</ref>

The earliest known use of weapons specifically made for the anti-aircraft role occurred during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870. After the [[Battle of Sedan|disaster at Sedan]], [[Siege of Paris (1870–71)|Paris was besieged]] and French troops outside the city started an attempt at communication via [[balloon (aircraft)|balloon]]. Gustav [[Krupp]] mounted a modified 1-pounder (37mm37&nbsp;mm) gun – the ''Ballonabwehrkanone'' (Balloon defence cannon) or ''BaK'' — on top of a horse-drawn carriage for the purpose of shooting down these balloons.<ref>Essential Militaria: Facts, Legends, and Curiosities About Warfare Through the Ages, Nicholas Hobbs, Atlantic Monthly Press 2004, {{ISBN|0-8021-1772-4}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2012}}

The British recognised the need for anti-aircraft capability a few weeks before World War I broke out; on 8 July 1914, the ''New York Times'' reported that the British government had decided to '"dot the coasts of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two quick-firing guns of special design,'" while '"a complete circle of towers'" was to be built around '"naval installations'" and '"at other especially vulnerable points".' By December 1914 the [[Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve]] (RNVR) was manning AA guns and searchlights assembled from various sources at some nine ports. The [[Royal Garrison Artillery]] (RGA) was given responsibility for AA defence in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. The first were formally formed in November 1914. Initially they used [[QF 1-pounder pom-pom|QF 1-pounder "pom-pom"]]s (a 37&nbsp;mm versionversions of the [[Maxim Gun]]).{{sfn|Routledge|1994|p=4}}{{sfn|Routledge|1994|p=5}}

German air attacks on the British Isles increased in 1915 and the AA efforts were deemed somewhat ineffective, so a [[Royal Navy]] gunnery expert, Admiral Sir [[Percy Scott]], was appointed to make improvements, particularly an integrated AA defence for London. The air defences were expanded with more RNVR AA guns, 75&nbsp;mm and 3-inch, the pom-poms being ineffective. The naval 3-inch was also adopted by the army, the [[QF 3-inch 20 cwt]] (76&nbsp;mm), a new field mounting was introduced in 1916. Since most attacks were at night, searchlights were soon used, and acoustic methods of detection and locating were developed. By December 1916 there were 183 AA Sectionssections defending Britain (most with the 3-inch), 74 with the BEF in France and 10 in the Middle East.{{sfn|Routledge|1994|p=8–17}}

[[File:AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg|thumb|The No. 1 Mark III Predictor that was used with the [[QF 3.7-inch AA gun]] was a mechanical computer.]]

Until this time the British, at RAF insistence, continued their use of World War I machine guns, and introduced twin MG mountings for AAAD. The army was forbidden from considering anything larger than .50-inch.{{CnCitation needed|date=February 2024}} However, in 1935 their trials showed that the minimum effective round was an impact-fused 2&nbsp;lb HE shell. The following year they decided to adopt the [[Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun|Bofors 40&nbsp;mm]] and a [[QF 2-pounder naval gun|twin barrel Vickers 2-pdr]] (40&nbsp;mm) on a modified naval mount. The air-cooled Bofors was vastly superior for land use, being much lighter than the water-cooled "pom-pom", and UK production of the Bofors 40&nbsp;mm was licensed. The Predictor AA No 3, as the [[Kerrison Predictor]] was officially known, was introduced with it.<ref>Hogg Allied WW2 pg 108–110</ref>

[[File:Wehrmacht Flugabwehr Airdefence.jpeg|thumb|upright|German soldier manning an [[MG 34|MG34]] anti-aircraft gun in WW2WWII]]

The [[United States Navy]] had also put some thought into the problem, When the US Navy began to rearm in 1939 in many ships the primary short ranged gun was the M2 .50 caliber machine gun. While effective in fighters at 300 to 400 yards this is point blank range in naval anti-aircraft ranges. Production of the Swiss Oerlikon 20&nbsp;mm had already started to provide protection for the British and this was adopted in exchange for the M2 machine guns.<ref>Friedman, 2014 Location 8687</ref> From December 1941 to January 1942, production had risen to not only cover all British requirements but also allowed 812 units to be actually delivered to the US Navy.<ref>Friedman, 2014 Location 8713</ref> By the end of 1942 the 20&nbsp;mm had accounted for 42% of all aircraft destroyed by the US Navy's shipboard AA. However, the King Board had noted that the balance was shifting towards the larger guns used by the fleet. The US Navy had intended to use the British pom-pom, however, the weapon required the use of cordite which BuOrd had found objectionable for US service.<ref>Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.245, pp. 54–60.</ref> Further investigation revealed that US powders would not work in the pom-pom.<ref>Friedman, 2014 Location 8620</ref> Bureau of Ordnance was well aware of the Bofors 40&nbsp;mm gun. The firm York Safe and Lock was negotiating with Bofors to attain the rights to the air-cooled version of the weapon. At the same time Henry Howard, an engineer, and businessman became aware of it and contacted RAMDRADM W. R. Furlong, chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. He ordered the Bofors weapon system to be investigated. York Safe and Lock would be used as the contracting agent. The system had to be redesigned for both the English measurement system and mass production, as the original documents recommended hand fitting parts and drilling to shape.<ref>Friedman, 2014 Location 8956-8620</ref> As early as 1928 the US Navy saw the need to replace the .50 caliber machine gun with something heavier. The 1.1"/75 (28&nbsp;mm) Mark 1 was designed. Placed in quadruple mounts with a 500 rpm rate of fire it would have fit the requirements. However, the gun was suffering teething issues being prone to jamming. While this could have been solved the weight of the system was equal to that of the quad-mount Bofors 40&nbsp;mm while lacking the range and power that the Bofors provided. The gun was relegated to smaller less vital ships by the end of the war.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_1-1-75_mk1.php |title=USA 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 and Mark 2 - NavWeaps |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930212147/http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_1-1-75_mk1.php |archive-date=30 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[5-inch/38-caliber gun|5"/38 naval gun]] rounded out the US Navy's AA suite. A dual purpose mount, it was used in both the surface and AA roles with great success.

Mated with the Mark 37 director and the proximity fuse it could routinely knock drones out of the sky at ranges as far as 13,000 yards.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_5-38_mk12.php |title=USA 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12 - NavWeaps |access-date=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928150652/http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_5-38_mk12.php |archive-date=28 September 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:USS New Mexico Flak Kamikaze Battle of Okinawa.jpg|thumb|right|[[5-inch/38-caliber gun|5-inch]], [[Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun|40mm40&nbsp;mm]] and [[Oerlikon 20 mm cannon|20mm20&nbsp;mm]] fire directed from [[USS New Mexico (BB-40)|USS ''New Mexico'']] at a [[Kamikaze]], [[Battle of Okinawa]], 1945.]]A 3"/50 MK 22 semiautomatic dual gun was produced but not employed before the end of the war and therefore beyond the scope of this article. However early marks of the 3"/50 were employed in destroyer escorts and on merchant ships. 3″/50 [[Caliber (artillery)|caliber]] guns (Marks 10, 17, 18, and 20) first entered service in 1915 as a refit to {{USS|Texas|BB-35}}, and were subsequently mounted on many types of ships as the need for anti-aircraft protection was recognized. During World War II, they were the primary gun armament on [[destroyer escort]]s, [[patrol frigate]]s, [[submarine chaser]]s, [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]]s, some fleet [[submarine]]s, and other auxiliary vessels, and were used as a secondary dual-purpose battery on some other types of ships, including some older battleships. They also replaced the original low-angle [[4"/50 caliber gun]]s (Mark 9) on "flush-deck" {{sclass|Wickes|destroyer|5}} and {{sclass|Clemson|destroyer|1}}s to provide better anti-aircraft protection. The gun was also used on specialist destroyer conversions; the "AVD" [[seaplane tender]] conversions received two guns; the "APD" [[high-speed transport]]s, "DM" [[minelayer]]s, and [[Destroyer minesweeper|"DMS" minesweeper]] conversions received three guns, and those retaining destroyer classification received six.<ref>Silverstone 1968 pp. 112, 212, 215, 276, 303</ref>

The Allies' most advanced technologies were showcased by the anti-aircraft defence against the German [[V-1 flying bomb|V-1]] cruise missiles (V stands for ''Vergeltungswaffe'', 'retaliation weapon'). The 419th and 601st anti-aircraft gun battalions of the US Army were first allocated to the Folkestone-Dover coast to defend London, and then moved to Belgium to become part of the "Antwerp X" project coordinated from the {{Interlanguage link|Le Grand Veneur|nl}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxZdUuUDMcI |title=Le Grand Veneur Keerbergen operation Antwerp X |website=[[YouTube]] |date=25 January 2014 |access-date=16 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115093236/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxZdUuUDMcI |archive-date=15 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> in [[Keerbergen]]. With the liberation of Antwerp, the port city immediately became the highest priority target, and received the largest number of V-1 and V-2 missiles of any city. The smallest tactical unit of the operation was a gun battery consisting of four 90&nbsp;mm guns firing shells equipped with a radio [[proximity fuse]]. Incoming targets were acquired and automatically tracked by [[SCR-584 radar]],. Output from the gun-laying radar was fed to the [[M9 Gun Director|M9 gun director]], an electronic analogue computer to calculate the lead and elevation corrections for the guns. With the help of these three technologies, close to 90% of the V-1 missiles, on track to the defence zone around the port, were destroyed.<ref>''Cruise Missile Defence: Defending Antwerp against the V-1'', Lt. Col. John A. Hamilton</ref><ref>''The Defense of Antwerp Against the V-1 Missile'', R.J. Backus, LTC, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1971</ref>

The developments during World War II continued for a short time into the post-war period as well. In particular the US Army set up a huge air defence network around its larger cities based on radar-guided 90&nbsp;mm and 120&nbsp;mm guns. US efforts continued into the 1950s with the 75&nbsp;mm [[M51 Skysweeper|Skysweeper]] system, an almost fully automated system including the radar, computers, power, and auto-loading gun on a single powered platform. The Skysweeper replaced all smaller guns then in use in the Army, notably the 40&nbsp;mm Bofors. By 1955, the US military deemed the 40&nbsp;mm Bofors obsolete due to its reduced capability to shoot down jet powered aircraft, and turned to SAM development, with the [[MIM-3 Nike Ajax|Nike Ajax]] and the [[RSD 58 | RSD-58]]. In Europe NATO's Allied Command Europe developed an integrated air defence system, NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE), that later became the [[NATO Integrated Air Defense System|NATO Integrated Air Defence System]].

[[File:Type 91 SAM fire.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|A three-person [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force|JASDF]] fireteam practices using a rocket target with a training variant of a [[Type 91 surface-to-air missile|Type 91 Kai]] [[Man-portable air-defense system|MANPADS]] during an exercise at [[Eielson Air Force Base]], Alaska, as part of Red Flag – Alaska]]

In the 1982 [[Falklands War]], the Argentine armed forces deployed the newest west European weapons including the 35mm35&nbsp;mm [[Oerlikon GDF|Oerlikon GDF-002 twin cannon]] and [[Roland (missile)|Roland missile]]. The [[Rapier (missile)|Rapier]] missile system was the primary GBAD system, used by both British artillery and RAF regiment, a few brand-new [[FIM-92 Stinger]] were used by British special forces. Both sides also used the [[Blowpipe (missile)|Blowpipe missile]]. British naval missiles used included [[Sea Dart]] and the older [[Seaslug (missile)|Sea Slug]] longer range systems, [[Seacat (missile)|SeaCat]] and the new [[Sea Wolf (missile)|Sea Wolf]] short range systems. Machine guns in AA mountings were used both ashore and afloat.

[[File:Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer Gepard.jpg|thumb|A [[Flakpanzer Gepard|Gepard]] in motion at the 2015 Military Day in [[Uffenheim]]. The Gepard is an autonomous all-weather-capable German [[self-propelled anti-aircraft gun]] system armed with twin [[Oerlikon GDF]].]]

The future of projectile based weapons may be found in the [[railgun]]. Currently tests are underway on developing systems that could create as much damage as a [[Tomahawk (missile family)|Tomahawk]], but at a fraction of the cost. In February 2008 the [[US Navy]] tested a railgun; it fired a shell at {{convert|5600|mi|km}} per hour using 10 megajoules of energy. Its expected performance is over {{convert|13000|mi|km}} per hour muzzle velocity, accurate enough to hit a 5-metre target from {{convert|200|nmi|km}} away while shooting at 10 shots per minute. It is expected to be ready in 2020 to 2025.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Modern Weaponry of the World's Armed Forces|last=Col. Y Udaya Chandar (Retd.)|publisher=Notion Press|year=2017|isbn=9781946983794}}</ref> These systems, while currently designed for static targets, would only need the ability to be retargeted to become the next generation of AA system.

Layered air defence in naval tactics, especially within a carrier group, is often built around a system of concentric layers with the aircraft carrier at the centre. The outer layer will usually be provided by the carrier's aircraft, specifically its [[Airborne early warning and control|AEW&C]] aircraft combined with the [[Combat air patrol|CAP]]. If an attacker is able to penetrate this layer, then the next layers would come from the [[surface-to-air missile]]s carried by the carrier's escorts; the area-defence missiles, such as the [[RIM-67 Standard]], with a range of up to 100&nbsp;nmi, and the point-defence missiles, like the [[RIM-162 ESSM]], with a range of up to 30&nbsp;nmi. Finally, virtually every modern warship will be fitted with small-calibre guns, including a [[Close-in weapon system|CIWS]], which is usually a radar-controlled [[Gatling gun]] of between 20mm20 mm and 30mm30 mm calibre capable of firing several thousand rounds per minute.<ref>Naval Strike Forum. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140912101504/https://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/aircraft-carrier-invulnerability.pdf "What it takes to successfully attack an American Aircraft carrier"]. Lexington Institute. p. 15</ref>

[[File:Aircraft Combat Archer (2565196807).jpg|thumb|A USAF [[Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor|F-22A Raptor]] firing an [[AIM-120 AMRAAM|AIM-120]] air to air missile.]]

[[File:AGM-88 and AIM-9 on Tornado.jpg|thumb|[[AGM-88 HARM]] under the fuselage ofn a [[German Air Force|''Luftwaffe'']] [[Panavia Tornado]].]]

IsraelMany and the US Air Force{{Cn|date=February 2024}}, in conjunction with the members of [[NATO]],nations have developed significant tactics for [[Suppression of Enemy Air Defences|air defence suppression]]. Dedicated weapons such as [[anti-radiation missile]]s and advanced [[electronics intelligence]] and [[electronic countermeasures]] platforms seek to suppress or negate the effectiveness of an opposing air-defence system. It is an arms race; as better jamming, countermeasures and anti-radiation weapons are developed, so are better SAM systems with [[Electronic counter-countermeasure|ECCM]] capabilities and the ability to shoot down anti-radiation missiles and other munitions aimed at them or the targets they are defending.

[[FIM-92 Stinger|Stinger missiles]] supplied by the United States were used against the aircraft of the Soviet Union by the [[Afghan mujahidin|Afghan ''mujahideen'']] during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the Cold War. [[Rocket-propelled grenades]] (RPGs) can be—and often are—used against hovering helicopters (e.g., by Somali militiamen during the [[Battle of Mogadishu (1993)|1993 Battle of Mogadishu]]. Firing an RPG at steep angles poses a danger to the user, because the backblast from firing reflects off the ground. In Somalia, militia members sometimes welded a steel plate onto the exhaust end of an RPG's tube to deflect pressure away from the shooter when shooting up at US helicopters.{{CnCitation needed|date=February 2024}} RPGs are used in this role only when more effective weapons are not available.

Another example of using RPGs against helicopters is [[Operation Anaconda]] in March 2002 in Afghanistan. Taliban insurgents defending [[Shah-i-Kot Valley]] used RPGs in a direct fire role against landing helicopters. Four rangers were killed<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stacked Up Over Anaconda|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/stackedupoveranaconda/|access-date=2020-10-02|website=Air Force Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> when their helicopter was shot down by an RPG, and SEAL team member Neil C. Roberts fell out of his helicopter when it was hit by two RPGs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sites.duke.edu/agsp/files/2013/11/Operation-Anaconda-Overview.pdf |title=Operation Anaconda Overview |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=10 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010141500/http://sites.duke.edu/agsp/files/2013/11/Operation-Anaconda-Overview.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In other instances helicopters have been shot down in Afghanistan during a mission<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-10-14|title=Investigation Confirms RPG Downed Chinook|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/investigationconfirmsrpgdownedchinook/|access-date=2020-10-02|website=Air Force Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> in Wardak province. One feature that makes RPGs useful in air defence is that they are fused to automatically detonate at 920 m.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://odin.tradoc.army.mil/WEG/Asset/RPG-7_Russia_Rocket-Propelled_Grenade_Launcher|title = ODIN - OE Data Integration Network}}</ref> If aimed into the air this causes the warhead to airburst which can release a limited but potentially damaging amount of shrapnel hitting a helicopter landing or taking off.{{CnCitation needed|date=February 2024}}

{{Military branches|state=expanded}}