Wild turkey: Difference between revisions

| range_map =Wild Turkey.png

| range_map_caption = Distribution of ''M. gallopavo''

An adult male (tom or gobbler) normally weighs from {{convert|5|to|11|kg|abbr=on}} and measures {{convert|100|-|125|cm|abbr=on}} in length. The adult female (hen) is typically much smaller at {{convert|2.5|-|5.4|kg|abbr=on}} and is {{convert|76|to|95|cm|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wild Turkey |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/wild-turkey |website=National Geographic |date=11 November 2010 |access-date=2023-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124015819/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/wild-turkey |archive-date=2011-11-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1name=Kirschbaum |first1=K. |last2=McCullough |first2=J. |date=2001 |title=''Meleagris gallopavo'' wild turkey |url=https://"animaldiversity.org"/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401215138/https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html |archive-date=2023-04-01 |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=Animal Diversity Web |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology}}</ref> Per two large studies, the average weight of adult males is {{convert|7.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and the average weight of adult females is {{convert|4.26|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="CRC 1993">{{cite book |editor1-last=Dunning |editor1-first=J.B. |title=CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses |date=1993 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=0849342589}}</ref><ref name="CRC 2008">{{cite book |editor1-last=Dunning |editor1-first=J.B. |title=CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses |date=2008 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=9781420064445 |edition=2nd}}</ref> The record-sized adult male wild turkey, according to the [[National Wild Turkey Federation]], weighed {{convert|16.85|kg|abbr=on}}, with records of tom turkeys weighing over {{convert|13.8|kg|lb|abbr=on}} uncommon but not rare. Considering its maximum and average weight, it is among the heaviest flying birds in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=NWTF Wild Turkey Records |url=http://www.nwtf.org/all_about_turkeys/turkey_records.php |website=nwtf.org |publisher=National Wild Turkey Federation |access-date=2023-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831162239/http://www.nwtf.org/all_about_turkeys/turkey_records.php |archive-date=2012-08-31}}</ref>

In the [[Appalachian plateau|AppalachianPlateau]] and [[Cumberland plateauPlateau]]s, birds occupy mixed forest of oaks and pines on southern and western slopes, also hickory with diverse understories. Bald cypress and sweet gum (''[[Liquidambar styraciflua]]'') swamps of s.south [[Florida]]; also hardwood of ''[[Cliftonia]]'' (a heath) and oak in north-central Florida. [[Lykes Brothers|Lykes]] [[Fisheating Creek]] area of s.south Florida has up to 51% cypress, 12% hardwood hammocks, 17% glades of short grasses with isolated live oak (''[[Quercus virginiana]]''); nesting in neighboring prairies. Original habitat here was mainly longleaf pine (''[[Pinus palustris]]'') with turkey oak (''[[Quercus laevis]]'') and slash pine (''[[Pinus caribaeaelliottii]]'') "flatwoods", now mainly replaced by slash pine plantations.

Wild turkeys have many calls: assembly [[turkey call|call]], gobble, plain yelp, purr, cluck and purr, cluck, cutt, excited yelp, fly-down cackle, tree call, kee kee run, and putt.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 10, 2021 |title=The Sounds of the Wild Turkey |url=https://www.nwtf.org/content-hub/the-sounds-of-the-wild-turkey |access-date=August 21, 2023 |website=National Wild Turkey Federation}}</ref> In early spring, males older than a year old and, occasionally to a lesser extent, males younger than a year old gobble to announce their presence to females and competing males. The gobble of a wild turkey can be heard up to a mile away.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Males also emit a low-pitched "drumming" sound, produced by the movement of air in the [[air sac]] in the chest, similar to the booming of a [[prairie chicken]]. In addition they produce a sound known as the "spit", which is a sharp expulsion of air from this air sac.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Wild turkeys are [[omnivore|omnivorous]], foraging on the ground or climbing shrubs and small trees to feed. They prefer eating [[acorn]]s, [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]], and other hard [[Mast (botany)|mast]] of various trees, including [[hazel]], [[chestnut]], [[hickory]], and [[pinyon pine]], as well as various [[seed]]s, [[Berry|berries]] such as [[juniper]] and [[bearberry]], [[bud]]s, [[leaves]], [[fern frond]]s, roots, and [[insect]]s.<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{cite web |last1=Kirschbaum |first1=Kari |last2=McCullough |first2=Jason |title=Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey) |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Meleagris_gallopavo/ |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en |access-date=2020-11-18 |archive-date=2020-11-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124232547/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Meleagris_gallopavo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> roots, and [[insect]]s. Turkeys also occasionally consume [[amphibian]]s such as [[salamander]]s<ref name="animaldiversity.org" /> and small [[reptile]]s such as [[lizard]]s and small [[snake]]s.<ref name="animaldiversity.org" /> Poults have been observed eating insects, berries, and seeds. Wild turkeys often feed in cow [[pasture]]s, sometimes visit backyard bird feeders, and favor croplands after harvest to scavenge seeds on the ground. Turkeys are also known to eat a wide variety of [[grass]]es.

Turkeys will occasionally forage with [[deer]] and [[Squirrel|squirrels]], and may even play with them.<ref>{{cite web |title=Turkeys Play with Deer and Squirrels |date=15 September 2018 |publisher=BBC Earth |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EPZWGRcoleM |language=en |access-date=20 November 2022}}</ref> By foraging together, each can help the other watch for predators with their different senses: the deer with their improved olfactory sense, the turkey with its superior sight, and squirrels providing an additional set of eyes from the air.<ref>{{cite web

In addition to poults, hens and adult-sized fledglings (but not, as far as is known, adult male toms) are vulnerable to predation by [[great horned owl]]s (''Bubo virginianus''),<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Schemnitz|first1=S.D.|last2=Goerndt|first2=D.L.|last3=Jones|first3=H.|year=1985|title=Habitat needs and management of Merriam's turkeys in southcentral New Mexico|journal=Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp|volume=5|pages=199–232}}</ref> [[northernAmerican goshawk]] (''Accipiter gentilisatricapillus''),<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Golet|first1=G.H.|last2=Golet|first2=H.T.|last3=Colton|first3=A.|year=2003|title=Immature Northern Goshawk Captures, Kills, and Feeds on Adult-Sized Wild Turkey|journal=Journal of Raptor Research|volume=37|issue=4|pages=337–40}}</ref> [[dog|domestic dogs]] (''Canis familiaris''), [[cat|domestic cats]] (''Felis catus''), and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'').<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goldyn|first1=B.|last2=Hromada|first2=M.|last3=Surmacki|first3=A.|last4=Tryjanowski|first4=P.|year=2003|title=Habitat use and diet of the red fox ''Vulpes vulpes'' in an agricultural landscape in Poland|journal=Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft|volume=49|issue=3|pages=191–200|doi=10.1007/BF02189737|bibcode=2003ZJag...49..191G |s2cid=43335225}}</ref> Predators of both adults and poults include [[coyote]]s (''Canis latrans''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacCracken |first1=J. G. |last2=Uresh |first2=D. W. |year=1984 |title=Coyote foods in the Black Hills, South Dakota |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=1420–3 |doi=10.2307/3801809|jstor=3801809 }}</ref> [[gray wolf|gray wolves]] (''Canis lupus''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=J. E. |last2=Ballard |first2=W. B. |last3=Gipson |first3=P. S. |last4=Kelly |first4=B. T. |last5=Krausman |first5=P. R. |last6=Wallace |first6=M. C. |last7=Wester |first7=D. B. |year=2006 |title=Diets of free-ranging Mexican gray wolves in Arizona and New Mexico |journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=1127–33 |doi=10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[1127:dofmgw]2.0.co;2|s2cid=55402865 }}</ref> [[bobcat]]s (''Lynx rufus''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beasom |first1=S. L. |last2=Moore |first2=R. A. |year=1977 |title=Bobcat food habit response to a change in prey abundance |journal=The Southwestern Naturalist |pages=451–7 }}</ref> [[cougar]]s (''Puma concolor''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maehr |first1=D. S. |last2=Belden |first2=R. C. |last3=Land |first3=E. D. |last4=Wilkins |first4=L. |year=1990 |title=Food habits of panthers in southwest Florida |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=420–3 |doi=10.2307/3809651|jstor=3809651 }}</ref> [[Canada lynx]] (''Lynx canadensis'')'','' [[golden eagle]]s (''Aquila chrysaetos''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lehman |first1=C. P. |last2=Thompson |first2=D. J. |year=2004 |title=Golden Eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') predation attempts on Merriam's turkeys (''Meleagris gallopavo merriami'') in the southern Black Hills, South Dakota |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=38 |issue=2 |page=192 }}</ref> and possibly [[American black bear]]s (''Ursus americanus''), which also will eat the eggs if they find them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stratman |first1=M. R. |last2=Pelton |first2=M. R. |year=1999 |title=Feeding ecology of black bears in northwest Florida |journal=Florida Field Naturalist |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=95–102 }}</ref> The [[American alligator]] (''Alligator mississippiensis'') is a predator to all turkeys of all ages in the Southeast and will eat them if they get too close to water. Humans are now the leading predator of adult turkeys.<ref>[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html ADW: Meleagris gallopavo: INFORMATION] {{Webarchive|urlname=https://web.archive"animaldiversity.org"/web/20110611220049/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html |date=2011-06-11 }}. Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu (2006-03-12). Retrieved on 2012-08-21.</ref><ref>Kennamer, James Earl. [http://www.nwtf.org/conservation/bulletins/bulletin_16.pdf Predators and Wild Turkeys] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807155005/http://www.nwtf.org/conservation/bulletins/bulletin_16.pdf |date=2008-08-07 }}. NWTF Wildlife Bulletin NO.16</ref> When approached by potential predators, turkeys and their poults usually run rather than fly away, though they may also fly short distances if pressed. Another alternative behaviour, common in [[Galliformes]], is that when surprised with no time to flee, the poulets hide under the wings and body of the hen while she sits tight and still. Presumably, the hen has vocal and behavioural signals that trigger the poults to instinctively run to the hen for cover.[[File:Wild Turkey hen sitting tight with poulets under her wings and body.jpg|thumb|A hen caught in the open hides her young poults beneath her wings and body.]]

Occasionally, if cornered, adult turkeys may try to fight off predators and large male toms can be especially aggressive in self-defense. When fighting off predators, turkeys may kick with their legs, using the spurs on their back of the legs as a weapon, bite with their beak, and ram with their relatively large bodies and may be able to deter predators up to the size of mid-sized mammals.<ref>[http://www.nwtf.org/all_about_turkeys/predators.html Wild Turkey Predators, Wild Turkey Predation: National Wild Turkey Federation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110135422/http://www.nwtf.org/all_about_turkeys/predators.html |date=2012-11-10 }}. Nwtf.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.</ref><ref>[http://waterandwoods.net/2008/09/wild-turkey-predators/ Wild Turkey Predators] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626144707/http://waterandwoods.net/2008/09/wild-turkey-predators/ |date=2012-06-26 }}. Waterandwoods.net (2008-09-20). Retrieved on 2012-12-19.</ref> Hens have been seenobserved chasechasing off at least two species of hawks in flight when their poults are threatened.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=R.R. |year=1961 |title=Aerial Pursuit of Hawks by Turkeys |journal=The Auk |volume=78 |issue=4 |page=646 |doi=10.2307/4082208|jstor=4082208 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

At the beginning of the 20th century the range and numbers of wild turkeys had plummeted due to hunting and loss of habitat. When Europeans arrived in the New World, they were found from Canadathe southeastern US to Mexico in the millions. EuropeansTurkeys andwere theirfirst successorsdomesticated knewby nothingnative aboutpeoples thein life cycle of the birdMexico and ecologybrought itselfback asto aEurope scienceduring wouldcolonization. comeEuropean toosettlers latebrought –domesticated notturkeys evento inthe itsnorthern infancy until the endportions of theNorth 19thAmerica century – whereas heavy hunting began induring the 17th century. DeforestationHabitat destroyedloss treesand turkeysmarket needhunting towere roostmajor in. Destruction of subtypes of environment like prairie grasslandfactors in the Midwest,decline canebrakesof inwild thepopulations Southeast, and pine infor the desertnext highlandstwo madecenturies.{{cn|date=November them easy prey for predators as there was nowhere to hide or lay eggs.2024}}

Game managers estimate that the entire population of wild turkeys in the United States was as low as 30,000 by the late 1930s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew F.|chapter=The Fall and Rise of the Edible Turkey|title=Wild Food: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2004|editor-last=Hosking|editor-first=Richard|location=Totnes, Devon, UK|publisher=Prospect Books|date=2006|page=298|isbn=9781903018439|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=juAabiJpnn0C|access-date=2017-11-22|archive-date=2016-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509024445/https://books.google.com/books?id=juAabiJpnn0C|url-status=live}}</ref> By the 1940s, it was almost totally extirpated from [[Canada]] and had become localized in pockets in the United States, in the north-east effectively restricted to the [[Appalachians]], only as far north as central Pennsylvania. Early attempts used hand reared birds, a practice that failed miserably as the birds were unable to survive in the wild at all and many had imprinted far too much on humans to effectively survive. Game officials later made efforts to protect and encourage the breeding of the surviving wild population. They would wait for numbers to grow, catch the surplus birds with a device that would have a projectile net that would ensnare the creature, move it to another unoccupied territory, and repeat the cycle. Over time this included some in the western states where it was not native. There is evidence that the bird does well when near farmland, which provides grain and also berry-bearing shrubs at its edges.<ref name=Dickson>{{cite book |last1=Dickson, pp|first1=James G. 368-379|title=The Wild Turkey: Biology and Management |series=National Wild Turkey Federation and USDA Forest Service book |year=1992 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=9780811718592 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVICEKm1U04C&pg=PA362}}</ref>{{rp|368-379}} As wild turkey numbers rebounded, hunting became legal in 49 U.S. states (excluding [[Alaska]]). In 1973, the total U.S. population was estimated to be 1.3 million, and current{{When|date=April 2022}} estimates place the entire wild turkey population at 7 million individuals. Since the 1980s, "trap and transfer" projects have reintroduced wild turkeys to several provinces of Canada as well, sometimes from across the border in the United States. They appear to be very successful as of 2018 as wild turkeys have multiplied rapidly and flourished in places where they were not expected to survive by Canadian scientists, often quite far north of their original expected range.

Attempts to introduce the wild turkey to [[Great Britain|Britain]] as a game bird in the 18th century were not successful.<ref>{{efn|These birds were imported from [[Mexico]], then called the [[Spanish West Indies]]. They did not come from Turkey or India, as was widely believed.[<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/turkey.htm "|title=Talking Turkey", |website=World Wide Words. On line.] {{Webarchive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207215349/http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/turkey.htm |archive-date=2006-12-07 }}</ref>}} [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] is said to have had a flock of a few thousand in [[Richmond Park]] near London, but they were too easy for local [[poaching|poachers]] to destroy, and the fights with poachers became too dangerous for the [[gamekeeper]]s. They were hunted with dogs and then shot out of trees where they took refuge. Several other populations, introduced or escaped, have survived for periods elsewhere in Britain and [[Ireland]], but seem to have died out, perhaps from a combination of lack of winter feed and poaching.<ref>Dickson, p. name=Dickson/>{{rp|363;}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maxwell, |first1=William Hamilton, ''|title=The field book; or, Sports and pastimes of the British islands, by the author of 'Wild sports of the West'', p. |pages=540, |location=London, |year=1833, [|url=https://archive.org/details/fieldbookorspor00unkngoog/page/n551 <!-- pg=540 --> Internet Archive]}}</ref> Small populations, probably descended from farm as well as wild stock, in the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Germany]] have been more successful, and there are wild populations of some size following introductions in [[Hawaii]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>Dickson, pp. name=Dickson/>{{rp|363-368</ref>}}

The wild turkey, throughout its range, plays a significant role in the cultures of many [[Native American tribe]]s all over North America. It is a favorite meal in eastern tribes. Eastern Native American tribes consumed both the eggs and meat, sometimes turning the latter into a type of jerky to preserve it and make it last through cold weather. They provided habitat by burning down portions of forests to create meadows which would attract mating birds, and thus give a clear shot to hunters. The feathers of turkeys also often made their way into the rituals and headgear of many tribes. Many leaders, such as [[Catawba (tribe)|Catawba]] chiefs, traditionally wore turkey feather headdresses.<ref name=Pritzker>{{cite book |last1=Pritzker 367|first1=Barry M. |title=A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-513877-1}}</ref>{{rp|367}}

Significant peoples of several tribes, including [[Muscogee Creek]] and [[Wampanoag people|Wampanoag]], wore turkey feather cloaks.<ref>Pritzker name=Pritzker/>{{rp|381, 474</ref>}} The turkey clan is one of the three [[Lenape]] clans.<ref> name=Pritzker 423</ref>{{rp|423}} Movements of wild turkeys inspired the [[Caddo]] tribe's [[turkey dance]].<ref>[{{cite web |url=http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/voices/today.html "|title=Caddo Nation Today."] {{Webarchive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113071330/http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/tejas/voices/today.html |archive-date=2010-11-13 }} ''|website=Texas Beyond History.'' (retrieved |access-date=28 Dec 2010)}}</ref> The [[Navajo people]] of Northeastern Arizona, New Mexico and Utah call the turkey {{Lang|nv|Tązhii}} and relate the bird to the corn and seeds which The Turkey in Navajo folklore brought from the Third Navajo World. It is one of the Navajos' sacred birds, with the Navajo people using the feathers and parts in multiple traditional ceremonies.

*[http://www.nwtf.org/all_about_turkeys/index.html National Wild Turkey Federation&nbsp;– Map of the locations of the five sub-species of wild turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060415011059/http://www.nwtf.org/all_about_turkeys/index.html |date=2006-04-15 }}

[[Category:Meleagris|Wild Turkey]]

[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|Wild Turkey]]