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{{Infobox industrial process
| name = Phoenician joints<br/>{{Lang|la|coagmenta punicana}}
| image =
| caption = [[Mortise and tenon]] joinery in the [[Phoenician shipwrecks of Mazarrón|Mazarron 1 Phoenician shipwreck]]
| alt =
| type =
| sector = [[Woodworking]], [[shipbuilding]]
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}}
A '''Phoenician
The [[
By the first millennium BC, Phoenician joints became a common edge-to-edge fastening method. [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] shipbuilders adopted the technique of Phoenician joinery. Roman writers credited the joinery technique to Phoenicians by calling it {{Lang|la|coagmenta punicana}} or {{Lang|la|Punicanis coamentis}}. The ancient Greek historian [[Polybius]] reported that the Romans copied the locked mortise and tenon technique from a Punic warship that ran aground in 264 BC. They exploited this technique to their advantage early in the [[First Punic War]] in 260 BC which allowed them to build a fleet of 100 [[quinquereme]]s within a period of two months.
== History ==
[[File:Model of Khufu's solar barque with top removed.jpg|thumb|Model of Khufu's [[Solar barque]] with its deck removed to expose the hull. The ship's planks and frames are lashed together with [[Esparto|halfah grass]].{{Sfn|Catsambis|Ford|Hamilton|2014|p=363}}|alt=A wooden ship and it's deck removed ]]Phoenician joints postdate the sewn watercraft lacing joinery technique.{{Sfn|López-Ruiz|Doak|2019|p=424}} Archaeological finds have revealed transitional watercrafts integrating elements from both mortise and tenon, and other joinery techniques.{{Sfn|Pomey|1995|p=478}} Chinese Neolithic societies used the locked mortise and tenon method, but did not use a separate rectangular tenon nor edge-to-edge plank joining.{{Sfn|Bellwood|Cameron|Van viet|Van liem|2007|p=19}} The locked mortise and tenon method occurs as of {{Circa| 3000 BC}} in non-nautical Ancient Egyptian joinery, but not in hull-planking, which only featured unlocked mortises.{{Sfn|Bellwood|Cameron|Van viet|Van liem|2007|p=13}}
In the third and early second millennium BC, the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians employed a similar technique, however, the mortise and tenon joints were not locked in place using pegs.{{Sfn|McGrail|2001|p=25}}{{Sfn|Mark|2009|pp=133–140}}{{Sfn|McGrail|2001|pp=36–38, 133, 147, 162}} To ensure ship hull stability, the Egyptians used their unlocked fastening technique together with other methods of wood fastening. An example of this technique is the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] [[Khufu ship|Khufu funerary ship]] ({{Circa| 2600 BC}}), an intact {{Convert|43.6|m|ft|sp=us}} long [[Cedrus libani|Lebanon cedar]] [[Lashed-lug boat|lashed-lug vessel]], that was unearthed in the [[Giza pyramid complex]]. The barque's cedar planks were joined together using unlocked mortise and tenon, and two types of lashings between bordering [[strake]]s and, from [[Sheer (ship)|sheer]] to sheer.{{Sfn|McGrail|2001|p=36}}{{Sfn|Lipke|Moustafa|1984|pp=74–75}}{{Sfn|Grey|2016|pp=23–24}}{{Sfn|Mark|2009|pp=133–140}} The mixed use of unlocked mortise and tenon with wood lashing is also attested in later ancient Egyptian ships from [[Lisht]] ({{Circa| 1950 BC}}) and [[Dahshur|Dashur]] ({{Circa| 1859 BC}}).{{Sfn|Mark|2009|pp=134–135}} The use of pegged mortise and tenon shipbuilding in Egypt is not supported by material evidence before around 500 BC.{{Sfn|Lucas|Harris|2012|pp=452–453}}
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The Phoenicians pioneered the use of locked mortise and tenon joints in nautical joinery to secure the underwater planking of seagoing ships.{{Sfn|McGrail|2001|p=134}}{{Sfn|Pomey|2010|p=134}}{{Sfn|Kahanov|Pomey|2004|p=24}} The use of pegged mortises and tenons in shipbuilding spread westward from the Levantine littoral.{{Sfn|López-Ruiz|Doak|2019|p=424}} According to McGrail, this joinery method could have given rise to the Phoenicians' reputation for seafaring excellence.{{Sfn|McGrail|2001|p=134}} The hull of the [[Uluburun shipwreck|Uluburun ship]], an early Phoenician/Canaanite vessel dated {{Circa| 1320±50 BC}},{{Sfn|Mark|2005|p=35}}{{Sfn|Bass|1989|p=27}}{{Sfn|Bass|2012|p=800}}{{Sfn|Wachsmann|2009|pp=239–241}} is the earliest evidence of pegged Phoenician joints used in Mediterranean shipbuilding.{{Sfn|Grey|2016|pp=23–24}}{{Sfn|Pulak|1998|p=210}} The ship's hull was built with Lebanese cedar, with oak tenons.{{sfn|Pulak|1998|p=213}}{{efn|1=Cedar is well documented in Bronze Age sources as the material of choice for shipbuilding.{{sfn|Meiggs|1982|pp=118, 134, 136, 408}} This preference is due to its light weight, its resistance to saltwater damage from prolonged periods of submersion, and because it did not shrink excessively.{{sfn|Rival|1991|pp=35–36}}}} Additional early evidence of Phoenician joint usage comes from another Canaanite shipwreck in [[Cape Gelidonya]] in [[Turkey]] dated {{Circa| 1200±50 BC}}.{{Sfn|Bass|Throckmorton|Taylor|Hennessy|1967|pp=50–51}}{{Sfn|Bass|2012|p=300}}{{Sfn|Wachsmann|2009|p=208}} The Uluburun and Gelidonya ships allowed scholars to date back the Phoenicians' maritime activity to an earlier period when it was thought that Canaanite seafaring did not start before the first millennium BC, and that maritime trade in the Eastern Mediterranean was solely conducted by Mycenaeans.{{Sfn|Bass|2012|p=801}}{{Sfn|López-Ruiz|Doak|2019|p=424}}
By the first millennium BC, Phoenician joints became a common edge-to-edge fastening method in the ancient Mediterranean.{{Sfn|López-Ruiz|Doak|2019|p=424}} Greek shipbuilders abruptly abandoned the laced wood technique and adopted the Phoenician joinery.{{sfn|White|1984}}{{Sfn|Kahanov|Pomey|2004|p=24}} Scholars posit that Greek shipbuilders acquired the mortise and tenon joinery technique from the Phoenicians.{{Sfn|Bass|2006|p=14}}{{Sfn|Kahanov|Linder|2004}}{{Sfn|Mark|2005|pp=35, 67–68}}{{Sfn|Pomey|1997|p=201}}{{Sfn|Wachsmann|2009|p=241}}{{Sfn|Bound|1985|p=62}}{{Sfn|Kahanov|Pomey|2004|p=24}}{{Sfn|Pomey|2010|p=134}} Phoenician influence on Greek shipbuilding technology resulted from contact between the two people during the Phoenicians' westward colonization.{{Sfn|Kahanov|Pomey|2004|p=24}}
In 264 BC, the Romans seized a Phoenician [[Hellenistic-era warships|penteres]] that ran aground. [[Polybius]] reports that the ship served as a model for the Romans' fleet ships; they realized the advantage of using Phoenician joints in shipbuilding, as the lumber used in edge-joined ship [[strake]]s does not have to be [[Wood drying|dried]].{{Sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|p=244}} Early in the [[First Punic War]] in 260 BC, the Phoenician joint technique allowed the Romans to build a fleet of 100 quinqueremes within a period of two months.{{Sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|p=244}}
▲[[Polybius]] reports that the ship served as a model for the Romans' fleet ships; they realized the advantage of using Phoenician joints in shipbuilding, as the lumber used in edge-joined ship [[strake]]s does not have to be [[Wood drying|dried]].{{Sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|p=244}} Early in the [[First Punic War]] in 260 BC, the Phoenician joint technique allowed the Romans to build a fleet of 100 quinqueremes within a period of two months.{{Sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|p=244}}Later, going on to win the Punic War after creating hundreds of replica ships to fight with.
The technique is also seen in Vietnam. Excavation carried out in waterlogged burials in [[Đổng Xá|Dong Xa]] in [[Vietnam]] revealed the adoption of a variety of the locked mortise and tenon technique in the construction of a logboat. The boat dates back to the [[Dong Son culture]] in the late Vietnamese prehistory (500 BC to AD 200).{{Sfn|Bellwood|Cameron|Van viet|Van liem|2007|p=8}}
== Description ==
[[File:Mortise tenon joint hull trireme-en.svg|alt=Drawing of a wooden ship with annotations of hull elements. |thumb|Mortise and tenon joints strengthened with dowels, as used in the construction of the hulls of [[Trireme|triremes]].]]
The locked (or pegged) mortise and tenon technique consists of cutting a mortise, or socket, into the faces of two planks to be fastened together. A piece of wood called a tenon, usually taking the form of a rectangle, is inserted into each mortise to join the two planks together. The assembly is locked by driving a peg (or dowel pin or [[treenail]]) through one or more holes drilled through the mortise side wall and tenon. This technique is known as Phoenician joint when applied to shipbuilding.{{Sfn|López-Ruiz|Doak|2019|p=424}}{{Sfn|Teague|2007}}
== Etymology ==
<!--[[File:Sidon, Sarcophagus relief of a boat.jpg|alt=Stone carved sarcophagus with a relief of a masted ship.|thumb|The [[Ship Sarcophagus]] a Roman era sarcophagus unearthed in Magharet Abloun, a necropolis containing the remains of Phoenician kings and notables in [[Sidon]], [[Lebanon]].{{Sfn|Herm|1975|p=127}}{{Sfn|Stillwell|1976|p=837}}]]-->The origin of the term Phoenician joinery comes from the Latin, since Roman writers credited the joinery technique to Phoenicians by calling it {{Lang|la|coagmenta punicana}} or {{Lang|la|Punicanis coamentis}}.{{sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|pp=243–244}}{{Sfn|Cato|1934|loc=Chapter XVIII, 9}} The Latin term is known through the extant writings such as that of [[Cato the Elder]]. In his treatise on agriculture, ''[[De agri cultura]]'',{{efn|1=In Latin: "Orbem olearium latum P. IIII Punicanis coagmentis facito, crassum digitos VI facito, subscudes iligneas adindito. Eas ubi confixeris, clavis corneis occludito. In eum orbem tris catenas indito. Eas catenas cum orbi clavis ferreis corrigito. Orbem ex ulmo aut ex corylo facito: si utrumque habebis, alternas indito."<br/> "Make the oil press disk 4 ft wide, with Phoenician joints, 6 digits thick, add oaken tenons. When these have been fitted in their places, secure them with dowels of dogwood. Fit three battens to the disk; make the battens and the disk straight together by means of iron nails. Make the disk of elm or hazel; if you have both, lay them alternately."}} Cato describes the construction of a wooden disk used in oil presses using locked mortise and tenon joinery; he refers to the technique as {{Lang|la|Punicanis coamentis}}, thereby crediting Rome's enemies.{{Sfn|Cato|1934|loc=XVIII, 9}}{{sfn|Sleeswyk|1980|pp=243–244}}{{Sfn|Amores|Hay|1992|p=205}}
{{Lang|la|Punicanis}} means Punic and derives from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|[[wikt:poenus|poenus]]}} and {{lang|la|[[wikt:punicus|punicus]]}}, which were used mostly to refer to the [[Punics|Carthaginians]] and other western Phoenicians. These terms derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] word {{lang|grc|Φοῖνιξ}} ({{transliteration|grc|"Phoinix"|italic=no}}), plural form {{lang|grc|Φοίνικες}} ({{transliteration|grc|"Phoinikes"|italic=no}}), an [[Endonym and exonym|exonym]] used indiscriminately to refer to both western and eastern Phoenicians.{{Sfn|Prag|2006}}
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*{{Cite book |last=Wachsmann |first=Shelley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apna4pv7Ks8C |title=Seagoing Ships & Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant |date=2009 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-1-60344-080-6 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=White |first=K. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1ssAAAAYAAJ&q=Greek+and+Roman+Technology.+Aspects+of+Greek+and+Roman+Life. |title=Greek and Roman Technology |date=1984 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-1439-8 |language=en}}
{{Ancient seafaring}}
[[Category:Joinery]]
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