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#REDIRECT [[13th century]]
{{Art of Italy}}
'''Duecento''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|dj|uː|ə|ˈ|tʃ|ɛ|n|t|oʊ}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/duecento|title=duecento|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> {{IPA-it|du.eˈtʃɛnto|lang}}) is the Italian word for the [[Italian culture]] during the 13th century.
==Characteristics==
In the 13th century, much of [[Europe]] experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually the [[Hanseatic League]] of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the 4th century. The [[Italian city-states|city-states of Italy]] expanded greatly during this period and grew in power to become de facto fully independent of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; outside European powers kept their armies out of [[Italy]].
[[File:1252-1303 fiorino d'oro III serie.JPG|thumb|left|upright|The gold [[Italian coin florin|florin]] of [[Florence|Firenze]] started to be the main currency of European trade during the Duecento]]
During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with the creation in Italy of the [[double-entry book-keeping]], [[joint stock companies]], an international [[banking]] system, a systematized [[foreign exchange market]], [[insurance]], and [[government debt]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Burke |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Burke (historian) |title=The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy |page=232 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=23 February 2014 |isbn=9780691162409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5uo9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232}}</ref> Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the gold [[Italian coin florin|florin]] became the main currency of international trade. The [[Republic of Venice]] and the [[Republic of Genova]] dominated the trade in the Mediterranean sea.
Many argue that the ideas that characterized the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th century [[Florence]], in particular with the writings of [[Dante Alighieri]] (1265–1321) <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04628a.htm |title=Dante and his time |first=Kevin |last=Knight |year=2017 |access-date=9 October 2018 |encyclopedia=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] |via=[[New Advent]]}}</ref> as well as the painting of [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]] (1267–1337).
The Duecento was followed by the beginning of the [[Italian Renaissance]] during the [[Trecento]].
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==Italian literature==
The thirteenth-century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. Prior to the Renaissance, the [[Italian language]] was not the [[literary language]] in Italy.
It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather than [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], or [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]. The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as the ''[[Dolce Stil Novo]]'' (''Sweet New Style'', which emphasized [[Platonic love|Platonic]] rather than [[courtly love]]) came into its own, pioneered by poets like [[Guittone d'Arezzo]] and [[Guido Guinizelli]]. Especially in [[poetry]], major changes in [[Italian literature]] had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began.
With the printing of books initiated in Venice by [[Aldus Manutius]], an increasing number of works began to be published in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance.
The source for these works expanded beyond works of [[theology]] and towards the pre-Christian eras of [[Roman Empire|Imperial Rome]] and [[Ancient Greece]].
This is not to say that no religious works were published in this period: [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' reflects a distinctly medieval world view. This masterpiece helped establish the [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan language]], in which it is written (also in most present-day Italian-market editions), as the standardized [[Italian language]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lepschy |first=Anna Laura |author-link=Anna Laura Lepschy |last2=Lepschy |first2=Giulio C. |title=The Italian Language Today |year=1977 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ph1dAAAAMAAJ |publisher=[[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]] |pages=284 |isbn=9780091280208 |jstor=478819}}</ref>
[[Christianity]] remained a major influence for artists and authors, with the [[classics]] coming into their own as a second primary influence.
==Italian painting==
[[File:Duccio triptych NatGalLon.jpg|thumb|left|''Madonna and Child'' by [[Duccio di Buoninsegna]], created in 1280]]
[[Italo-Byzantine]] (or ''maniera greca'') painting is a term for [[panel painting]]s produced in Italy, and Western Europe generally, under heavy influence from the [[icon]]s of [[Byzantine art]], whose many variations of the subject of the [[Madonna and Child]] were copied, though the full Byzantine technique and style was not. This remained the predominant style in Italy until new developments came in [[Tuscany]] and Rome later in the century, and remained common in many areas well into the next century and beyond.
The art of the region of Tuscany (and northern Italy) in the second half of the 13th century was dominated by two masters: [[Cimabue]] of [[Florence]] and [[Duccio]] of [[Siena]]. Their commissions were mostly religious paintings, several of them being very large altarpieces showing the Madonna and Child. These two painters, with their contemporaries, [[Guido of Siena]], [[Coppo di Marcovaldo]] and the mysterious painter upon whose style the school may have originated, the so-called Master of St Bernardino, all worked in a manner that was highly formalised and dependent upon the ancient tradition of icon painting.<ref>{{cite book |first=John |last=White |title=Duccio: Tuscan Art and the Medieval Workshop |year=1979 |publisher=[[Thames and Hudson]] |pages=280 |isbn=9780500091357 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sPmLkQEACAAJ |oclc=5976552}}</ref> Cimabue and Duccio both took steps in the direction of greater naturalism, as did their contemporary, [[Pietro Cavallini]] of Rome.
[[Giotto]] (born in 1266) by tradition a shepherd boy from the hills north of Florence, became Cimabue's apprentice and emerged as the most outstanding painter of his time.<ref>{{cite book |first=Giorgio |last=Vasari |author-link=Giorgio Vasari |title=Lives of the Artists |title-link=Lives of the Artists |year=1568}}</ref> Giotto, possibly influenced by [[Pietro Cavallini]] and other Roman painters, did not base the figures that he painted upon any painterly tradition, but upon the observation of life. Unlike those of his Byzantine-related contemporaries, Giotto's figures are solidly three-dimensional; they stand squarely on the ground, have discernible anatomy and are clothed in garments with weight and structure. But more than anything, what set Giotto's figures apart from those of his contemporaries are their emotions. In the faces of Giotto's figures are joy, rage, despair, shame, spite and love. The cycle of [[fresco]]es of ''the Life of Christ'' and ''the Life of the Virgin'' that he painted in the [[Scrovegni Chapel]] in [[Padua]] set a new standard for narrative pictures. His ''Ognissanti Madonna'' hangs in the [[Uffizi Gallery]], Florence, in the same room as Cimabue's ''Santa Trinita Madonna'' and Duccio's ''Ruccellai Madonna'' where the stylistic comparisons between the three can easily be made.<ref>All three are reproduced and compared at [[Italian Renaissance painting, development of themes]]</ref> One of the features apparent in Giotto's work is his observation of naturalistic perspective. He is regarded as the herald of the Renaissance.<ref>{{cite book |first=Sarel |last=Eimerl |title=The World of Giotto |year=1967 |publisher=[[Time, Inc.]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldofgiottoc1200eime/page/n202 199] |url=https://archive.org/details/worldofgiottoc1200eime |url-access=registration |oclc=518807}}</ref>
==Italian architecture==
[[File:Pisa.Baptistery.pulpit02.jpg|thumb|"Pulpito del Battistero di Pisa", of [[Nicola Pisano]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Pierluigi |last=De Vecchi |first2=Elda Cerchiari |last2=Necchi |title=I tempi dell'arte |volume=1 |publisher=[[Bompiani]] |location=Milano |year=1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7tT9AAAACAAJ |pages=416 |isbn=9788845171079}}</ref>]]
In the early Duecento in Italy started to appear the [[Italian Gothic]]. The first Italian Gothic edifices were Cistercian abbeys. They spread in the whole Italian territory, often adapting the construction techniques to the local traditions. There were in fact [[brickwork]] edifices in the [[Pianura Padana]], while stone prevailed in central Italy and [[Tuscany]]. In the latter was sometimes present the by-chrome wall decoration from the local [[Romanesque style|Romanesque]] tradition.
The most important edifices include the [[Chiaravalle Abbey]] in northern Italy and the [[Casamari Abbey]] in central Italy. Among the non-Cistercian buildings of this century which were influenced by the Gothic style, though still presenting important Romanesque features, are the [[Parma Baptistery]] by [[Benedetto Antelami]] and the church of [[Sant'Andrea, Vercelli|Sant'Andrea]] in [[Vercelli]], also featuring Antelami's influences.
This century saw the construction of numerous Gothic buildings for the Mendicant Orders. The most important ones include:
*[[Basilica of San Francesco of Assisi]] (1228–1253)
*Church of [[Santa Maria della Spina]], [[Pisa]] (1230)
*[[Basilica of Sant'Antonio of Padua]]
*Church of [[San Francesco, Bologna]] (1236–1263)
*Church of [[Santa Maria Novella]], [[Florence]]
Also notable is the civil and military construction program promoted by Emperor and King of Sicily [[Frederick II of Hohenstaufen]] in [[southern Italy]] at the beginning of the century. The most important works promoted by him include:
*[[Castel del Monte (Apulia)|Castel del Monte]], in [[Apulia]]
*[[Castel Maniace]], in [[syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Sicily]]
*Triumphal Gate in [[Capua]] (destroyed)
In this period some cathedrals were also constructed or finished, such as the [[Siena Cathedral]].
==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Bonaventura Berlinghieri Francesco.jpg|''Vita di San Francesco'', of [[Bonaventura Berlinghieri]], 1235
File:Cimabue 025.jpg|Cross of ''Santa Croce'', of [[Cimabue]]
File:Schema facciata.JPG|Frontal section of the ''[[Santa Maria del Fiore]]'', by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]]
File:Giotto - Legend of St Francis - -15- - Sermon to the Birds.jpg|[[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]]: St. Francis' Sermon to the Birds
File:Assisis Basilica superiore.jpg|[[Basilica of San Francesco of Assisi]]: Nave of the upper basilica (built 1228–1253)
File:Pisano's pulpit at Siena.JPG|''Pulpito'' a Siena, by [[Nicola Pisano]]
File:1010PerugiaFontanaMaggiore.JPG|Perugia's ''Fontana Maggiore'', by Pisano
File:Guido da Siena - Fuga in Egitto.jpg|[[Guido da Siena]]'s "Fuga in Egitto"
</gallery>
==See also==
*[[Trecento]] – the 14th century in Italian culture
*[[Quattrocento]] – the 15th century in Italian culture
*[[Cinquecento]] – the 16th century in Italian culture
*[[Seicento]] – the 17th century in Italian culture
*[[History of Italian culture (1700s)|Settecento]] – the 18th century in Italian culture
*[[Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art|Ottocento]] – the 19th century in Italian culture
*Novecento - the 20th century in Italian culture
*[[History of Italy]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Burke, Peter. ''The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy'' Princeton University Press. Princeton, 1999.
* Shaw, Prue. ''Reading Dante: From Here to Eternity''. Liveright Publishing. New York, 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-63149-006-4}}.
* Nolthenius, Helene. ‘’ Duecento: The Late Middle Ages in Italy’’. McGraw-Hill. New York, 1968.
{{Italy topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:13th century in Italy]]
[[Category:Italian Renaissance]]
[[Category:Italian culture]]
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