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* '''∟''' [[Catalonia]]}}
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The '''Principality of Catalonia''' ({{lang-ca|Principat de Catalunya}}; {{lang-oc|Principat de Catalonha}}; {{lang-es|Principado de Cataluña}}; {{lang-la|Principatus Cathaloniæ}}) was a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[early modern]] [[state (polity)|state]]<ref name="ryder">{{cite book |author1=Ryder, Alan |title=The Wreck of Catalonia. Civil War in the Fifteenth Century |year=2007 |page=v |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-920736-7 |quote=This group of states comprised the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, and Majorca, the principality of Catalonia, and the counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne; further afield it embraced the kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia. These states had no common institutions or bonds save allegiance to a common sovereign}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Chandler, Cullen J. |title=Carolingian Catalonia: Politics, Culture, and Identity in an Imperial Province, 778-987778–987 |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=22 |quote=The region is only unique in its later statehood and conjunction with the kingdom of Aragon in the high Middle Ages, while other former Carolingian territories were eventually reabsorbed by the French crown.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ferro|1987|p=442}}</ref>{{Sfn|Eliott|1963|p=4}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sesma|2000|p=14}}</ref> in the northeastern [[Iberian Peninsula]]. During most of its history it was in [[dynastic union]] with the [[Kingdom of Aragon]], constituting together the [[Crown of Aragon]]. Between the 13th and the 18th centuries, it was bordered by the Kingdom of Aragon to the west, the [[Kingdom of Valencia]] to the south, the [[Kingdom of France]] and the feudal lordship of [[Andorra]] to the north and by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the east. The term Principality of Catalonia was official until the 1830s, when the Spanish government implemented the centralized provincial division, but remained in popular and informal contexts. Today, the term ''Principat'' (Principality) is used primarily to refer to the [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] of [[Catalonia]] in Spain, as distinct from the other [[Catalan Countries]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Conversi |first1=Daniele |editor1-last=Jackson |editor1-first=Jennifer |editor2-last=Molokotos-Liederman |editor2-first=Lina |title=Nationalism, Ethnicity and Boundaries: Conceptualising and Understanding Identity Through Boundary Approaches |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317600008 |page=65 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aj9WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |access-date=17 June 2017 |chapter=Modernity, globalization and nationalism: the age of frenzied boundary-building |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114164547/https://books.google.com/books?id=aj9WBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Conversi |first1=Daniele |title=The Basques, the Catalans and Spain: Alternative Routes to Nationalist Mobilisation |date=2000 |publisher=University of Nevada Press |isbn=0874173620 |page=xv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wwSve0Mb0ocC&pg=PR15 |access-date=3 January 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and usually including the historical region of [[Roussillon]] in [[Southern France]].
 
The first reference to [[Catalonia]] and the Catalans appears in the ''[[Liber maiolichinus de gestis Pisanorum illustribus]]'', a [[Pisa]]n chronicle (written between 1117 and 1125) of the conquest of [[Majorca]] by a joint force of Italians, [[Catalan people|Catalans]], and [[Occitans]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://usuarios.lycos.es/guerradesucesion/Textos/1114%20Dux%20Catalanesis-Catalanicus%20Heros-Catalania.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929160049/http://usuarios.lycos.es/guerradesucesion/Textos/1114%20Dux%20Catalanesis-Catalanicus%20Heros-Catalania.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-09-29 |title=Latin text of the ''Liber maiolichinus'' with Spanish introduction}}</ref> At the time, Catalonia did not yet exist as a political entity, though the use of this term seems to acknowledge Catalonia as a cultural or geographical entity. The counties that eventually made up the Principality of Catalonia were gradually unified under the rule of the [[count of Barcelona]]. In 1137, the County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon were unified under a single dynasty, creating what modern historians call the [[Crown of Aragon]]; however, Aragon and Catalonia retained their own political structure and legal traditions, developing separate political communities along the next centuries. Under [[Alfons II of Aragon|Alfons I the Troubador]] (reigned 1164–1196), Catalonia was regarded as a legal entity for the first time.{{sfn|Sesma|2000|p=62}} Still, the term ''Principality of Catalonia'' was not used legally until the 14th century, when it was applied to the territories ruled by the [[Catalan Courts|Courts of Catalonia]].
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In order to recapt the "tax of the General", the Courts of 1359 established a permanent representation of deputies, called Deputation of the General (in Catalan: ''Diputació del General'') and later usually known as [[Generalitat of Catalonia|Generalitat]], which gained considerable political power over the next centuries.{{Sfn|Eliott|2002|p=26}}
 
The Principality saw a prosperous period during the 13th century and the first half of the 14th. The population increased; Catalan language and culture expanded into the islands of the Western Mediterranean. The reign of [[Peter III of Aragon]] ("the Great") included the [[Sicilian Vespers|conquest of Sicily]] and the successful defense against a [[Aragonese Crusade|French crusade]];{{Sfn|Chaytor|1933|p=103}} his son and successor [[Alfonso III of Aragon|Alfonso III]] ("the Generous") conquered Menorca; and Peter's second son James II conquered Sardinia; Catalonia was the center of the empire, expanding and organizing it, establishing institutional systems similar to its own.{{Sfn|Eliott|2002|p=25}} Barcelona, then the most frequent royal residence, was consolidated as the administrative center of the domains with the establishment of the [[Royal Archives of Barcelona|Royal Archives]] in 1318.<ref name="carlos">{{cite book |title=Qué es el Archivo de la Corona de Aragón? |author=López Rodríguez, Carlos |editor=Mira Editores |isbn=978-84-8465-220-5 |date=April 2007 |pages=32–33, 35–38, 41}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Baydal, Palomo|2020|p=116}}</ref> The [[Catalan Company]], mercenaries led by [[Roger de Flor]] and formed by [[Almogavar]] veterans of the War of the Sicilian Vespers, were hired by the [[Byzantine Empire]] to fight the Turks, defeating them in several battles. After the assassination of Roger de Flor by orders of the emperor's son [[Michael IX Palaiologos|Michael Palaiologos]] (1305), the Company took revenge by sacking Byzantine territory, and they conquered the [[Duchy of Athens|duchies of Athens]] and [[Duchy of Neopatras|Neopatras]] in the name of the King of Aragon. Catalan rule over Greek lands lasted until 1390.{{sfn|Miller|1908|pp=303–325}}
 
This territorial expansion was accompanied by a great development of the Catalan trade, centered in Barcelona, creating an extensive trade network across the Mediterranean which competed with those of the [[maritime republics]] of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]].{{Sfn|Eliott|2002|p=25}}<ref>{{harvnb|Fontana|2014|p=59}}</ref> In this line, institutions were created that would give legal protection to merchants, such as the [[Consulate of the Sea]] and the [[Book of the Consulate of the Sea]], one of the first compilations of [[maritime law]].<ref>[http://www.historyoflaw.info/maritime-law-history.html History of maritime law] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509042453/http://www.historyoflaw.info/maritime-law-history.html |date=2021-05-09 }} www.historyoflaw.info</ref>
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The second quarter of the 14th century saw crucial changes for Catalonia, marked by a succession of natural catastrophes, demographic crises, stagnation and decline in the Catalan economy, and the rise of social tensions. The year 1333 was known as ''Lo mal any primer'' (Catalan: "The first bad year") due to poor wheat harvest.{{Sfn|Eliott|2002|p=30}} The domains of the Aragonese Crown were affected severely by the [[Black Death]] pandemic and by later outbreaks of the plague. Between 1347 and 1497 Catalonia lost 37 percent of its population.<ref>According to [[John Elliott (historian)|Elliott]], "Between 1347 and 1497 the Principality [Catalonia] had lost 37% of its inhabitants, and was reduced to a population of something like 300,000." {{cite book |author=[[John Elliott (historian)|Elliott, John Huxtable]] |title=The revolt of the Catalans: a study in the decline of Spain (1598–1640) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2Hf-crzPjUC&pg=PA26 |year=1984 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-27890-2 |page=26 |access-date=2020-09-28 |archive-date=2023-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222041242/https://books.google.com/books?id=X2Hf-crzPjUC&pg=PA26 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
In 1410, King [[Martin of Aragon|Martin I]], the last reigning monarch of the House of Barcelona, died without surviving descendants. Under the [[Compromise of Caspe]] (1412), Ferdinand from the Castilian [[House of Trastámara]] received the Crown of Aragon as [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ryder|2007|pp=11–12}}</ref> Ferdinand's successor, [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso V]] ("the Magnanimous"), promoted a new stage of Catalan-Aragonese expansion, this time over the [[Kingdom of Naples]], over which he eventually gained rule in 1443. However, he aggravated the social crisis in the Principality of Catalonia, both in the countryside and in the cities. Political conflict in Barcelona arose due to the disputes over the control of the Consell de Cent between two political factions, [[Biga and Busca]] looking for a solution to the economic crisis. Meanwhile, the "[[Remensa|''remença'']]" (serfs') peasants subjected to the feudal abuses known as [[Evilevil customs]] began to organize themselves as a syndicate against seignorial pressures, serchingseeking protection from the monarch. Alfonso's brother, [[John II of Aragon|John II]] ("the Unreliable"), was an exceptionallya deeply hated and opposed regent and ruler -, both in the Basque kingdom of Navarre and in Catalonia.
 
The opposition of the institutions of Catalonia to the policies of John II resulted in their support to the son of John, [[Charles, Prince of Viana]] over his denied dynastic rights. In response of the detention of Charles by his father, the Generalitat established a political body, the [[Council of the Principality]], with whom, under menace of a conflict, John was forced to negotiate. The [[Capitulation of Vilafranca]] (1461) forced to release Charles from prison and appoint him lieutenant of Catalonia, while the king would need permission of the Generalitat to enter the Principality. The content of the Capitulation represented a culmination and consolidation of pactism and the constitutional system of Catalonia. However, the disagreement of King John, the death of Charles shortly after, and the [[War of the Remences|Remença Uprising]] in 1462 led to the ten-year [[Catalan Civil War]] (1462-1472) that left the country exhausted. In 1472, the last separate ruler of Catalonia, the kingKing [[René of Anjou]] ("the Good"), lost the war against King John.
 
John's son, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] ("the Catholic"), recovered without war the northern Catalan counties (1493), which it had occupied during the conflict, and profoundly reformed Catalan institutions. The ''Constitució de l'Observança'' (1481) was approved, establishing the [[Rule of law|submission of royal power to the laws]] approved in the Catalan Courts.<ref>Ferro, Víctor. ''El Dret Públic Català. Les Institucions a Catalunya fins al Decret de Nova Planta''. Eumo Editorial; {{ISBN|84-7602-203-4}}</ref><ref>Palos Peñarroya, Juan Luis: ''[http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Manuscrits/article/viewFile/23299/92522 "Quin va ser el paper dels juristes catalans en el debat entre absolutisme i constitucionalisme?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208134424/http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Manuscrits/article/viewFile/23299/92522 |date=2015-12-08 }}''</ref> After decades of conflict, the peasants of ''[[remença]]'' peasants were liberated from most of [[Mals usos|feudal abuses]] by the [[Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe]] (1486), in exchange for a payment.<ref>{{citation |first=Alcalá |last=César |title=Les guerres remences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tsOla9uum9cC&q=Pere+Joan+Sala+granollers&pg=PA82 |publisher=Editorial UOC |date=2010 |page=86 |isbn=978-8497889261 |access-date=2020-11-19 |archive-date=2023-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222041254/https://books.google.com/books?id=tsOla9uum9cC&q=Pere+Joan+Sala+granollers&pg=PA82 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
===Catalonia during the early modern period===
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The name "Principality of Catalonia" is abundant in historical documentation that refers to Catalonia between the mid-14th century and early 19th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Baydal, Palomo|2020|p=110}}</ref> According to research carried out in recent decades, is considered to be in the second half of the 12th century when the Catalan counties form a unified and cohesive political entity, -although jurisdictionally divided- called "Catalonia". This happens because the counts of Barcelona became the one hand, the majority of sovereigns Catalan Counties and the other hand kings of Aragon, which helped them prevail in the rest of autonomous Catalan counts ([[County of Pallars|Pallars]], Urgell and [[County of Empúries|Empúries]]) if they were not in their feudal vassals, while also incorporated its extensive domain the Islamic territories of [[Tortosa]] and [[Lleida]]. The political entity resulting from this process since the 13th century, was repeatedly mentioned the term "kingdom" as a medieval state, i.e. public domain political regime monarchist government.
 
However, it consolidated this denomination officially, because, for various historical reasons, the rulers of the Kingdom of Aragon never useused the title "King of Catalonia". This is where comes in the use of the term "principality" comes in, since at least since the 12th century, the word was synonymous totalwith the term "kingdom" which alluded generically to political entities which categorize [[Historiography|historiographically]] the expression "Medieval States". Yet it was not until the 14th century -specifically—specifically, since 1350-1350— that, greetingsthanks to work of [[Peter III of Aragon]], the Principality of Catalonia became an official and popular name. This political entity was part of some composite monarchies or dynastic conglomerates, such as the Crown of Aragon, the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish monarchy]] and the [[Kingdom of France]] (1641–1652), being on an equal footing with other political communities of the time, or external in relation to such great empires, as were the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Valencia, [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] or the [[Duchy of Milan]], for example.<ref>{{harvnb|Baydal, Palomo|2020|p=109}}</ref>
 
Following the Nueva Planta decrees of 1716 at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) and the subsequent dismantling of the Catalan institutional system, the territory being annexed to Castile became a province of the new and more unified Kingdom of Bourbon Spain, but "principality" continued to be the definition of the territory, as witnesswitnessed in the Nueva Planta decrees created by the [[Royal Audience of Catalonia (Bourbon)|Royal Audience of the Principality of Catalonia]] in 1716. This situation remained until the Kingdom of Spain was transformed permanently, despite several [[Carlist Wars]], into a liberal state in 1833, when [[Javier de Burgos]] eliminated the province of the Principality of Catalonia, dividing the territory ininto fourthe provincesexisting thatfour still existprovinces. Thus, the term disappeared from the administrative and political reality of the country. In 1931, [[republicanism|Republican]] movements favoured its abandonment because it is historically related to the monarchy.
 
Neither the [[Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia]], [[Spanish Constitution]] nor [[French Constitution]], mention this denomination, but, despite most of them being republican, it is moderately popular among [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalist]]s and [[Catalan independentism|independentist]]s.
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*''Constitucions de Catalunya'' ([[Catalan constitutions]]): laws promulgated by the king and approved by the Catalan Courts. They had pre-eminence over the other legal rules and could only be revoked by the Courts themselves.
*''Capítols de Cort'' (Chapters of Court): laws promulgated by the Courts and approved by the king.
*''Actes de Cort'' (Acts of Court): minor legislative and other rules and decrees promulgated by the Courts, which didn'tdid not need the formal approval of the king.
 
===Royal Officers===
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===Vegueries===
[[File:Vegueries Catalunya 1304.svg|thumb|''Vegueries'' of Catalonia in 1304. Yellow and brown territories were lordships without a ''veguer'']]
The ''[[vegueria]]'' was a territorial organization of Catalonia headed by a ''veguer'' (Latin: {{lang|la|vigerius}}). The origins of the vegueria go back to the era of the Carolingian Empire, when [[vicars]] (Latin: {{lang|la|vicarii}}, singular {{lang|la|vicarius}}) were installed beneath the counts in the Marca Hispanica. The office of a vicar was a vicariate (Latin: {{lang|la|vicariatus}}) and his territory was a ''vicaria''. All these Latin terms of Carolingian administration evolved in the Catalan language.
 
The ''veguer'' was appointed by the king and was accountable to him. He was the military commander of his ''vegueria'' (and thus keeper of the publicly owned castles), the chief justice of the same district, and the man in charge of the public finances (the ''fisc'') of the region entrusted to him. As time wore on, the functions of the veguer became more and more judicial in nature. He held a ''cort'' (court) ''del veguer'' or ''de la vegueria'' with its own seal. The cort had authority in all matter save those relating to the feudal aristocracy. It commonly heard pleas of the crownCrown, civil, and criminal cases. The veguer did, however, retain some military functions as well: he was the commander of the militia and the superintendent of royal castles. His job was law and order and the maintenance of the king's peace: in many respects an office analogous to that of the sheriff in England.
 
Some of the larger vegueries included one or more ''sotsvegueries'' (subvigueries), which had a large degree of autonomy. At the end of the 12th century in Catalonia, there were 12 vegueries. By the end of the reign of Peter the Great (1285) there were 17, and by the time of James the Just, there were 21. After the French annexion of the vegueries of Perpignan and [[Vilafranca de Conflent]] in 1659, Catalonia retained a division of 15 vegueries, nine sotsvegueries and the special district of the [[Val d'Aran]]. These administrative divisions remained until 1716 when they were replaced by the Castilian ''[[corregimiento]]s''.<ref>The borders of the corregimientos were originally set by the edict of the [[Captain General of Catalonia]] Francisco Pío de Saboya titled: [https://books.google.com/books?id=0l-HcTfkImIC ''Edicto, que explica la division y confines de los doze corregimientos del Principado de Cathaluña y distrito del Valle de Aran con los puntos tocantes a los salarios de los corregidores y de sus tenientes ó alcaldes mayores''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222041323/https://books.google.es/books?id=0l-HcTfkImIC&printsec=frontcover&hl=ca |date=2023-02-22 }} signed January 2, 1719.</ref>
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The Usage ''[[Princeps namque]]'', dating from the 11th century, regulated the defense of the prince and the Principality,<ref>Escartín, Eduard. ''"El usatge 'princeps namque' en la edad moderna". A: Ramón Casterás Archidona. Profesor Nazario González: una historia abierta''. Barcelona: Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 1998, p. 103. {{ISBN|9788447519514}}</ref> and became the basis of the organization of self-defense and paramilitary units throughout Catalan history, materialized in mutual-protection agreements known as [[Sagramental]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alcoberro |first1=Agustí |title=10 arguments per rebatre els equívocs històrics més habituals sobre Catalunya |journal=Sàpiens |date=March 2013 |volume=127 |pages=24–35}}</ref> while the militia corps was known as [[Sometent]]. The feudal system allowed to lordships, institutions and corporations to raise its own armies, as well as to be convened by the king due to feudal agreements, alongside to the vassals and subjects of the other realms, however, there was no [[standing army]]. Catalan soldiers played an important role in the expansion of the Crown to Valencia, Majorca and the Mediterranean. The [[Catalan navy]] and its [[Catalan Galley]]s contributed to expand and secure the hegemony along the sea, while the army invested much of its resources in the [[Aragonese conquest of Sardinia|conquest of Sardinia]] and in the [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]]. After the last one, most of the [[Almogavers]] (light infantry) became mercenaries of the [[Great Catalan Company]] created by Roger de Flor in 1303.
 
Due to the outbreak of the Catalan Civil War (1462–1472), the [[Council of the Principality of Catalonia]] organised different military forces to fight against the kingKing John II. The Civil War saw one of the first generalised use of [[firearms]] in a military conflict of Western Europe. In the Catalan Courts of 1493, kingKing Ferdinand II confirmed the Usageusage of ''Princeps namque''.
 
After the establishment of the monarchy of Spain in the 16th century, Catalans were found in Habsburg military, however, the Usage ''Princeps namque'' and the lack of a large Catalan manpower limited their presence in comparison to the other polities of the Empire. Some cities like Barcelona gained recognition of self-defense and established urban militias, known as the [[Coronela]]. While the military conflicts with France arousedarose, many Catalan militias took part in the fight alongside the regular army, as happened inat the [[siege of Salses]], in 1639, alongside the regular army.<ref>{{harvnb|Fontana|2014|p=155}}</ref>
 
==Symbols==
As a state under royal sovereignty, Catalonia, like the other political entities of the period, didn'tdid not have anits own flag or coat of arms in the modern sense. However, a variety of royal and other symbols were used in order to identify the Principality and its institutions.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
| [[File:Flag of Catalonia.svg|150px]]
| The [[Senyera]] is one of the oldest flags in Europe to be used in present-day (but not in continuous use). There are several theories advocating either a Catalan or Aragonese origin for the symbol. While remained the monarch's personal emblem, during the early modern period it was often territorialized to represent individually the realms of the Crown of Aragon, among them the Principality of Catalonia.<ref>Casals, Àngel. "Del nom i la identitat de la Corona d'Aragó a l'edat moderna". ''L'Avenç'', núm 275. desembre 2002. p. 31: {{blockquote|"Pels catalans aquesta preeminençia (la del Regne d'Aragó on es produïa la coronació) es compensava amb l'adopció de l'escut de Catalunya com a comú per la Corona: «Car jatsia lo nom e Rey sia de Aragó, les armes emperò que aquell fa són del Principat de Catalunya», van dir els diputats a l'emperadriu Isabel el 1528"}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Vexillum Francorum.svg|150px]]
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|-
| [[File:Flag of Barcelona.svg|150px]]<br /><br />[[File:Bandera medieval de Barcelona.svg|150px]]
| Flag of Barcelona, capital of the Principality, which appeared for the first time in 1329. In 1335, kingKing Peter IV the Ceremonious gave permission to the Council of One Hundred to use his royal sign (the four bars). Although in 1344 the four bars had already been fixed decree, the number fluctuated for a long time between 4four and 2two. It was replaced during early modern era by the [[Saint Eulalia's flag]]. It also appears in some maps as the flag that identified the Principality.
|-
| [[File:Royal arms of Aragon (Crowned).svg|80px]] [[File:Coat of Arms of Catalonia.svg|80px]]
| Royal arms of the kingKing of Aragon and countCount of Barcelona.
|-
| [[File:St George's Cross Crowned Badge.svg|100px]]
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[[File:Paisos catalans.svg|thumb|left|In grey, lands where Catalan is currently spoken]]
Catalonia constitutes the original nucleus where [[Catalan language|Catalan]] is spoken.
The Catalan language shares common traits with the Romance languages of Iberia and Gallo-Romance languages of southern France, it is regarded by a minority of linguists as being an [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] language (the group that includes Spanish), and by a majority as a [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance language]], such as French or [[Occitan language|Occitan]] from which Catalan diverged between 11th and 14th centuries.<ref>[[Martí de Riquer i Morera|Riquer, Martí de]], ''Història de la Literatura Catalana'', vol. 1. Barcelona: Edicions Ariel, 1964.</ref>
 
By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] on both sides of the eastern end of the Pyrenees. From the 8th century, the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards, conquering territories then occupied by Muslims, bringing their language with them.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|2009|pp=6–7}} In the 11th century, feudal documents written in [[macaronic Latin]] begin to show Catalan elements. By the end of the 11th century, documents written completely or mostly in Catalan begin to appear, like the ''Complaints of Guitard Isarn, Lord of Caboet'' (ca. 1080–1095), or ''The Oath of peace and truce of countCount Pere Ramon'' (1098).{{sfn|Costa Carreras|2009|pp=6–7}}
 
[[File:Llibre-dels-Feyts-XXVIIr.jpg|thumb|Fragment of the oldest existing copy of the ''Llibre dels Fets'' written in the original Catalan, dating from 1343. The scene depicts [[James I of Aragon]] with his lords planned the [[conquest of Majorca]] (1229)]]
Catalan lived a golden age during the Late Middle Ages, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural plenitude, and expanded territorially as more lands were added to the dominions of the Crown of Aragon.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|2009|pp=6–7}} Examples of this can be seen in the works of Majorcan [[Ramon Llull]] (1232–1315), [[The Four Great Catalan Chronicles]] (13th-14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry which culminated in [[Ausiàs March]] (1397–1459). Catalan became the language of the Kingdom of Majorca, as well the main language of the Kingdom of Valencia, particularly in coastal areas. It was also extended to Sardinia and it was used as an administrative language in Sardinia, Sicily and Athens. Between the 13th and 15th centuries this language was present all overthroughout the [[Mediterranean world]], and it was one of the first basis of the [[Mediterranean Lingua Franca|Lingua Franca]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.uab.cat/Document/439/403/castellanos_linguafranca2007.pdf |title=La "lingua franca", una revolució lingüística mediterrània amb empremta catalana, Carles Castellanos i Llorenç |access-date=2018-09-19 |archive-date=2020-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226224344/https://www.uab.cat/Document/439/403/castellanos_linguafranca2007.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
The belief that political splendor was correlated with linguistic consolidation was voiced through the Royal Chancery, which promoted a highly standardized language. By the 15th century, the city of [[Valencia]] had become the center of social and cultural dynamism. The novel of chivalry ''[[Tirant lo Blanc]]'' (1490), by [[Joanot Martorell]], shows the transition from medieval to Renaissance values, something than can also be seen in the works of [[Bernat Metge]] and [[Andreu Febrer]]. During this period, Catalan remained as one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe. The first book produced with [[movable type]] in the Iberian Peninsula was printed in Catalan.{{sfn|Costa Carreras|2009|pp=6–7}}
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With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon (1479), the use of Castilian (Spanish) gradually became more prestigious and marked the start of the relative decline of the Catalan. Along the 16th and 17th centuries, Catalan literature came under the influence of Spanish, and the urban and literary classes became largely bilingual. After the defeat of the pro-Habsburg coalition in the War of Spanish Succession (1714) Spanish replaced Catalan in legal documentation, becoming the administrative and political language in the Principality of Catalonia and the kingdoms of Valencia and Majorca.
 
Today, Catalan is one of the three official languages of [[autonomous community of Catalonia]], as stated in the [[Catalan Statute of Autonomy]]; the other two are Spanish, and [[Occitan language|Occitan]] in its [[Aranese]] variety.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://web.gencat.cat/ca/generalitat/estatut/estatut2006/titol_preliminar/ |title=Títol preliminar (articles 1-14) |website=gencat.cat |access-date=2020-03-23 |archive-date=2014-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913012003/http://web.gencat.cat/ca/generalitat/estatut/estatut2006/titol_preliminar/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Catalan has no official recognition in "[[Northern Catalonia]]". Catalan has official status alongside Spanish in the [[Balearic Islands]] and in the [[Land of Valencia]] (where it is called ''Valencian''),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cortsvalencianes.es/ca-va/titol-primer-la-comunitat-valenciana |title=TÍTOLTítol PRIMERPrimer: La Comunitat Valenciana |website=Corts Valencianes |access-date=2020-03-23 |archive-date=2020-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323150754/https://www.cortsvalencianes.es/ca-va/titol-primer-la-comunitat-valenciana |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as [[Algherese|Algherese Catalan]] alongside Italian in the city of [[Alghero]] and in [[Andorra]] as the sole official language.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.andorramania.com/constit_gb.htm |title=The constitution of the Principality of Andorra |website=www.andorramania.com |access-date=2020-03-20 |archive-date=2014-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330062527/http://www.andorramania.com/constit_gb.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
==Culture==
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==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |firstlast1=WilliamBaydal |lastfirst1=MillerVicent |author-linklast2=WilliamPalomo Miller|first2=Cristian (historiancoord.) |title=ThePseudohistòria Latinscontra inCatalunya. theDe Levant,l'espanyolisme a Historyla ofNova FrankishHistòria Greece (1204–1566)|year=2020 |publisher=EEd. P. Dutton and CompanyEumo |location=New YorkVic |yearisbn=1908978-84-9766-689-3 |urlref=https://archive.org/details/latinsinlevanta00millgoogCITEREFBaydal, |oclc=563022439Palomo2020}}
*{{cite book |first=Thomas N. |last=ChaytorBisson |firstauthor-link=H.J.Thomas Bisson |title=AThe HistoryMedieval Crown of Aragon: anda Cataloniashort history |year=19331986 |publisher=MethuenClarendon Press |location=London |url=http://libro.uca.edu/chaytor/achistory.htmOxford |isbn=97804040147979780198219873}}
*Bisson, Thomas Noël (1998). ''Tormented voices. Power, crisis and humanity in rural Catalonia 1140–1200.''. Harvard University Press▼
*[[Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola|de Tejada y Spínola, Francisco Elías]] (1950). ''Las doctrinas políticas en la Cataluña Medieval.'' Barcelona: Ayma ed.▼
*Bonnassie, Pierre (1975-1976). ''La Catalogne du milieu du Xe à la fin du XIe siècle. Croissance et mutations d'une société''. Toulouse: Publications de l'Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail.▼
*[[Pierre Vilar|Vilar, Pierre]] (1962). ''La Catalogne dans l'Espagne moderne. Recherches sur les fondements économiques des structures nationales''. III vols., Paris▼
*Capdeferro, Josep and Serra, Eva (2014). ''La defensa de les constitucions de Catalunya: el Tribunal de Contrafaccions (1702-1713).''. Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Justícia {{ISBN|978-84-393-9203-3}}▼
*{{cite book |last=Chaytor |first=H. J. |title=A History of Aragon and Catalonia |year=1933 |publisher=Methuen |location=London |url=http://libro.uca.edu/chaytor/achistory.htm |isbn=9780404014797}}
*Cingolani, Stefano Maria (2006). ''"Seguir les Vestígies dels Antecessors. Llinatge, Reialesa i Historiografia a Catalunya des de Ramon Berenguer IV a Pere II (1131-1285)". '' Anuario de Estudios Medievales''. ISSN 0066-5061▼
*{{cite book |first=Stefano Maria |last=Cingolani |author-link=Stefano Maria Cingolani |title=La formació nacional de Catalunya i el fet identitari dels catalans (785-1410) |year=2015 |publisher=Generalitat de Catalunya |location=Barcelona |isbn=9788439392590}}▼
*{{cite book |last1=Costa Carreras |first1=Joan |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected Writings/Pompeu Fabra (1868–1948) |year=2009 |publisher=Instutut d'Estudis Catalans & Universitat Pompeu Fabra & Jonh Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-3264-9 |pages=6–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKvQg1323YkC |ref=CITEREFCosta Carreras2009}}▼
*{{cite book |first=John |last=Elliott |author-link=John Elliott (historian) |title=The revolt of the Catalans: a study in the decline of Spain (1598–1640) |year=1963 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-27890-2 |ref=CITEREFEliott1963}}
*{{cite book |first=John |last=Elliott |author-link=John Elliott (historian) |title=Imperial Spain 1469-1716 |url=https://archive.org/details/imperialspain14600elli_0 |url-access=registration |year=1963 |publisher=revised repr. Penguin Books (2002) |location=London |isbn=978-0141007038 |ref=CITEREFEliott2002}}
*Serra, Eva (1966). ''La guerra dels segadors.'' Barcelona: Ed. Bruguera▼
*{{cite book |first=Kenneth M. |last=Setton |author-link=Kenneth Setton |chapter=The Catalans in Greece, 1311–1388 |title=A History of the Crusades, Volume III: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries |editor-first=Harry W. |editor-last=Hazard |year=1975 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison, Wisconsin |chapter-url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=History.CrusThree.i0018&id=History.CrusThree |isbn=978-0-299-06670-3}}▼
▲*Bonnassie, Pierre (1975-1976). ''La Catalogne du milieu du Xe à la fin du XIe siècle. Croissance et mutations d'une société''. Toulouse: Publications de l'Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail.
*{{cite book |first=Francisco José |last=Morales Roca |title=Próceres habilitados en las Cortes del Principado de Cataluña, siglo XVII (1599-1713) |year=1983 |publisher=Ediciones Hidalguia |isbn=9788400054311}}▼
*{{cite book |first=Thomas N. |last=Bisson |author-link=Thomas Bisson |title=The Medieval Crown of Aragon: a short history |year=1986 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780198219873}}
*{{cite book |first=Víctor |last=Ferro |title=El Dret Públic Català. Les Institucions a Catalunya fins al Decret de Nova Planta |year=1987 |publisher=Ed. Eumo |location=Vic |isbn=84-7602-203-4}}
*{{cite book |title=La formació d'una identitat. Una història de Catalunya |first=Josep |last=Fontana |author-link=Josep Fontana |publisher=Ed. Eumo |year=2014 |isbn=9788497665261}}▼
*{{cite book |translator-last=Kagay |translator-first=Donald J. |title=The Usatges of Barcelona: The fundamental law of Catalonia |year=1994 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=U.S.A. |isbn=0-8122-1535-4 |ref=CITEREFKagay1994}}
*{{cite book |first=William |last=Miller |author-link=William Miller (historian) |title=The Latins in the Levant, a History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566) |publisher=E. P. Dutton and Company |location=New York |year=1908 |url=https://archive.org/details/latinsinlevanta00millgoog |oclc=563022439}}
*{{cite book |last=Sabaté |first=Flocel |title=El territori de la Catalunya medieval: percepció de l'espai i divisió territorial al llarg de l'edat mitjana |year=1997 |publisher=Rafael Dalmau |location=Barcelona |isbn=9788423205134}}▼
▲*{{cite book |first=Francisco José |last=Morales Roca |title=Próceres habilitados en las Cortes del Principado de Cataluña, siglo XVII (1599-1713) |year=1983 |publisher=Ediciones Hidalguia |isbn=9788400054311}}
*{{cite book |title=La Corona de Aragón. Una introducción crítica |first=José Ángel |last=Sesma Muñoz |location=Zaragoza |publisher=Caja de la Inmaculada |year=2000 |isbn=84-95306-80-8 |ref=CITEREFSesma2000}}
*{{cite book |first=Isabel |last=Sánchez |title=La Diputació del General de Catalunya (1413-1479) |year=2004 |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |location=Barcelona |isbn=9788472837508}}▼
▲*Bisson, Thomas Noël (1998). ''Tormented voices. Power, crisis and humanity in rural Catalonia 1140–1200.'' Harvard University Press
▲*Cingolani, Stefano Maria (2006). ''Seguir les Vestígies dels Antecessors. Llinatge, Reialesa i Historiografia a Catalunya des de Ramon Berenguer IV a Pere II (1131-1285).'' Anuario de Estudios Medievales. ISSN 0066-5061
*{{cite book |title=The Wreck of Catalonia: Civil War in the Fifteenth Century. |first=Alan |last=Ryder |author-link=Alan Ryder |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0199207367}}
▲*{{cite book |last=Sabaté |first=Flocel |title=El territori de la Catalunya medieval: percepció de l'espai i divisió territorial al llarg de l'edat mitjana |year=1997 |publisher=Rafael Dalmau |location=Barcelona |isbn=9788423205134}}
*Torres i Sans, Xavier (2008). ''Naciones sin nacionalismo. Cataluña en la monarquía hispánica.'' Valencia: Publicacions de la Universitat de València {{ISBN|978-84-370-7263-0}}▼
▲*{{cite book |last1=Costa Carreras |first1=Joan |last2=Yates |first2=Alan |title=The Architect of Modern Catalan: Selected Writings/Pompeu Fabra (1868–1948) |year=2009 |publisher=Instutut d'Estudis Catalans & Universitat Pompeu Fabra & Jonh Benjamins B.V. |isbn=978-90-272-3264-9 |pages=6–7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKvQg1323YkC |ref=CITEREFCosta Carreras2009}}
▲*Capdeferro, Josep and Serra, Eva (2014). ''La defensa de les constitucions de Catalunya: el Tribunal de Contrafaccions (1702-1713).'' Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Justícia {{ISBN|978-84-393-9203-3}}
▲*{{cite book |title=La formació d'una identitat. Una història de Catalunya |first=Josep |last=Fontana |author-link=Josep Fontana |publisher=Ed. Eumo |year=2014 |isbn=9788497665261}}
▲*{{cite book |first=Stefano Maria |last=Cingolani |author-link=Stefano Maria Cingolani |title=La formació nacional de Catalunya i el fet identitari dels catalans (785-1410) |year=2015 |publisher=Generalitat de Catalunya |location=Barcelona |isbn=9788439392590}}
*{{cite book |first=Josep Maria (dir.) |last=Salrach |title=Naixement de la nació catalana. Orígens i expansió. Segles IX-XIV |year=2017 |publisher=Enciclopèdia Catalana |location=Barcelona |isbn=9788441231061}}
▲*{{cite book |first=Isabel |last=Sánchez |title=La Diputació del General de Catalunya (1413-1479) |year=2004 |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |location=Barcelona |isbn=9788472837508}}
▲*Serra, Eva (1966). ''La guerra dels segadors.''. Barcelona: Ed. Bruguera
▲*{{cite book |first=Kenneth M. |last=Setton |author-link=Kenneth Setton |chapter=The Catalans in Greece, 1311–1388 |title=A History of the Crusades, Volume III: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries |editor-first=Harry W. |editor-last=Hazard |year=1975 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison, Wisconsin |chapter-url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=History.CrusThree.i0018&id=History.CrusThree |isbn=978-0-299-06670-3}}
*{{cite book |first=Eva |last=Serra |author-link=Eva Serra |title=La Formació de la Catalunya Moderna. 1640 - 1714 |year=2018 |publisher=Ed. Eumo |location=Vic |isbn=978-8497666435}}
*{{cite book |last1title=BaydalLa |first1=VicentCorona |last2=Palomo |first2=Cristiande (coordAragón.) |title=PseudohistòriaUna contraintroducción Catalunya.crítica De|first=José l'espanyolismeÁngel a|last=Sesma la Nova HistòriaMuñoz |yearlocation=2020Zaragoza |publisher=Ed.Caja Eumode la Inmaculada |locationyear=Vic2000 |isbn=978-84-976695306-68980-38 |ref=CITEREFBaydal, Palomo2020CITEREFSesma2000}}
▲*[[Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola|de Tejada y Spínola, Francisco Elías de]] (1950). ''Las doctrinas políticas en la Cataluña Medieval.''. Barcelona: Ayma ed.
▲*Torres i Sans, Xavier (2008). ''Naciones sin nacionalismo. Cataluña en la monarquía hispánica.''. Valencia: Publicacions de la Universitat de València {{ISBN|978-84-370-7263-0}}
▲*[[Pierre Vilar|Vilar, Pierre]] (1962). ''La Catalogne dans l'Espagne moderne. Recherches sur les fondements économiques des structures nationales''. III vols., Paris
 
==External links==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia"