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From the 1950s until the [[Chinese economic reform]]s of [[Deng Xiaoping]] in the late 1970s, Maoism was the political and military ideology of the Chinese Communist Party and Maoist revolutionary movements worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meisner |first=Maurice |date=Jan–Mar 1971 |title=Leninism and Maoism: Some Populist Perspectives on Marxism-Leninism in China |journal=The China Quarterly |volume=45 |issue=45 |pages=2–36 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000010407 |jstor=651881 |s2cid=154407265}}</ref> After the [[Sino-Soviet split]] of the 1960s, the Chinese Communist Party and the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] each claimed to be the sole heir and successor to [[Joseph Stalin]] concerning the correct interpretation of Marxism–Leninism and the ideological leader of [[world communism]].<ref name="World History 2000. p. 769" />
 
The term "Maoism" is a creation of Mao's supporters; Mao himself always rejected it and preferred the use of the term "Mao Zedong Thought".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wittfogel |first=Karl A. |date=1960 |title=The Legend of 'Maoism' |url-status=live |journal=The China Quarterly |issue=1 |pages=72–86 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000022712 |issn=0305-7410 |jstor=763346 |s2cid=153676792}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2022}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chen |first=Jin |date=1 July 2016 |script-title=zh:毛泽东眼里的"毛泽东" |url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/n1/2016/0701/c85037-28514409-2.html |access-date=25 March 2023 |work=People's Daily |trans-quote=Mao Zedong disagreed with the term 'Maoism' and preferred the term 'Mao Zedong thought' as he thought of himself as a student of Marx and Lenin hesitated to place himself alongside them. Moreover, at that time, he believed that his thoughts had not matured into a complete system. |script-quote=zh:毛泽东不同意叫“主义”，而接受“思想”的说法，按他的意思，他是马克思、列宁的学生，不敢和他们并列，再说那时他认为自己的思想作为一种“体系”还没有成熟。 |lang=zh}}</ref>
 
== History ==
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Unlike the Mature period, this period was intellectually barren. Mao focused more on revolutionary practice and paid less attention to Marxist theory. He continued to emphasise theory as practice-oriented knowledge.<ref name="Lowe, Donald M 1966. Page 117">Lowe, Donald M. ''The Function of "China" in Marx, Lenin, and Mao''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. p. 117.</ref> The most crucial topic of the theory he delved into was in connection with the [[Cheng Feng]] movement of 1942. Here, Mao summarised the correlation between Marxist theory and Chinese practice: "The target is the Chinese revolution, the arrow is Marxism–Leninism. We Chinese communists seek this arrow for no other purpose than to hit the target of the Chinese revolution and the revolution of the east."<ref name="Lowe, Donald M 1966. Page 117" /> The only new emphasis was Mao's concern with two types of subjectivist deviation: (1) [[dogmatism]], the excessive reliance upon abstract theory; (2) [[empiricism]], excessive dependence on experience.
 
In 1945, the party's first historical resolution put forward Mao Zedong Thought as the party's unified ideology.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |lastlast1=Doyon |firstfirst1=Jérôme |title=The Chinese Communist Party: A 100-Year Trajectory |last2=Froissart |first2=Chloé |date=2024 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=9781760466244 |editor-last=Doyon |editor-first=Jérôme |location=Canberra |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Froissart |editor-first2=Chloé}}</ref>{{Rp|page=6}}
 
==== Post-Civil War period (1949–1976) ====
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On June 27, 1981, the Communist Party's Central Committee adopted the ''[[Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China]]''.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=166}} The ''Resolution'' assesses the legacy of the Mao era, describing Mao as first among equals in the development of Mao Zedong Thought before 1949 and deeming Mao Zedong Thought as successful in establishing national independence, transforming China's social classes, the development of economic self-sufficiency, the expansion of education and health care, and China's leadership role in the Third World.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|pages=166–167}} The ''Resolution'' describes setbacks during the period 1957 to 1964 (although it generally affirms this period) and major mistakes beginning in 1965.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=167}} The ''Resolution'' describes upholding the guidance of Mao Zedong Thought and Marxism-Leninism as among the Communist Party's cardinal principles.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=168}}
 
Contemporary Maoists in China criticise the social inequalities created by the revisionist Communist Party. Some Maoists say that Deng's ''[[Reform and Opening]]'' economic policies that introduced market principles spelled the end of Maoism in China. However, Deng asserted that his reforms were upholding Mao Zedong Thought in accelerating the output of the country's productive forces. A recent example of a Chinese politician regarded as neo-Maoist in terms of political strategies and mass mobilisation via red songs was [[Bo Xilai]] in [[Chongqing]].<ref>{{Cite book |lastlast1=Brown |firstfirst1=Kerry |url=https://archive.org/details/chinanewmaoists0000brow |title=China and the New Maoists |last2=Nieuwenhuizen |first2=Simone van |date=2016-08-15 |publisher=Zed Books Ltd. |isbn=978-1-78360-762-4 |language=en}}</ref>
 
Although Mao Zedong Thought is still listed as one of the [[Four Cardinal Principles]] of the People's Republic of China, its historical role has been re-assessed. The Communist Party now says that Maoism was necessary to break China free from its feudal past, but it also says that the actions of Mao are seen to have led to excesses during the Cultural Revolution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploring Chinese History :: Culture :: Philosophy :: Maoism |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/02cul/c04s07.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035536/http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/02cul/c04s07.html |archive-date=24 January 2021 |access-date=26 February 2018 |website=ibiblio.org}}</ref>
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The cultural revolution experienced by the Soviet Union was similar to the New Culture and May Fourth movements experienced by China in that it also placed a great importance on mass education and the normalisation of challenging of traditional cultural norms in the realising of a socialist society. However, the movements occurring in the Soviet Union had a far more adversarial mindset towards proponents of traditional values, with leadership in the party taking action to censor and exile these "enemies of change" on over 200 occasions,<ref name="emg" /> rather than exclusively putting pressure on these forces by enacting additive social changes such as education campaigns.
 
The most prominent example of a Maoist application of cultural revolution can be seen in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s wherein Mao claimed that "Revisionist" forces had entered society and infiltrated the government, with the goal of reinstating traditionalism and capitalism in China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Yuan-Li |date=1968-03-01 |title=Economics, Ideology and the Cultural Revolution |journal=Asian Survey |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=223–235 |doi=10.2307/2642569 |issn=0004-4687 |jstor=2642569}}</ref> Leaning more on the example of the Soviet Union, which involved the silencing and subjugation of adversarial political forces to help bring about a cultural change, Mao called for his followers to speak openly and critically about revisionist forces that they were observing in society and to expel them, assuring them that their actions would be endorsed by the party and that their efforts would in no way be interfered with.<ref>{{Cite book |lastlast1=MacFarquhar |firstfirst1=Roderick |title=Mao's last revolution |last2=Schoenhals |first2=Michael |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-674-04041-0 |publication-place=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> This warrant granted to the public ultimately lead to roughly ten years in which those seen as "Revisionist" forces - largely understood to mean landlords, rich peasants, and the so-called "bourgeoise academic"<ref>THORNTON, Patricia M. “Cultural Revolution.” In ''Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political Concepts from Mao to Xi'', edited by Christian Sorace, Ivan Franceschini, and Nicholas Loubere, 55–62. ANU Press, 2019. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvk3gng9.11 .</ref> - were publicly criticised and denounced in places of gathering, and in more extreme examples had physical violence inflicted on them, including being beaten, tortured, and/or killed for their perceived crimes.<ref>Xiuyuan, Lu. “A Step Toward Understanding Popular Violence in China’s Cultural Revolution.” ''Pacific Affairs'' 67, no. 4 (1994): 533–63. {{doi|10.2307/2759573}}.</ref>
 
Beginning in 1967, Mao and the PLA sought to restrain the mass organizations that had developed during the early phase of the Cultural Revolution, and began reframing the movement as one to study Mao Zedong Thought rather than using it as a guide to immediate action.<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=133}}
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=== India ===
{{See also|Naxalite–Maoist insurgency}}
The [[Communist Party of India (Maoist)]] is the leading Maoist organisation in India. The CPI (Maoist) is designated as a terrorist organization in India under the [[Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 September 2016 |title=Maoists fourth deadliest terror outfit after Taliban, IS, Boko Haram: Report |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/maoists-fourth-deadliest-terror-outfit-after-taliban-is-boko-haram-report/articleshow/54354196.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035457/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/maoists-fourth-deadliest-terror-outfit-after-taliban-is-boko-haram-report/articleshow/54354196.cms |archive-date=2021-01-24 |access-date=2019-07-17 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Since 1967, there has been an ongoing [[Naxalite-Maoist insurgency|conflict in India]] between the [[Indian government]] and Maoist insurgents.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite news |date=12 April 2006 |title=India's Naxalites: A spectre haunting India |url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7799247 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523074605/http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7799247 |archive-date=23 May 2010 |access-date=13 July 2009 |worknewspaper=The Economist}}</ref> As of 2018, there have been a total of 13,834 deaths across insurgents, security forces, and civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fatalities in Left-wing Extremism |url=https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/maoist/data_sheets/fatalitiesnaxalmha.htm |access-date=26 September 2023 |website=www.satp.org |publisher=South Asia Terrorism Portal}}</ref> Different separatist movements within India also were influenced by Maoism like the [[National Socialist Council of Nagaland]] (NSCN), a militant group promoting [[Naga nationalism]].
 
=== Iran ===
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=== United States ===
[[File:President Richard Nixon and Mao Zedong.jpg|thumb|242px|Mao meets [[Richard Nixon]] on February 21, 1972, leading to a radical turn of events in which Nixon took steps to placate tensions between the People's Republic of China and the United States, beginning the slow process of reestablishing diplomatic relations between the two [[Great power|global powers]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=President Nixon arrives in China for talks |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/nixon-arrives-in-china-for-talks |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213011800/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/nixon-arrives-in-china-for-talks |archive-date=2021-02-13 |access-date=2020-06-24 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref>]]
After the tumultuous 1960s (particularly the events of 1968, such as the launch of the [[Tet Offensive]], the [[assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Columbia University protests of 1968|nationwide university protests]], and the election of Richard Nixon), proponents of Maoist ideology constituted the "largest and most dynamic" branch of [[American socialism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Elbaum |first=Max |date=1998 |title=Maoism in the United States |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-1/maoism-us.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124171902/https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm-1/maoism-us.htm |archive-date=2021-01-24 |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Twombly |first=Matthew |date=January 2018 |title=A Timeline of 1968: The Year That Shattered America |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/timeline-seismic-180967503/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035343/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/timeline-seismic-180967503/ |archive-date=2021-01-24 |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> From this branch came a collection of "newspapers, journals, books, and pamphlets," each of which spoke on the unreasonability of the American system and proclaimed the need for a concerted social revolution.<ref name=":0" /> Among the many Maoist principles, the group of aspiring American revolutionaries sympathized with the idea of a protracted people's war, which would allow citizens to address the oppressive nature of global capitalism martially.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Marks |firstfirst1=Thomas A. |last2=Rich |first2=Paul B. |date=2017-05-04 |title=Back to the future – people's war in the 21st century |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=409–425 |doi=10.1080/09592318.2017.1307620 |issn=0959-2318 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
Mounting discontent with racial oppression and socioeconomic exploitation birthed the two largest, officially-organized Maoist groups: the [[Revolutionary Communist Party, USA|Revolutionary Communist Party]] and the [[Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (United States)|October League]].<ref>{{Cite book |lastlast1=Leonard |firstfirst1=Aaron J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eP5JBgAAQBAJ&q=revolutionary+communist+party+scholarly+articles&pg=PT8 |title=Heavy Radicals - The FBI's Secret War on America's Maoists: The Revolutionary Union / Revolutionary Communist Party 1968-1980 |last2=Gallagher |first2=Conor A. |date=2015-02-27 |publisher=John Hunt Publishing |isbn=978-1-78279-533-9 |language=en |access-date=2020-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035324/https://books.google.com/books?id=eP5JBgAAQBAJ&q=revolutionary+communist+party+scholarly+articles&pg=PT8 |archive-date=2021-01-24 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, these were not the only groups: a slew of organizations and movements emerged across the globe as well, including [[I Wor Kuen]], the [[Black Workers Congress]], the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Workers Organization, the [[August Twenty-Ninth Movement]], the Workers Viewpoint Organization, and many others—all of which overtly supported Maoist doctrine.<ref name=":0" />
 
Orchestrated by ''[[National Guardian|The Guardian]],'' in the spring of 1973, an attempt to conflate the strands of American Maoism was made with a series of sponsored forums titled "What Road to Building a New Communist Party?" The forums drew 1,200 attendees to a New York City auditorium that spring.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Elbaum |first=Max |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJaDwAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9CWhat+Road+to+Building+a+New+Communist+Party&pg=PA108 |title=Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao and Che |date=2018-02-06 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78663-459-7 |language=en |access-date=2020-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223073024/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJaDwAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9CWhat+Road+to+Building+a+New+Communist+Party&pg=PA108 |archive-date=2021-02-23 |url-status=live}}</ref> The central message of the event revolved around "building an anti-revisionist, non-Trotskyist, non-anarchist party".<ref>{{Cite web |title=MIM Notes |url=https://www.prisoncensorship.info/archive/etext/mn/mn.php?issue=070 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124035301/https://www.prisoncensorship.info/archive/etext/mn/mn.php?issue=070 |archive-date=2021-01-24 |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=www.prisoncensorship.info}}</ref> From this, other forums were held worldwide, covering topics such as "The Role of the Anti-Imperialist Forces in the Antiwar Movement" and "The Question of the Black Nation"—each forum rallying, on average, an audience of 500 activists, and serving as a "barometer of the movement's strength."<ref name=":1" />
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Maoism has fallen out of favor within the Chinese Communist Party, beginning with [[Deng Xiaoping]]'s reforms in 1978. Deng believed that Maoism showed the dangers of "ultra-leftism", manifested in the harm perpetrated by the various mass movements that characterized the Maoist era. In Chinese communism, the term "left" can be considered a euphemism for Maoist policies. However, Deng stated that the revolutionary side of Maoism should be considered separate from the governance side, leading to his famous epithet that Mao was "70% right, 30% wrong".<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 August 2017 |title=70 per cent good, 30 per cent bad |url=http://www.ips-journal.eu/in-focus/the-politics-of-memory/article/show/70-per-cent-good-30-per-cent-bad-2216/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814080617/https://www.ips-journal.eu/in-focus/the-politics-of-memory/article/show/70-per-cent-good-30-per-cent-bad-2216/ |archive-date=2020-08-14 |access-date=2017-11-04}}</ref> Chinese scholars generally agree that Deng's interpretation of Maoism preserves the legitimacy of Communist rule in China but simultaneously criticizes Mao's brand of economic and political governance.
 
Critic Graham Young says that Maoists see Joseph Stalin as the last true socialist leader of the Soviet Union but allows the Maoist assessments of Stalin to vary between the extremely positive and the more ambivalent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Young |first=Graham |year=1982 |title=On Socialist Development and the 'Two Roads' |journal=The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs |publisher=University of Chicago Press |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.2307/2158927 |issn=0156-7365 |jstor=2158927 |s2cid=147645749}}</ref> Some political philosophers, such as Martin Cohen, have seen in Maoism an attempt to combine Confucianism and [[socialism]]—what one such called "a third way between communism and capitalism".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Martin |title=Political philosophy : from Plato to Mao |date=2001 |publisher=Pluto |isbn=0-585-43378-X |publication-place=London}}.</ref>
 
[[Enver Hoxha]] critiqued Maoism from a Marxist–Leninist perspective, arguing that New Democracy halts class struggle<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Enver Hoxha: Imperialism and the Revolution (1979) |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch6.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215063423/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch6.htm |archive-date=15 December 2020 |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=Marxists Internet Archive}}</ref> and allows unrestricted capitalist exploitation,<ref name=":4" /> that the theory of the three worlds is "counter-revolutionary",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enver Hoxha: Imperialism and the Revolution (1979) |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch4.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127064521/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch4.htm |archive-date=27 January 2021 |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=Marxists Internet Archive}}</ref> and questioned Mao's guerilla warfare methods.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enver Hoxha: Imperialism and the Revolution (1979) |url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch3.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101015124/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works/imp_rev/imp_ch3.htm |archive-date=1 November 2020 |access-date=19 September 2019 |website=Marxists Internet Archive}}</ref>
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Some say Mao departed from Leninism not only in his near-total lack of interest in the urban working class but also in his concept of the nature and role of the party. On the other hand, for Mao, this question would always be virtually impossible to answer.<ref>"Meisner, Maurice. Mao's China and After. New York: Free Press, 1999. p. 44.</ref>
 
The implementation of Maoist thought in China was responsible for as many as 70 million deaths during peacetime,<ref>Jung Chang and Jon Halliday,'' Mao: The Untold Story'' (Jonathan Cape, 2005) p. 3.</ref><ref>[http://www.cis.org.au/Policy/autumn06/autumn06_10.pdf policy autumn 06_Edit5.indd<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100216200515/http://www.cis.org.au/Policy/autumn06/autumn06_10.pdf|date=16 February 2010}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=June 2023}} with the [[Cultural Revolution]], the [[Anti-Rightist Campaign]] of 1957–1958,<ref>Teiwes, Frederick C., and Warren Sun. 1999. 'China's road to disaster: Mao, central politicians, and provincial leaders in the unfolding of the great leap forward, 1955-1959''.'' Contemporary China papers. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 52–55.</ref> and the [[Great Leap Forward]]. Some historians have argued that because of Mao's [[land reform]]s during the Great Leap Forward which resulted in [[famine]]s, thirty million perished between 1958 and 1961. By the end of 1961, the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition.<ref>MacFarquhar, Roderick. 1974. The origins of the Cultural Revolution. London: Published for Royal Institute of International Affairs, East Asian Institute of Columbia University and Research Institute on Communist Affairs of Columbia by Oxford University Press. p. 4.</ref> Critiquing discourses on deaths under Maoism, Academics Christian Sorace, Ivan Franeschini, and Nicholas Loubere observe that these discourses attribute responsibility for deaths in manner not typical of discourses on other ideologies, such as liberalism.<ref>{{Cite book |lastlast1=Sorace |firstfirst1=Christian |title=Afterlives of Chinese Communism: Political Concepts from Mao to Xi |last2=Franeschini |first2=Ivan |last3=Loubere |first3=Nicholas |date=2019 |publisher=[[Australian National University Press]] |isbn=978-1-760-46249-9 |location=Acton, Australia |pages=4–5 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>
 
Active campaigns, including party purges and "reeducation", resulted in imprisonment or the execution of those deemed contrary to the implementation of Maoist ideals.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Link |first=Perry |date=18 July 2007 |title=Legacy Of a Maoist Injustice |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/17/AR2007071701486.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106043143/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/17/AR2007071701486.html |archive-date=6 January 2019 |access-date=1 April 2018 |worknewspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> The incidents of destruction of cultural heritage, religion, and art remain controversial. Some Western scholars saw Maoism as specifically engaged in a battle to dominate and subdue nature and was a catastrophe for the environment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shapiro |first=Judith |title=Mao's war against nature: politics and the environment in Revolutionary China |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-41027-7}}.</ref>
 
=== Populism ===
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* ''Marxism in the Chinese Revolution'' by Arif Dirlik.
* Feigon, Lee. ''Mao: A Reinterpretation''. Ivan R. Dee, Publisher.
* {{Cite journal |last=Fields |first=Belden |date=1984 |editor-last=Sayrers |editor-first=Sohnya |title=French Maoism |journal=Social Text |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |volume=The 60s Without Apology |issue=9/10 |pages=148–178 |doi=10.2307/466540 |issn=0164-2472 |jstor=466540}}
* ''Trotskyism and Maoism: Theory and Practise in France and the United States''. A. Belden Fields (1988).
* {{Cite journal |lastlast1=Gregor |firstfirst1=A. James |last2=Chang |first2=Maria Hsia |date=1978 |title=Maoism and Marxism in Comparative Perspective |journal=[[The Review of Politics]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=307–327 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500028527 |issn=0034-6705 |jstor=1407255 |s2cid=145556746}}
* Kang, Liu. "Maoism: Revolutionary globalism for the Third World revisited." ''Comparative Literature Studies'' 52.1 (2015): 12–28. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info:Nit3OGBGmUoJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=1,27&as_ylo=2014&scillfp=8304684927723402367&oi=lle online]{{Dead link|date=November 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* ''Rethinking Mao: Explorations in Mao Zedong's Thought'' by Nick Knight.
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* ''The Function of "China" in Marx, Lenin, and Mao'' by Donald Lowe.
* ''Maoism and the Chinese Revolution: A Critical Introduction'' by Elliott Liu.
* {{Cite book |lastlast1=Marquis |firstfirst1=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Marquis |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300263381/mao-and-markets/ |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26338-1}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Meisner |first=Maurice |author-link=Maurice Meisner |date=January–March 1971 |title=Leninism and Maoism: Some Populist Perspectives on Marxism-Leninism in China |journal=[[The China Quarterly]] |volume=45 |issue=45 |pages=2–36 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000010407 |issn=0305-7410 |jstor=651881 |s2cid=154407265}}
* ''Li Ta-chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism'' by Maurice Meisner.
* ''Marxism, Maoism, and Utopianism: Eight Essays'' by Maurice Meisner.
* ''[[Mao's China and After]]'' by Maurice Mesiner.
* {{Cite journal |lastlast1=Mignon |firstfirst1=Carlos |last2=Fishwick |first2=Adam |date=4 July 2018 |title=Origins and evolution of Maoism in Argentina, 1968–1971 |url=https://dora.dmu.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/2086/14717/Origins%20and%20Evolution%20of%20Maoism%20-%20LH%20FINAL.docx?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |format=docx |journal=Labor History |language=en |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=454–471 |doi=10.1080/0023656X.2018.1422382 |issn=0023-656X |s2cid=148976890 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2086/14717}}
* ''[[Continuity and Rupture|Continuity and Rupture: Philosophy in the Maoist Terrain]]'' by [[J. Moufawad-Paul]] (2017).
* {{Cite journal |last=Ning |first=Wang |date=2015 |title=Introduction: Global Maoism and Cultural Revolutions in the Global Context |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/576080/pdf |journal=Comparative Literature Studies |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.5325/complitstudies.52.1.0001 |issn=1528-4212}}
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