Wikipedia

Afro-Brazilians: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m Added 1 {{Bare URL inline}} tag(s) using a script. For other recently-tagged pages with bare URLs, see Category:Articles with bare URLs for citations from August 2024
No edit summary
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
Line 7:
| image = Brazil Black Alone in 2022.svg
| image_caption = Afro-Brazilians (excluding ''pardos'') in 2022
| total = {{increase}} '''20,656,458''' ([[2022 Brazilian Census|2022 census]])<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Panorama do Censo 2022 |url=https://censo2022.ibge.gov.br/panorama/ |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=Panorama do Censo 2022 |language=pt-BR}}</ref><br />{{increase}} 10.17% of the Brazilian population
| region1 = {{flagicon|São Paulo}} [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]
| pop1 = 3,546,562
Line 21:
| ref4 = <ref name=":1" />
| popplace = &nbsp;&nbsp; Entire country; highest percent found in the [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]] and [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast regions]]
| langs = [[Brazilian Portuguese|Portuguese]]<br />
| rels = {{hlist|[[Roman Catholicism]] | [[Protestantism]] | [[Afro-Brazilian religions]] | [[Non-religious]] | [[Religion in Brazil|others]]}}
| related_groups =
Line 36:
Currently, the [[Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics]] (IBGE) uses five race or color categories in the census: ''[[White Brazilians|branca]]'' (white), ''[[Pardo Brazilians|parda]]'' (brown/mixed), ''preta'' (black), ''[[Asian Brazilians|amarela]]'' (yellow) and ''[[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|indígena]]'' (indigenous). In the 1940 census, respondents were asked for their color or race, and if the answer was not "white", "black", or "yellow", interviewers marked the "color or race" box with a slash. These slashes were later aggregated into the category ''pardo'', which included individuals who identified as ''pardo'', ''moreno'', ''mulato'', ''caboclo'', indigenous, etc. In subsequent censuses, ''pardo'' was formalized as its own category,<ref>IBGE. [https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/periodicos/67/cd_1950_v1_br.pdf Censo Demográfico], p. XVIII.</ref> while Amerindians were designated a separate category only in 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-09 |title=Entenda quais foram os significados de 'pardo' nos últimos 80 anos e como isso dificultou a identificação racial do Brasil |url=https://g1.globo.com/google/amp/economia/noticia/2024/01/09/entenda-quais-foram-os-significados-de-pardo-nos-ultimos-80-anos-e-como-isso-dificultou-a-identificacao-racial-do-brasil.ghtml |access-date=2024-08-20 |website=G1 |language=pt-br}}</ref>
 
''Pardo'' literally translates to [[Brown (racial classification)|brown]], but it can also refer to racial mixture. Activists and scholars associated with the [[Brazilian Black movement]] argue that the inclusion of this category in the census distorts Brazil's demographic depiction. They contend that the ideological privileging of whiteness in Brazilian society leads many Brazilians to ‘deny their blackness’ and ‘lighten’ themselves on the census by choosing the ''pardo'' category. Many black movement actors prefer the term ''negro'', defining it as the sum of individuals who self-classify as brown (''pardo'') and black (''preto'') in the census. Many scholars and social scientists have also combined the brown and black categories in their studies, using terms such as ''Afro-descendente'', Afro-Brazilian, or ''negro''.
 
In 2010, the Brazilian Congress passed the Estatuto da Igualdade Racial (Statute of Racial Equality). The law adopts the racial term ''negro'' to refer to individuals who self-identify as black and brown according to the IBGE race or color classification. Although evidence suggests that blacks and browns have similar socio-economic profiles and indicators of material well-being compared to whites, some researchers note that it is problematic to collapse ''pretos'' and ''pardos'' into a collective black category because a significant part of Brazilians who self-identify as ''pardo'' are of mixed European and indigenous ancestry, not African. A survey conducted in the early 2000s with a sample of 2,364 people from 102 municipalities showed that if the "brown" category were removed and Brazilians had to choose between "black" or "white", the population would appear 68% white and 32% black. In this binary format, 44% of those identifying as brown would choose the white category.<ref name=":77" /> According to a 2000 survey held in [[Rio de Janeiro]], the entire self-reported ''preto'' population reported to have African ancestry. 86% of the self-reported ''pardo'' and 38% of the self-reported white population reported to have African ancestors. It is notable that 14% of the ''pardos'' from Rio de Janeiro said they have no African ancestors. This percentage may be even higher in [[Northern Brazil]], where there was a greater ethnic contribution from Amerindian populations.<ref name="Telles">{{Cite book |author=Edward Eric Telles |title=Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-11866-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceinanotherame0000tell/page/81 81–85] |chapter=Racial Classification |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/raceinanotherame0000tell/page/81}}</ref>
Line 42:
The fusion of ''pretos'' and ''pardos'' into ''negros'' is strengthened by pressure from the Black Movement and tends to be validated by the mainstream media, official bodies such as the [[Institute of Applied Economic Research]] (IPEA), ministries, government departments, and international organizations. However, not all people who identify as ''pardos'' are of African descent, especially in Northern Brazil, and do not identify with Blackness.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv101562.pdf |title=Panorama Nacional e Internacional da Produção de Indicadores Sociais - A investigação étnico-racial pelo IBGE |publisher=Instuto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística |access-date=January 14, 2021 |page=189}}</ref> Sociologist [[Demétrio Magnoli]] considers classifying all ''pretos'' and ''pardos'' as Blacks as an assault on the racial vision of Brazilians.<ref>MAGNOLI, Demétrio. ''Uma Gota de Sangue'', Editora Contexto, 2008, p. 143.</ref> Sociologist [[Simon Schwartzman]] points out that to "substitute ''negro'' for ''preto'', suppressing the ''pardo'' alternative would mean to impose unto Brazil a vision of the racial issue as a dichotomy, similar to that of the United States, which would not be true."<ref>{{cite web|author=Schwartzman|url=http://www.schwartzman.org.br/simon/pdf/origem.pdf |title=Fora de foco: diversidade e identidade étnicas no Brasil |page=16|access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> Members of the black movement in Brazil seek to define their racial identity in political and socioeconomic terms; pardos are grouped with blacks based on shared realities of racial discrimination rather than merely as a result of having "a drop of black blood." Research by Hasenbalg and Silva (1983) indicates that sociological racism is the primary factor uniting blacks and pardos.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Santos |first=Sales Augusto dos |date=July 2006 |title=Who Is Black in Brazil? A Timely or a False Question in Brazilian Race Relations in the Era of Affirmative Action? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0094582x06290122 |journal=Latin American Perspectives |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=30–48 |doi=10.1177/0094582x06290122 |issn=0094-582X}}</ref>
 
Two IBGE surveys, the 1976 National Household Sample Survey (PNAD) and the July 1998 Monthly Employment Survey (PME), have been analyzed to assess how Brazilians think of themselves in racial terms. The results of these surveys show that a great number of racial terms are in use in Brazil,<ref name="grillo">Cristina Grillo, "[http://almanaque.folha.uol.com.br/racismo05.pdf Brasil quer ser chamado de moreno e só 39% se autodefinem como brancos]", ''[[Folha de S. Paulo]]'', 25 June 1995. (PDF) Accessed 19 September 2010.</ref><ref name=":6">José Luiz Petruccelli. ''[https://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/index.php/biblioteca-catalogo?view=detalhes&id=27099 A Cor Denominada]''. (The Identified/Named Color), p. 18 (unavailable online)18–19</ref> but most of these terms are used by small numbers of people. [[Edward Telles]] notes that 95% of the population used only six different terms (''branco, moreno,{{efn|Said of, or someone who has black hair and slightly dark skin; of the colour of ripe wheat. / In Brazil, an ironic or euphemistic designation given to blacks and mulattos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dicionariodoaurelio.com/Moreno|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710123211/http://www.dicionariodoaurelio.com/Moreno|archive-date=10 July 2011|title=Moreno|publisher=Dicionario do Aurelio }}</ref>}} pardo, moreno-claro, preto'' and ''negro''). Petruccelli shows that the seven most common responses (the above plus ''amarela'') sum up 97% of responses, and the 10 most common (the previous plus ''mulata'', ''clara'', and ''morena-escura'' – dark brunette) make 99%.<ref name="José Luiz Petruccelli p. 19:6">José Luiz Petruccelli. ''A Cor Denominada'', p. 19 (unavailable online).</ref> Racial classifications in Brazil are based primarily on skin color and on other physical characteristics such as facial features, hair texture, etc.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal | pmc=140919 | pmid=12509516 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0126614100 | volume=100 | issue=1 | title=Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians | date=January 2003 | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | pages=177–82 | last1 = Parra | first1 = FC | last2 = Amado | first2 = RC | last3 = Lambertucci | first3 = JR | last4 = Rocha | first4 = J | last5 = Antunes | first5 = CM | last6 = Pena | first6 = SD| bibcode=2003PNAS..100..177P | doi-access=free }} 2nd paragraph: ''Color (in Portuguese, cor) denotes the Brazilian equivalent of the English term race (raça) and is based on a complex phenotypic evaluation that takes into account, besides skin pigmentation, hair type, nose shape, and lip shape''</ref> This is a poor scientific indication of ancestry, because only a few genes are responsible for someone's skin color: a person who is considered White may have more African ancestry than a person who is considered Black, and vice versa.<ref name="BBC delves into Brazilians' roots">Silvia Salek, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6284806.stm "BBC delves into Brazilians' roots"], BBC Brasil, 10 July 2007, accessed 13 July 2009.</ref> But, as race is a social construct, these classifications relate to how people are perceived and perceive themselves in society. In Brazil, class and economic status also affect how individuals are perceived.
 
In Brazil it is possible for two siblings of different colors to be classified as people of different races. Children who are born to a black mother and a European father would be classified as black if their features read more as African, and classified as white if their features appeared more European. The Brazilian emphasis on physical appearance rather than ancestry is evident from a large survey in which less than 10% of Brazilian black individuals cited Africa as one of their origins when allowed to provide multiple responses.<ref name=":3" /> In the July 1998 PME, the categories ''Afro-Brasileiro'' ("Afro-Brazilian") and ''Africano Brasileiro'' ("African Brazilian") were not used at all; the category ''Africano'' ("African") was used by 0.004% of the respondents.<ref name="José Luis Petruccelli p. 43">José Luiz Petruccelli. A Cor Denominada. Anexo 1. p. 43 (unavailable online)</ref> In the 1976 PNAD, none of these terms was used even once.<ref name="grillo" /><ref name="Telles2004">{{cite book |last=Telles |first=Edward Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwJoyyXm7ZkC&pg=PA80 |title=Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-691-11866-6 |pages=80–85}}</ref>
Line 108:
!colspan="2"|Evolution of the Brazilian population<br />according skin color: 1872–1991<br />
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[File:Evolução da população brasileira conforme a cor (1872-1991).jpg|thumb|{{center|Population growth<br />White people in white color<br />Multi-racial and indigenous''Pardos'' in black<br />Black in yellow<br />Asians are very few<ref name="reis">REIS, João José. "Presença Negra: conflitos e encontros". In ''Brasil: 500 anos de povoamento''. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE, 2000. p. 94 apud {{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/tabelas/populacao_cor.htm |title=Página 404 &#124; IBGE :: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística |access-date=2009-09-10 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090329071405/http://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/tabelas/populacao_cor.htm |archive-date=29 March 2009}} (retrieved 22 August 2008). Notice how the source groups Amerindians and "pardos", not "pardos" and Blacks.{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/tabelas/populacao_cor.htm |title=Página 404 &#124; IBGE :: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística |access-date=2009-09-10 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531140352/http://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/tabelas/populacao_cor.htm |archive-date=31 May 2009}}</ref>}}]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[File:Evolução da população brasileira conforme a cor - percentuais (1872-1991).jpg|thumb|{{center|Percentual in overall population<br />White people in white<br />Multi-racial and indigenous in yellow<br />Black in black<br />Asians are very few<ref name="reis"/>}}]]
Line 302:
 
==== By municipality ====
{{as of|2022}}, the city of [[São Paulo]] has the largest self-identified Black population in Brazil, with 1,160,073 individuals identifying as ''pretos''. It is followed by [[Rio de Janeiro]] with 968,428, [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]] with 825,509, [[Belo Horizonte]] with 312,920, [[Brasília]] with 301,765, [[Recife]] with 182,546, [[Feira de Santana]] with 180,190, [[Fortaleza]] with 171,018, [[Porto Alegre]] with 168,196, and [[São Luís, Maranhão|São Luís]] with 167,885.
 
The 2022 census revealed that the brown population was the majority in 3,245 [[Municipalities of Brazil|municipalities]] (58.3% of the total), while the self-identified black population was the majority in nine. More than half of the municipalities with a brown majority and all with a black majority are in the Northeast region of Brazil.<ref name=":4" /> With over 80% of its population being Afro-descendant, Salvador is considered the blackest city in the world outside the African continent.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-12 |title=IBGE will release results for color or race of 2022 Census in Salvador {{!}} News Agency |url=https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-news/2184-news-agency/news/38644-ibge-will-release-results-for-color-or-race-of-2022-census-in-salvador# |access-date=2024-08-21 |website=Agência de Notícias - IBGE |language=en-GB}}</ref>
 
==== ''Quilombos'' ====
Line 315:
|+ Genetic origin of Afro-Brazilian population (Perc.% rounded values)
|-
! scope="col" | Line || scope="col" | Origin || scope="col" style="text-align:center; width:120px;"|''Negros''<br />(Black)<ref name="afrobras"/>
|-
| rowspan="3"| Maternal<br />([[mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]]) || native African || style="text-align:right;" | 85%
|-
| Europe || style="text-align:right;" | 2.5%
Line 323:
| Native Brazilian || style="text-align:right;" | 12.5%
|-
| rowspan="3"| Paternal<br />([[Y chromosome]]) || native African || style="text-align:right;"| 48%
|-
| Europe || style="text-align:right;"| 50%
Line 362:
|black||N.S.||N.S.||N.S
|}
According to another study conducted at a school in the poor periphery of Rio de Janeiro, autosomal DNA study (from 2009), the "pardos" there were found to be on average over 80% European, and the "whites" were found out to carry very little Amerindian and/or African admixtures. In general, the test results showed that European ancestry is far more important than the students thought it would be. The "blacks" (pretos) of the periphery of Rio de Janeiro, according to this study, thought of themselves as predominantly African before the study and yet they turned out ''predominantly European'' (at 52%), the African contribution at 41% and the Native American 7%.<ref name="meionews.com.br">{{cite web |date=27 November 2009 |title=Negros e pardos do Rio têm mais genes europeus do que imaginam, segundo estudo |trans-title=Blacks and pardos of Rio have more European genes than they know, according to a study |url=http://www.meionews.com.br/index.php/noticias/21-estado-do-rio/4607-negros-e-pardos-do-rio-tem-mais-genes-europeus-do-que-imaginam-segundo-estudo.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706153557/http://www.meionews.com.br/index.php/noticias/21-estado-do-rio/4607-negros-e-pardos-do-rio-tem-mais-genes-europeus-do-que-imaginam-segundo-estudo.html |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=21 July 2012 |publisher=Meionews.com.br |language=pt}}</ref><ref name="www4.ensp.fiocruz.br">{{cite web|url=http://www4.ensp.fiocruz.br/informe/anexos/ric.pdf|title=?Unknown|access-date=23 August 2011}}{{dead link|date=August 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> According to another autosomal DNA study, those who identified as Whites in Rio de Janeiro turned out to have 86.4%&nbsp;– and self identified pardos 68.1%&nbsp;– European ancestry on average (autosomal). ''Pretos'' were found out to have on average 41.8% European ancestry.<ref name="laboratoriogene"/>
 
An autosomal study from 2011 has also concluded that European ancestry is the predominant ancestry in Brazil, accounting for nearly 70% of the ancestry of the population. European ancestry ranged from 60.6% in the Northeast to 77.7% in the South.<ref name="Pena et al 2011"/> The 2011 autosomal study samples came from blood donors,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amigodoador.com.br/estatisticas.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206213335/http://www.amigodoador.com.br/estatisticas.html|archive-date=6 February 2010 |title=Profile of the Brazilian blood donor |publisher=Amigodoador.com.br |access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> public health personnel and health students.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alves-Silva |first1=Juliana |last2=da Silva Santos |first2=Magda |last3=Guimarães |first3=Pedro E.M. |last4=Ferreira |first4=Alessandro C.S. |last5=Bandelt |first5=Hans-Jürgen |last6=Pena |first6=Sérgio D.J. |last7=Prado |first7=Vania Ferreira |title=The Ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA Lineages |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=August 2000 |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=444–461 |doi=10.1086/303004 |pmid=10873790 |pmc=1287189 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cienciahoje.uol.com.br/noticias/2011/02/nossa-heranca-europeia/?searchterm=Pena|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927160218/http://cienciahoje.uol.com.br/noticias/2011/02/nossa-heranca-europeia/?searchterm=Pena|archive-date=27 September 2011 |title=Nossa herança europeia&nbsp;— |language= pt |publisher=Cienciahoje.uol.com.br |access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> Brazilian homogeneity is, therefore, greater within regions than between them:
Line 429:
|}
 
According to another study from 2008, by the University of Brasília, European ancestry dominates in the whole of Brazil in all regions, accounting for 65,90% of the heritage of the population, followed by the African contribution (24,80%) and the Native American (9,3%).<ref>{{cite web|author=Niede Maria de Oliveira Godinho|url=http://bdtd.bce.unb.br/tedesimplificado/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=3873|title=O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações Latino-Americanas|trans-title=The impact of migration on the genetic makeup of Latin American populations|language=pt|publisher=University of Brazil, Institute of Biological Sciences|date=2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162307/http://bdtd.bce.unb.br/tedesimplificado/tde_arquivos/36/TDE-2008-08-21T100337Z-3085/Publico/2008_NeideMOGodinho.pdf|archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> According to an autosomal DNA study (from 2003) focused on the composition of the Brazilian population as a whole, "European contribution [...] is highest in the South (81% to 82%), and lowest in the North (68% to 71%). The African component is lowest in the South (11%), while the highest values are found in the Southeast (18%–20%). Extreme values for the Amerindian fraction were found in the South and Southeast (7%–8%) and North (17%–18%)". The researchers were cautious with the results as their samples came from paternity test takers which may have skewed the results partly.<ref name="Callegari-JacquesGrattapaglia2003">{{cite journal |last1=Callegari-Jacques |first1=Sidia M. |last2=Grattapaglia |first2=Dario |last3=Salzano |first3=Francisco M. |last4=Salamoni |first4=Sabrina P. |last5=Crossetti |first5=Shaiane G. |last6=Ferreira |first6=Márcio E. |last7=Hutz |first7=Mara H. |title=Historical genetics: Spatiotemporal analysis of the formation of the Brazilian population |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=November 2003 |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=824–834 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.10217 |pmid=14595874 |s2cid=34610130 }}</ref> Several other older studies have suggested that European ancestry is the main component in all Brazilian regions. Salzano (1997) reported 51% European, 36% African, and 13% Amerindian ancestry for the Northeastern population. Santos and Guerreiro (1995) found 47% European, 12% African, and 41% Amerindian ancestry in the north. In the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, Dornelles et al. (1999) calculated 82% European, 7% African, and 11% Amerindian ancestries. Krieger et al. (1965) studied a Northeastern Brazilian population living in São Paulo and found that whites had 18% African and 12% Amerindian genetic contribution, while blacks had 28% European and 5% Amerindian genetic contribution. These Amerindian estimates, like others, have limitations. Compared to earlier studies, the 2002 study findings showed higher levels of bidirectional admixture between Africans and non-Africans.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=140919|title=Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians|year=2003|volume=100|issue=1|pmid=12509516|last1=Parra|first1=FC|last2=Amado|first2=RC|last3=Lambertucci|first3=JR|last4=Rocha|first4=J|last5=Antunes|first5=CM|last6=Pena|first6=SD|pages=177–82|doi=10.1073/pnas.0126614100|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|bibcode=2003PNAS..100..177P|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
Several other older studies have suggested that European ancestry is the main component in all Brazilian regions. A study from 1965, "Methods of Analysis of a Hybrid Population" (''Human Biology'', vol. 37, no. 1), led by the geneticists D. F. Roberts and R. W. Hiorns, found out the average the Northeastern Brazilian to be predominantly European in ancestry (65%), with minor but important African and Native American contributions (25% and 9%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prossiga.bvgf.fgf.org.br/portugues/obra/opusculos/brasileiro_nacional.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020423215610/http://prossiga.bvgf.fgf.org.br/portugues/obra/opusculos/brasileiro_nacional.html|archive-date=23 April 2002 |title=BVGF – A Obra / OpЩsculos |publisher=Prossiga.bvgf.fgf.org.br |access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> Salzano (1997) reported 51% European, 36% African, and 13% Amerindian ancestry for the Northeastern population. Santos and Guerreiro (1995) found 47% European, 12% African, and 41% Amerindian ancestry in the north. In the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, Dornelles et al. (1999) calculated 82% European, 7% African, and 11% Amerindian ancestries. Krieger et al. (1965) studied a Northeastern Brazilian population living in São Paulo and found that whites had 18% African and 12% Amerindian genetic contribution, while blacks had 28% European and 5% Amerindian genetic contribution. These Amerindian estimates, like others, have limitations. Compared to earlier studies, the 2002 study findings showed higher levels of bidirectional admixture between Africans and non-Africans.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=140919|title=Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians|year=2003|volume=100|issue=1|pmid=12509516|last1=Parra|first1=FC|last2=Amado|first2=RC|last3=Lambertucci|first3=JR|last4=Rocha|first4=J|last5=Antunes|first5=CM|last6=Pena|first6=SD|pages=177–82|doi=10.1073/pnas.0126614100|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|bibcode=2003PNAS..100..177P|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 
In 2007 [[BBC Brasil]] launched the project ''Raízes Afro-Brasileiras'' (Afro-Brazilian Roots), in which they analyzed the genetic ancestry of nine famous Brazilian blacks and "pardos". Three tests were based on analysis of different parts of their DNA: an examination of paternal ancestry, maternal ancestry and the genomic ancestry, allowing to estimate the percentage of African, European and Amerindian genes in the composition of an individual.<ref name="BBC delves into Brazilians' roots" /> Of the nine people analyzed, three had more European ancestry than African, while the other six people had more African ancestry, with varying degrees of European and Amerindian admixture. The African admixture varied from 19.5% in actress {{interlanguage link|Ildi Silva|pt|vertical-align=sup}} to 99.3% in singer [[Milton Nascimento]]. The European admixture varied from 0.4% in Nascimento to 70% in Silva. The Amerindian admixture from 0.3% in Nascimento to 25.4% in football player Obina.
Line 448 ⟶ 446:
== Culture ==
{{Main|Afro-Brazilian culture}}
Carnival in Brazil is the traditional combination of a Roman Catholic festival with the lively celebrations of people of African ancestry. It evolved principally in urban coastal areas, notably in the former plantation zones along the coast between Recife and Rio de Janeiro. Salvador’s Carnival is less highly commercialized and has a stronger African component.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Brazil/Cultural-life</ref>
 
===Religion===
Line 463 ⟶ 461:
{{Main|Brazilian cuisine}}
The influence of [[African cuisine]] in Brazil is expressed in a wide variety of dishes. In the northeastern state of [[Bahia]], an exquisite cuisine evolved when cooks improvised on [[African cuisine|African]] and traditional [[Portuguese cuisine|Portuguese dishes]] using locally available ingredients. Typical dishes include [[Vatapá]] and [[Moqueca]], both with [[seafood]] and dendê [[palm oil]] ({{lang-pt|Azeite de Dendê}}). This heavy oil extracted from the fruits of an African palm tree is one of the basic ingredients in Bahian or Afro-Brazilian cuisine, adding flavor and bright orange color to foods. There is no equivalent substitute, but it is available in markets specializing in Brazilian or African imports.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
 
[[Acarajé]] is a dish made from peeled [[black-eyed pea]]s formed into a ball and then deep-fried in ''dendê'' ([[palm oil]]). It is found in [[Nigerian cuisine|Nigerian]] and [[Brazilian cuisine]]. The dish is traditionally encountered in Brazil's northeastern state of [[Bahia]], especially in the city of [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], often as [[street food]], and is also found in most parts of [[Nigeria]], [[Ghana]] and the Republic of [[Benin]].{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}▼
The traditional national dish of Brazil is the [[Feijoada]], a mixture of up to 20 different dried, salted, or smoked meats simmered in a stew of black beans and often served with rice, vegetables, and other foods.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Brazil/Cultural-life {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref>
[[Feijoada]] was introduced from Portugal and has been one of the national dishes of for over 300 years. African slaves built upon its basic ingredients, but substituting more expensive ingredients with cheap ones such as pigs ears, feet and tail, beans and manioc flour.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Basically a mixture of [[Black turtle bean|black beans]], [[pork]] and [[farofa]] (lightly roasted coarse cassava [[Cassava|manioc]] flour), the dish has been adopted by other cultures, and there are hundreds of ways to make it.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
 
▲[[Acarajé]] is a dish made from peeled [[black-eyed pea]]s formed into a ball and then deep-fried in ''dendê'' ([[palm oil]]). It is found in [[Nigerian cuisine|Nigerian]] and [[Brazilian cuisine]]. The dish is traditionally encountered in Brazil's northeastern state of [[Bahia]], especially in the city of [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], often as [[street food]], and is also found in most parts of [[Nigeria]], [[Ghana]] and the Republic of [[Benin]].{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
 
===Sports and dances===
[[Capoeira]] is a martial art developed initially by enslaved Africans who came predominantly from Angola or Mozambique to Brazil, starting in the [[Colonial Brazil|colonial period]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.princeton.edu/~capoeira/ln_abt.html|title=About Capoeira|website=princeton.edu|access-date=2018-01-10}}</ref> Appeared in [[Palmares (quilombo)|Quilombo dos Palmares]], located in the [[Captaincy of Pernambuco]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cultura.gov.br/o-dia-a-dia-da-cultura/-/asset_publisher/waaE236Oves2/content/estado-e-exaltado-em-festa-nacional-161433/10883|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117151214/http://www.cultura.gov.br/o-dia-a-dia-da-cultura/-/asset_publisher/waaE236Oves2/content/estado-e-exaltado-em-festa-nacional-161433/10883|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 November 2018|title=Estado é exaltado em festa nacional|publisher=Ministério da Cultura|language=pt|access-date=18 June 2019}}</ref> Documents, legends and literature of Brazil record this practice, especially in the port of [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], a city in which black Africans were discriminated against by colonial society and seen as villains. Despite being reprimanded, Africans continued to practice this martial art, on the pretext that it was just a dance. Until the present, Capoeira confuses dance and fight, and is an important part of the [[culture of Brazil]]. It is marked by deft, tricky movements often played on the ground or completely inverted.<ref name="Capoeira: the dance of war">{{cite web |title=Capoeira: the dance of war |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/Capoeira-the-dance-of-war.376183 |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=Times of Malta |date=17 July 2011}}</ref> It also has a strong acrobatic component in some versions<ref name="Capoeira: the dance of war"/> and is always played with music. Recently, the sport has been popularized by Capoeira performed in various computer games and movies, and Capoeira music has been featured in modern pop music.
 
===Music===
Line 489 ⟶ 484:
}}
 
Many Afro-Brazilians have been prominent in Brazilian society, especially in the arts, music and sports. Many important figures ofin Brazilian literature have been people of African-descendant descent, such as [[Machado de Assis]], widely regarded as the greatest writer of Brazilian literature. Some of these individuals include [[Cruz e Souza|João da Cruz e Souza]],<ref name="Alves2015">{{cite book|last=Farias Alves|first=Uelington|title=Cruz e Sousa: Dante negro do Brasil|trans-title=Cruz e Souza: Brazil's black Dante|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCLWCwAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Pallas editora|language=pt|isbn=978-85-347-0580-6}}</ref> symbolist poet, [[João do Rio]], chronicler, [[Maria Firmina dos Reis]], abolitionist and author, [[José do Patrocínio]], journalist, among others.▼
Many Afro-Brazilians have been prominent in Brazilian society, particularly in the arts, music and sports.
 
▲Many important figures of Brazilian literature have been people of African-descendant, such as [[Machado de Assis]], widely regarded as the greatest writer of Brazilian literature. Some of these individuals include [[Cruz e Souza|João da Cruz e Souza]],<ref name="Alves2015">{{cite book|last=Farias Alves|first=Uelington|title=Cruz e Sousa: Dante negro do Brasil|trans-title=Cruz e Souza: Brazil's black Dante|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCLWCwAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Pallas editora|language=pt|isbn=978-85-347-0580-6}}</ref> symbolist poet, [[João do Rio]], chronicler, [[Maria Firmina dos Reis]], abolitionist and author, [[José do Patrocínio]], journalist, among others.
 
In popular music, the talents of Afro-Brazilians have found fertile ground for their development. Masters of samba, [[Pixinguinha]],<ref>{{cite web|first=Hermínio|last=Bello de Carvalho|author-link=Hermínio Bello de Carvalho|url=http://www.dc.itamaraty.gov.br/imagens-e-textos/revista-textos-do-brasil/portugues/revista11-mat5.pdf|title=São Pixinguinha|language=pt|publisher=dc.itamaraty.gov.br|page=52|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904173145/http://www.dc.itamaraty.gov.br/imagens-e-textos/revista-textos-do-brasil/portugues/revista11-mat5.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2014}}</ref> [[Cartola]],<ref>Maria Angela Pavan and Francisco das Chagas Fernandes Santiago Júnior. [http://www.intercom.org.br/papers/nacionais/2009/resumos/R4-2686-1.pdf Música para os poros: Cartola e a memória do Samba Negro, Verde e Rosa]. p. 11.</ref> [[Lupicínio Rodrigues]],<ref name="SilvaSantos2008">{{cite book|editor1=Gilberto Ferreira da Silva|editor2=José António dos Santos|editor3=Luiz Carlos da Cunha Carneiro|title=RS negro: cartografias sobre a produção do conhecimento|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmnrjieFX08C&pg=PA111|year=2008|publisher=EDIPUCRS|language=pt|isbn=978-85-7430-742-8|page=111}}</ref> [[Geraldo Pereira (musician)|Geraldo Pereira]],<ref>Recanto das Palavras. [https://recantodaspalavras.wordpress.com/2008/04/28/falsa-baiana-geraldo-pereira-samba-sincopado-e-bossa-nova/ Falsa Baiana&nbsp;– Geraldo Pereira, samba sincopado e bossa nova]. Third paragraph.</ref> [[Wilson Moreira]],<ref>Augusto César de Lima, [http://academiadosamba.com.br/monografias/augustocesar.pdf "Escola dá samba? O que têm a dizer os compositores do bairro de Oswaldo Cruz e da Portela"], p. 43.</ref> and of [[Música popular brasileira|MPB]], [[Milton Nascimento]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://belezadaraca.webnode.com.br/news/milton-nascimento/ |title=Beleza da Raça |publisher=Belezadaraca.webnode.com.br |access-date=21 July 2012}}</ref> [[Jorge Ben Jor]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rp-bahia.com.br/biblioteca/inter-nor2007/resumos/R0538-1.pdf |title=A Gênese do Samba-Rock: Por um Mapeamento Genealógico do Gênero |author=Luciana Xavier de Oliveira |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706154221/http://www.rp-bahia.com.br/biblioteca/inter-nor2007/resumos/R0538-1.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 }}</ref> [[Gilberto Gil]],<ref name="Oliveira2009"/>{{rp|37}} have built the Brazilian musical identity.
 
Another field where Afro-Brazilians have excelled is [[Association football|football]]: [[Pelé]],<ref name="Oliveira2009">{{cite book|last=de Oliveira|first=Ely|title=O dia Nacional da Consciência Negra & Adão e Eva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nm6RN1q3Eo0C|year=2009|publisher=Biblioteca24horas, Seven System Internacional Ltda.|language=pt|isbn=978-85-7893-425-5}}</ref>{{rp|38}} [[Garrincha]],<ref name="Rodrigues2003">{{cite book|author=Mário Rodrigues|title=O negro no futebol brasileiro|trans-title=Blacks in Brazilian football|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n3n63FoJQsC&pg=PA16|edition=4th|year=2003|publisher=Mauad Editora Ltda|language=pt|isbn=978-85-7478-096-2|page=16}}</ref> right-forward [[Leônidas da Silva]],<ref name="Rodrigues2003"/> nicknamed "Black Diamond", are well known historic names of Brazilian football; [[Ronaldinho]],<ref name="Lopes2004"/> [[Romário]],<ref name="Lopes2004"/>{{rp|585}} [[Dida (footballer, born 1973)|Dida]], [[Fernandinho (footballer, born May 1985)|Fernandinho]], [[Vinícius Júnior]] and many others continue this tradition.
 
Important athletes in other sports include [[NBA]] players, [[Nenê]] and [[Leandro Barbosa]], nicknamed "The Brazilian Blur", referring to his speed.<ref name="sixthman">Associated Press, [http://www.espn.com.au/nba/news/story?id=2846672 "Barbosa runs away with Sixth Man Award"], ESPN, 23 April 2007.</ref> [[João Carlos de Oliveira]]<ref>Mariana Kneipp. [http://www.plugmania.com.br/ler-2138-esportes-ha+dez+anos++o+brasil+perdia+joao+do+pulo.html Há dez anos, o Brasil perdia João do Pulo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706153917/http://www.plugmania.com.br/ler-2138-esportes-ha+dez+anos++o+brasil+perdia+joao+do+pulo.html |date=6 July 2011 }}. In ''Plugmania''.</ref> [[Jadel Gregório]], [[Nelson Prudêncio]],<ref name="Lopes2004">{{cite book|first=Nei|last=Lopes|author-link=Nei Lopes|title=Enciclopédia Brasileira da Diáspora Africana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88KI6pZyjDwC|year=2004|publisher=Selo Negro|isbn=978-85-87478-21-4|trans-title=Brazilian Encyclopaedia of the African Diaspora}}</ref>{{rp|545}} [[Adhemar da Silva]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acordacultura.org.br/main.asp?View={FAEA4FC3-067D-4AE9-A1D2-B41351BB082C}&Team=&params=itemID={27FC1830-9B44-4111-8A2C-670B270B0F4E}%3B&UIPartUID={6D3916B0-51FB-11DA-8CD6-0800200C9A66} |title=Episódio Adhemar Ferreira da Silva (1927–2001) |trans-title=Episode Adhemar Ferreira da Silva (1927–2001) |language=pt |publisher=Futura Channel – Episode Details |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112101718/http://www.acordacultura.org.br/main.asp?View=%7BFAEA4FC3-067D-4AE9-A1D2-B41351BB082C%7D&Team=&params=itemID%3D%7B27FC1830-9B44-4111-8A2C-670B270B0F4E%7D%3B&UIPartUID=%7B6D3916B0-51FB-11DA-8CD6-0800200C9A66%7D |archive-date=12 November 2009 }}</ref>
Line 501 ⟶ 494:
Particularly important among sports is [[capoeira]], itself a creation of Black Brazilians; important "Mestres" (masters) include [[Mestre Amen Santo]], [[Mestre Bimba]],<ref>Lopes. ''Enciclopédia brasileira da diáspora africana'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=88KI6pZyjDwC&pg=PA120 p. 120.]</ref> [[Mestre Cobra Mansa]], [[Mestre João Grande]], [[Mestre João Pequeno]], [[Mestre Moraes]], [[Mestre Pastinha]],<ref>Lopes, ''Enciclopédia brasileira da diáspora africana'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=88KI6pZyjDwC&pg=PA516 p. 516.]</ref> [[Mestre Pé de Chumbo]].
 
Since the end of the 1980s, the political participation of Afro-Brazilians has increased. Some important politicians include former mayor of São Paulo [[Celso Pitta]],<ref name="Oliveira2009"/>{{rp|37}} former governor of Rio Grande do Sul, [[Alceu Collares]],<ref name="Lopes2004"/>{{rp|197}} former governor of Espírito Santo, [[Albuíno Cunha de Azeredo|Albuíno Azeredo]].<ref name="Lopes2004"/>{{rp|84}} One ofOf the 170 justices ofwho have served on the [[Supreme Federal Court]], [[Joaquimsince Barbosa]],<refits name="Oliveira2009"/>{{rp|37}}inception isduring Black.the Thereimperial isperiod, only onethree Blackhave Justicebeen atBlack, thewith TST[[Joaquim (TribunalBarbosa]] Superiorbeing dothe Trabalho)most who was also Ministerrecent, [[Carlosserving Albertofrom Reis2003 deto Paula]]2014.
 
Afro-Brazilians have also excelled as actors, such as [[Lázaro Ramos]],<ref name="Lopes2004"/>{{rp|558}} [[Ruth de Souza]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geledes.org.br/ruth-de-souza-a-nossa-estrela-maior/#gs.u9gRm6Y|title=Ruth de Souza – A nossa estrela maior|trans-title=Ruth de Souza – Our biggest star|language=pt|publisher=Geledés Black Women's Institute|date=30 July 2010|access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref> [[Lourdes de Oliveira]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55qlWjbs14sC&q=Lourdes+de+Oliveira&pg=PA115|title=The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made|date=21 February 2004|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9780312326111|via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Zózimo Bulbul]],<ref name=globo>{{cite news |title=Morre o ator e cineasta Zózimo Bulbul, aos 75 anos |url=http://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/morre-ator-cineasta-zozimo-bulbul-aos-75-anos-7385481 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124205712/http://oglobo.globo.com/cultura/morre-ator-cineasta-zozimo-bulbul-aos-75-anos-7385481 |archive-date=24 January 2013 |work= [[O Globo]] |date=24 January 2013 |access-date=3 February 2013}}</ref> [[Milton Gonçalves]],<ref name="Lopes2004"/>{{rp|302}} [[Mussum]], [[Zezé Motta]],<ref name="Lopes2004"/> and as dancers, like [[Isa Soares]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fernández Bravo |first1=Nicolás |title=Dictionary of Caribbean and Afro–Latin American Biography |title-link=Dictionary of Caribbean and Afro-Latin American Biography |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-93580-2 |editor1-last=Knight |editor1-first=Franklin W. |location=Oxford, England |chapter=Soares, Isa (1953– ), Afro-Brazilian dancer, dance instructor, and activist |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199935796.001.0001 |editor2-last=Gates |editor2-first=Henry Louis Jr.}}{{subscription required|via=[http://www.oxfordreference.com/ Oxford University Press]'s Reference Online}}</ref>
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Brazilians"