View source for Koku

{{short description|Chinese-based Japanese unit of volume}}
{{for multi|the unit of time written ''koku'' {{zh|labels=no|刻}}|Traditional Chinese timekeeping|the <!--13th century -->shakuhachi song|Kokū|the fictional giant|Tom Swift}}
{{merge to|Dan (volume)|discuss=Talk:Dan (volume)#Merge proposal|date=November 2024}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2019}}
{{Italic title|reason=[[:Category:Japanese words and phrases]]}}
The {{Nihongo3||斛|'''''koku'''''}} is a Chinese-based [[Japanese unit]] of volume. 1 koku is equivalent to 10 {{nihongo|''[[to (unit)|to]]''|[[:ja:斗|斗]]}} or approximately {{convert|180|L}},{{Efn|{{convert|180|L|impbsh USbsh}}}}<ref name=hayek&horiuchi/> or about {{Convert|150|kg|lbs}}<!-- based on the cargo ship numbers below --> of rice. It converts, in turn, to 100 [[Shō (unit)|shō]] and 1000 [[Ge (unit)#Japan|gō]].<ref name=cardarelli/> One ''gō'' is the traditional volume of a single serving of rice (before cooking), used to this day for the plastic measuring cup that is supplied with commercial Japanese [[rice cookers]].<ref name=andoh/>

The ''koku'' in Japan was typically used as a [[dry measure]]. The amount of rice production measured in ''koku'' was the metric by which the magnitude of a [[feudal domain]] (''[[Han system|han]]'') was evaluated.<ref name=curtin/> A feudal lord was only considered ''[[daimyō]]'' class when his domain amounted to at least 10,000 ''koku''.<ref name=curtin/> As a [[rule of thumb]], one ''koku'' was considered a sufficient quantity of [[rice]] to feed one person for one year.<ref name=francks/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|A ''koku'' of brown rice (unpolished rice) weighs about {{convert|150|kg|lb}}<!--330-->.<ref name=francks/><ref name=rose/> White rice (milled rice, polished rice) weighs about the same (150g per gō).<ref name="yamaguchi"/> But 1 koku of brown rice would only yield 0.91 koku of milled rice (white rice)<ref name=rose/> after processing ({{nihongo|''seimai''|[[:ja:精米|精米]]}}), i.e., removing the [[rice bran]]). }}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Apparently 1.8 ''koku'' (1 ''koku'' and 8 ''to'') was actually required for nourishment by a man each year, according to the [[conventional wisdom]] documented in a "home code" ({{illm|kakun{{!}}''kakun''|ja|家訓}}) of a certain merchant family in the Edo period.<ref name=ramseyer/>}}

The Chinese equivalent or cognate unit for capacity is the '''''shi''''' or '''''dan''''' ({{zh|p=shí, dàn|w=shih, tan|t=石}}) also known as '''''hu''''' ({{zh|p=hú|w=hu|t=斛|labels=no}}), now approximately 103 litres but historically about {{convert|59.44|L}}.

== Chinese equivalent ==
The Chinese '''''dan''''' is equal to 10 ''dou'' ({{zh|p=dǒu|w=tou|t=斗|labels=no}}) "[[Peck|pecks]]", 100 ''sheng'' ({{zh|p=shēng|w=sheng|t=升|labels=no}}) "[[Pint|pints]]".<ref name=wittfogel&feng/> While the current ''dan'' is 103 litres in volume,<ref name=perdue/> the ''dan'' of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) period equalled 59.44 litres.<ref name=wittfogel&feng/>

== Modern unit ==
The exact modern {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} is calculated to be 180.39 litres, 100 times the capacity of a modern {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Shō (unit)|shō]]}}.{{Refn|name=by-def|By definition. 1 {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} {{=}} 10 {{lang|ja-Latn|to}} {{=}} 100 {{lang|ja-Latn|shō}}.<ref name=cardarelli/>}}{{Efn|Each {{lang|ja-Latn|shō}} was determined to measure 1803.9 cubic centimetres ([[millilitres]]){{sfnp|Midorikawa|2012|page=99}} or 1.803906 litres.<ref name=japon-expo-1878/>}} This modern {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} is essentially defined to be the same as the {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} from the [[Edo period]] (1600–1868),{{Efn|The Edo Period {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} was roughly 180 litres or 5 bushels.<ref name=sawada/>}} namely 100 times the {{lang|ja-Latn|shō}} equal to 64827 cubic {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}} in the traditional {{lang|ja-Latn|[[shakkanhō]]}} measuring system.{{Refn|{{illm|Weights and Measures Act (Japan)|ja|度量衡法|display=1}} (1891).<ref name=nihonshakai-jii/>}}

=== Origin of the modern unit ===
The {{nihongo|''kyō-masu''|[[:ja:京枡|京枡]]||"Kyoto {{lang|ja-Latn|[[masu (measurement)|masu]]}}"}}, the semi-official one {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Shō (unit)|shō]]}} measuring box since the late 16th century under Daimyo [[Nobunaga]],<ref name=yamamura/> began to be made in a different (larger) size in the early Edo period, sometime during the 1620s.{{sfnp|Amano|1979|page=10–13}} Its dimensions, given in the traditional Japanese {{lang|ja-Latn|[[shaku (unit)|shaku]]}} length unit system, were 4 {{lang|ja-Latn|[[Cun (unit)|sun]]}} 9 {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}} square times 2 {{lang|ja-Latn|sun}} 7 {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}} depth.{{Efn|{{lang|ja-Latn|sun}} {{=}} {{frac|10}}  {{lang|ja-Latn|shaku}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}} {{=}} {{frac|100}} {{lang|ja-Latn|shaku}} respectively.}}{{sfnp|Amano|1979|page=10–13}}<ref name=japon-expo-1878/> Its volume, which could be calculated by multiplication was:{{r|by-def}}

<blockquote>
1 {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} = 100 {{lang|ja-Latn|shō}} = 100 × (49 {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}} × 49 {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}} × 27 {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}}) = 100 × 64,827 cubic {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}}{{sfnp|Amano|1979|page=10–13}}{{Efn|Also {{=}}100 × 64.827 cubic {{lang|ja-Latn|sun}}.<ref name=japon-expo-1878/>}}
</blockquote>

Although this was referred to as {{lang|ja-Latn|shin kyō-masu}} or the "new" measuring cup in its early days,{{sfnp|Amano|1979|page=10–13}} its use supplanted the old measure in most areas in Japan, until the only place still left using the old cup ("{{lang|ja-Latn|edo-masu}}") was the city of [[Edo]],<ref name=nihonkeizaishi1-p103/> and the Edo government passed an [[edict]] declaring the {{lang|ja-Latn|kyō-masu}} the official nationwide measure standard<ref name=yamamura/> in 1669 ([[Kanbun]] 9).<ref name=nihonkeizaishi1-p103/>

=== Modern measurement enactment ===
When the 1891 Japanese {{illm|Weights and Measures Act (Japan){{!}}Weights and Measures Act|ja|度量衡法|display=1}}<!--en page is dab-like --> was promulgated, it defined the {{lang|ja-Latn|shō}} unit as the capacity of the standard {{lang|ja-Latn|kyo-masu}} of 64827 cubic {{lang|ja-Latn|bu}}.<ref name=nihonshakai-jii/> The same act also defined the {{lang|ja-Latn|shaku}} length as {{frac|10|33}} metre.<ref name=nihonshakai-jii/> The metric equivalent of the modern {{lang|ja-Latn|shō}} is {{frac|2401|1331}} litres.<ref name=koizumi-dict-rev4/> The modern {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} is therefore {{frac|240,100|1331}} litres, or 180.39 litres.<ref>{{harvp|Midorikawa|2012|page=99}}: "1,803.9 cm<sup>3</sup>".</ref>

The modern {{lang|ja-Latn|shaku}} defined here is set to equal the so-called {{lang|ja-Latn|setchū-shaku}} ({{lang|ja-Latn|setchū-jaku}} or "compromise {{lang|ja-Latn|shaku}}"),<ref name=cbwb-p018/> measuring 302.97 mm, a middle-ground value between two different {{lang|ja-Latn|kane-jaku}} standards.{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Between the common people's {{lang|ja-Latn|Matashiro-jaku}}, 302.37 mm and the {{lang|ja-Latn|italic=no|[[bakufu]]}}'s official {{lang|ja-Latn|Kyōho-jaku}} 303.36&nbsp;mm.<ref name=seisen-setchu-jaku/> The {{lang|ja-Latn|matashirō-jaku}} {{lang|ja|又四郎尺}} devised by a carpenter<ref name=cbwb-p018/> is a type of the carpentry scale was the commoner's type of {{nihongo||kane-jaku/kyoku-jaku/magari-jaku|曲尺}}.<!--又四郎曲尺-->{{sfn|JWMA|1978|p=25}}<ref name=digitial-daijisen/>}}<ref name=seisen-setchu-jaku/><ref name=cbwb-p018/> A researcher has pointed out that the ({{lang|ja-Latn|shin}}) {{illm|kyō-masu{{!}}{{lang|ja-Latn|cat=no|kyō-masu}}|ja|京枡}} cups ought to have used {{lang|ja-Latn|take-jaku}} which were 0.2% longer.{{sfnp|Midorikawa|2012|page=99}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|One type of {{lang|ja-Latn|take-jaku}} is the aforementioned {{lang|ja-Latn|Kyōho-jaku}}{{sfn|JWMA|1978|p=1}} which came into use in the [[Kyoho era]] (1716-1736).<ref name=otsuki&krieger/>}} However, the actual measuring cups in use did not quite attain the {{lang|ja-Latn|take shaku}} metric, and when the Japanese Ministry of Finance had collected actual samples of {{lang|ja-Latn|masu}} from the {{illm|masu-za|ja|枡座}} (measuring-cup [[Za (guilds)|guilds]]) of both eastern and western Japan, they found that the measurements were close to the average of {{lang|ja-Latn|take-jaku}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|kane-jaku}}.<ref>{{harvp|JWMA|1978|p=2}}: "The results of measuring original vessels at both the East and West {{lang|ja-Latn|italic=no|Masu-za}} yielded (a value) near the average of {{lang|ja-Latn|take-jaku}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|magari-jaku}} ({{=}}{{lang|ja-Latn|kane-jaku}}) {{lang|ja|東西両桝座の原器の測定結果では、竹尺と曲り尺の平均した長さに近}}".</ref>

=== Lumber koku ===
The "lumber {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}}" or "maritime {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}}" is defined as equal to 10 cubic [[Shaku (unit)|{{lang|ja-Latn|cat=no|shaku}}]] in the lumber or shipping industry,<ref name=totman/> compared with the standard {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} measures 6.48 cubic {{lang|ja-Latn|shaku}}.<ref name=rose/> A lumber {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}}<!--equal to 9.827 cubic feet --> is conventionally accepted as equivalent to 120 [[board feet]], but in practice may convert to less.<ref name=us-forest-svc/>  In metric measures 1 lumber {{lang|ja-Latn|koku}} is about {{convert|278.3|L}}.

== Historic use ==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2015}}
The exact measure now in use was devised around the 1620s, but not officially adopted for all of Japan until the [[Kanbun (era)|Kanbun era]] (1660s).

=== Feudal Japan ===

Under the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] (1603–1868) of the Edo period of [[History of Japan|Japanese history]], each [[Han (administrative division)|feudal domain]] had an assessment of its potential income known as ''[[kokudaka]]'' (production yield) which in part determined its order of precedence at the Shogunal court. The smallest ''kokudaka'' to qualify the fief-holder for the title of ''[[daimyō]]'' was 10,000 ''koku'' (worth {{JPYConvert|705528600|usd|lk=on|year=2016}})<ref name="Statistics Bureau of Japan">{{cite web|title=Shōhisha bukka shisū (CPI) kekka |script-title=ja:消費者物価指数 (CPI) 結果|trans-title=Consumer Price Index (CPI) results |url=http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/Csvdl.do?sinfid=000011288549 |website=Statistics Bureau of Japan |publisher=[[Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications]] |access-date=14 April 2018|language=ja |format=CSV}}</ref> and [[Kaga han]], the largest fief (other than that of the ''[[shōgun]]''), was called the "million-''koku'' domain". Its holdings totaled around 1,025,000 ''koku'' (worth {{JPYConvert|72300000000|USD|lk=on|year=2016}}). Many [[samurai]], including ''[[hatamoto]]'' (a high-ranking samurai), received stipends in ''koku'', while a few received salaries instead.

The ''kokudaka'' was reported in terms of [[brown rice]] (''genmai'') in most places, with the exception of the land ruled by the [[Satsuma clan]]<!--including the islands of Okinawa and Amami Oshima it controlled--> which reported in terms of unhusked or non-[[winnowing|winnowed]] rice ({{nihongo|''momi''|[[:ja:籾|籾]]}}.<ref name=kurihara/> Since this practice had persisted, past Japanese rice production statistics need to be adjusted for comparison with other countries that report production by [[White rice|milled]] or [[Rice polisher|polished rice]].<ref name=rose/>

Even in certain parts of the [[Tōhoku region]] or [[Ezo]] ([[Hokkaidō]]), where rice could not be grown, the economy was still measured in terms of ''koku'', with other crops and produce converted to their equivalent value in terms of rice.<ref name="Beasley"/> The ''kokudaka'' was not adjusted from year to year, and thus some fiefs had larger economies than their nominal ''koku'' indicated, due to land reclamation and new rice field development, which allowed them to fund development projects.

==== As measure of cargo ship class ====
''Koku'' was also used to measure how much a ship could carry when all its loads were rice.  Smaller ships carried 50 ''koku'' ({{convert|7.5|t|disp=comma}}) while the biggest ships carried over 1,000 ''koku'' ({{convert|150|t|disp=comma}}).  The biggest ships were larger than military vessels owned by the shogunate.

== In popular culture ==
The [[Hyakumangoku Matsuri]] (Million-''Koku'' Festival) in [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa|Kanazawa]], Japan celebrates the arrival of ''daimyō'' [[Maeda Toshiie]] into the city in 1583, although Maeda's income was not raised to over a million ''koku'' until after the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in 1600.

== In fiction ==
The [[James Clavell]] novel [[Shōgun (novel)|Shōgun]] uses the Koku measure extensively as a plot device by many of the main characters as a method of reward, punishment and enticement.  While fiction, it shows the importance of the fief, the rice measure and payments.

== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
;Citations
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=andoh>{{cite book|last=Andoh |first=Elizabeth |author-link=<!--Elizabeth Andoh--> |title=Washoku: Recipes from the Japanese Home Kitchen: A Cookbook |publisher=[[Ten Speed Press]] |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lziyA6pHdxEC&pg=PA136 |page=136|isbn=978-0-307-81355-8 }}</ref>

<ref name="Beasley">{{cite book |last=Beasley |first=William G. |author-link=William G. Beasley |year=1972 |title=The Meiji Restoration |url=https://archive.org/details/meijirestoration00beas |url-access=limited |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0804708150 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/meijirestoration00beas/page/n27 14]–15}}</ref>

<ref name=cardarelli>{{cite dictionary|last=Cardarelli |first=François |author-link=<!--François Cardarelli--> |translator=M.J. Shields  |title=3.5.2.4.13.3 Old Japanese Units of Capacity |dictionary=Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights and Measure |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KCx8Ww75VkC&pg=PA151 |page=151|isbn=1-85233-682-X}}</ref>

<ref name=cbwb-p018>[[#CITEREFCBWM1914|''Weights and Measures in Japan: Past and Present'']] (1914), pp. 18–19: "The ''setchū-shaku''.. [which] Inō Chūkei.. invented.. a mean between the ''matashirō-shaku'' and the ''kyōho-shaku'', and was therefore called the measure of ''setchū'' (compromise). The length is the same as that of the present ''shaku''".</ref>

<ref name=curtin>{{cite book|last=Curtin |first=Philip D. |author-link=Philip D. Curtin |title=The World and the West: The European Challenge and the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |edition=revised |year=2002 |orig-year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_7LxwgocpIC&pg=PA159 |page=159 |isbn=0-52189-054-3}}</ref>

<ref name=digitial-daijisen>{{cite web|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E6%9B%B2%E5%B0%BA-45948#E3.83.87.E3.82.B8.E3.82.BF.E3.83.AB.E5.A4.A7.E8.BE.9E.E6.B3.89 |title=kanejaku; kyokushaku |script-title=ja:かねじゃく【曲尺】;きょくしゃく【曲尺】 |work=Digital Daijisen デジタル大辞泉 |publisher=Shogakukan |access-date=2019-08-03}}</ref>

<ref name=francks>{{cite book|last=Francks|first= Penelope |author-link=<!--Penelope Francks--> |title=Rural Economic Development in Japan: From the Nineteenth Century to the Pacific War |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vqR-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT17 |page=xvii|isbn=1-134-20786-7}}</ref>

<ref name=hayek&horiuchi>{{cite book|editor-last1=Hayek |editor-first1=Matthias  |editor-link=<!--Matthias Hayek--> |editor-last2=Horiuchi |editor-first2=Annick |editor-link2=Annick Horiuchi|title=Listen, Copy, Read: Popular Learning in Early Modern Japan |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |year=2014|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWLPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |page=195, note 39 |isbn=978-9-00427-972-8}}</ref>

<ref name=japon-expo-1878>{{cite book|author=Japanese government |title=Le Japon à l'exposition universelle de 1878: 2ème partie |publisher=Commission Impériale Japonaise |year=1878|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5mCActYoc_AC&pg=PA18 |page=18 |language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name=koizumi-dict-rev4>{{cite book|editor-last=Koizumi |editor-first=Kesakatsu 小泉袈裟勝<!--監修 supervising ed.-->|editor-link=<!--:ja:小泉袈裟勝--> |title=Tan'i no jiten |script-title=ja:単位の辞典 |edition=revised 4th<!--改訂4版--> |publisher=Rateisu<!--ラテイス出版-->|year=1981|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fmewAAAAIAAJ |page=394|language=ja}}</ref>

<ref name=kurihara>{{cite book|last=Kurihara |first=Ryūichi|author-link=<!--:ja:栗原隆一--> |title=Bakumatsu Nihon no gunsei |script-title=ja:幕末日本の軍制 |publisher=Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha<!--[[:ja:新人物往来社]-->|year=1972 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWLPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |page=195, note 39 |isbn= 9789004279728|language=ja}}</ref>

<ref name=nihonkeizaishi1-p103>{{citation|ref={{SfnRef|Umemura|Hayami|Miyamoto|1988}}|editor=Umemura, Mataji 梅村又次 |editor-link=<!--:ja:梅村又次--> |editor2=Hayami, Akira 速水融 |editor-link2=<!--:ja:速水融--> |editor3=Miyamoto Matarō 宮本又郎 |editor-link3=<!--:ja:宮本又郎--> |title=Nihon keizaishi 1 keizaishakai no seiritsu: 17~18 seiki |script-title=ja:日本経済史 1 経済社会の成立: 17~18世紀 |publisher=Iwanami |number=1|year=1979 |pages=<!--102–103--> |language=ja}}<!--quotation:一五六八(永禄一)年信長は入京のさいそれを公定--><!--江戸枡の使用は江戸市中に限られるほどの状況となったので、一六六九(寛文九)年幕府は新京枡で統一令--></ref>

<ref name=nihonshakai-jii>{{cite book|title=Nihon shakai jii |script-title=ja:日本社會事彙 | volume=2 <!--下巻--> |publisher=Keizai Zasshi Sha<!--經濟雜誌社--> |year=1907 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=30g4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PP1288 |page=1252|language=ja |quotation=升 六萬四千八百二十七立方分}}</ref>

<ref name=otsuki&krieger>{{cite book|last1=Ōtsuki |first1=Nyoden |author-link=<!--Nyoden Ōtsuki--> |last2=Krieger |first2=Carel Coenruad |author-link2=<!--Carel Coenruad Krieger--> |title=The Infiltration of European Civilization in Japan During the 18th Century |publisher=Brill |year=1940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xkeAAAAMAAJ |page=598}}</ref>

<ref name=perdue>{{cite book|last=Perdue |first=Peter C. |author-link=Peter C. Perdue |title=China Marches West|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/chinamarcheswest00pete |url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinamarcheswest00pete/page/598 598]|isbn=0-674-01684-X}}</ref>

<ref name=ramseyer>{{cite journal|last=Ramseyer |first=Mark J. |author-link=<!--Mark J. Ramseyer--> |title=Thrift and Diligence; Home Codes of Tokugawa Merchat Families |journal=Monumenta Nipponica |volume=34 |number=2 |publisher=[[Sophia University]] |year=1979 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgdDAAAAYAAJ |page=224<!--209–230-->|doi=10.2307/2384323 |jstor=2384323 }}</ref>

<ref name=rose>{{cite book|last=Rose |first=Beth |author-link=<!--Beth Rose--> |title=Appendix to the Rice Economy of Asia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2016 |orig-year=1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJXDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 |page=84 |isbn=978-1-31733-947-2}}</ref>

<ref name=sawada>{{cite journal|last=Wittfogel |first=Karl A. |author-link=<!--Sho Sawada--> |title=Financial Difficulties of The Edo Bakufu |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=1 |number=3/4 |publisher=[[Sophia University]] |year=<!--Nov.-->1936 |page=314, note 26<!-- 308–326-->}} {{JSTOR|2717787}}<!--4.96 bu[shels] or 180 liters.--></ref>

<ref name=seisen-setchu-jaku>"Setchū-jaku せっちゅう‐じゃく【折衷尺】", ''Seisen-ban Nihon kokugo daijiten''<!--精選版 日本国語大辞典-->, Shogakukan, via [https://kotobank.jp/word/%E6%8A%98%E8%A1%B7%E5%B0%BA-308379 kotobank]. accessed 2020-02-07.</ref>

<ref name=totman>{{cite book|last=Totman |first=Conrad D. |author-link=<!--Conrad D. Totman--> |title=The Green Archipelago: Forestry in Preindustrial Japan |year=1989|publisher=[[University of California Press]] <!--Nov.-->|url=https://archive.org/details/greenarchipelago0000totm |url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/greenarchipelago0000totm/page/228 228], note 37 |isbn=0-52006-313-9}}</ref>

<ref name=us-forest-svc>{{citation|author=United States Forest Service |title=Japan: forest resources, forest products, forest policy |publisher=Division of forest economics, Forest service, U.S. Dept. of agriculture |year=1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3vfNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA11 |page=11}}</ref>

<ref name=wittfogel&feng>{{cite journal|last1=Wittfogel |first1=Karl A. |author-link=Karl A. Wittfogel |last2=Fêng |first2=Chia-Shêng |author-link2=<!--Fêng Chia-Shêng--> |title=History of Chinese Society Liao (907-1125) |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=36|publisher=[[Sophia University]] |year=1946 |page=609<!-- i-xv+1–752-->|doi=10.2307/1005570 |jstor=1005570 }} {{JSTOR|1005570}}</ref>

<ref name=yamaguchi>{{cite journal|last=Yamaguchi |first=Tomoko 山口智子 |author-link=<!--山口智子 (調理学者)--> |title=Mushi kamado de taita beihan no bussei to oishisa no hyōka |script-title=ja:蒸しかまどで炊いた米飯の物性とおいしさの評価 |trans-title=Evaluation of physical properties and taste of rice cooked by steamed rice cooker, Mushikamado |journal=Bulletin of the Faculty of Education. Natural Sciences <!--新潟大学教育学部研究紀要 自然科学編 -->|volume=34 |number=2 |publisher=[[Niigata University]] |year=2017 |url=http://dspace.lib.niigata-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10191/49430/1/10(1)_83-90.pdf |page=224<!--209–230-->}}</ref>

<ref name=yamamura>{{citation|last=Yamamura |first=Kozo |chapter=8 The growth of commerce in medieval Japan |editor-last=Yamamura |editor-first=Kozo |title=The Cambridge History of Japan |volume=3 |year=1990 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtTc_Aa22MwC&pg=PA393 |page=393|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521223546 }}</ref>

}}

;Bibliography
{{Refbegin}}
* {{citation|last=Amano |first=Kiyoshi 天野 清 |author-link=<!--天野清--> |title=Kyōmasu to Edomasu |script-title=ja:京枡と江戸枡 |journal=Keiryōshi Kenkyū: Journal of the Society of Historical Metrology, Japan<!--計量史研究--> |volume=1 |number=1|year=1979 |url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/10631742 |pages=10–19 |language=ja}}<!--Editor's endnote in English says Amano died in 1945 and the essay is incomplete.-->
* {{citation|ref={{SfnRef|CBWM|1914}}|author=Central Bureau of Weights and Measures The Department of Agriculture and Commerce in Japan
 |title=Weights and Measures in Japan: Past and Present |publisher=<!--n.p.--> |year=1914|hdl=2027/uc1.$c174918
 }}

* {{citation|ref={{SfnRef|JWMA|1978}}|author=JWMA (Japan Weights and Measures Association) 日本計量協会 |title=Keiryō hyakunen-shi |script-title=ja:計量百年史 |publisher=<!--n.p.--> |year=1978 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdmgAAAAMAAJ }}
* {{citation|last=Midorikawa |first=Kazuo 水鳥川和夫 |author-link=<!--:ja:水鳥川和夫--> |title=Chūsei higashi nihon ni okeru shiyō masu no yōseki to hyōjun masu |script-title=ja:中世東日本における使用升の容積と標準升 |trans-title=Volume of used masu and standard masu in medieval eastern Japan |journal=Shakai keizai shigaku<!--社会経済史学--> |volume=78 |number=1|year=2012 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/sehs/78/1/78_KJ00008128138/_pdf/-char/ja |pages=99–118 |language=ja}}

{{Refend}}

{{Japanese architectural elements}}
{{Means of Exchange}}

[[Category:Economy of feudal Japan]]
[[Category:Human-based units of measurement]]
[[Category:Japanese historical terms]]
[[Category:Obsolete units of measurement]]
[[Category:Units of volume]]
[[Category:Standards of Japan]]