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List of genocides in reverse chronological order
Event	Location	Period		Estimated killings
Event	Location	From	To	Lowest	Highest
Description		Proportion of group killed
Rohingya genocide	Rakhine State, Myanmar	2016	Present	9,000–13,700 ^[1]	43,000 ^[2]
The Rohingya genocide^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] against the Rohingya ethnic minority in Myanmar (Burma) by the Myanmar military and Buddhist extremists. The violence began on 25 August 2017 and has continued since, reaching its peak during the months of August and September in 2017. The Rohingya people are a largely Muslim ethnic minority in Myanmar who have faced widespread persecution and discrimination for several decades. They are denied citizenship under the 1982 Myanmar nationality law, and are falsely regarded as Bengali immigrants by much of Myanmar's Bamar majority, to the extent that the government refuses to acknowledge the Rohingya's existence as a valid ethnic group.^[7] The Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) is a Rohingya insurgent group that was founded in 2013 to "liberate [the Rohingya] people from dehumanising oppression".^[8] On 25 August 2017, ARSA claimed responsibility for coordinated attacks on police posts that reportedly killed twelve security forces. Myanmar's military forces immediately launched a series of retaliatory attacks against Rohingya civilians, and were joined by local Buddhist extremists. Together they burnt down hundreds of Rohingya villages, killed thousands of Rohingya men, women, and children, tortured countless others, and sexually assaulted countless Rohingya women and girls. Several Rohingya refugees say they were forced to witness soldiers throwing their babies into burning houses to die in the fire. Numerous Rohingya refugee women and girls have provided accounts of being brutally gang raped. The violence has resulted in a refugee crisis, with an estimated 693,000 Rohingya fleeing to overcrowded refugee camps in the neighboring country of Bangladesh.		Before the 2015 Rohingya refugee crisis and the military crackdown in 2016 and 2017, the Rohingya population in Myanmar was around 1.0 to 1.3 million, chiefly in the northern Rakhine townships, which were 80–98% Rohingya. Since 2015, over 900,000 Rohingya refugees have fled to south-eastern Bangladesh alone, and more to other surrounding countries, and major Muslim nations. More than 100,000 Rohingyas in Myanmar are confined in camps for internally displaced persons.
Iraqi Turkmen genocide	Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq	2014	2017	3,500	8,400
he Iraqi Turkmen genocide refers to a series of killings, rapes, executions, expulsions, and sexual slavery of Iraqi Turkmen by the Islamic State.^[9] It began when ISIS captured Iraqi Turkmen land in 2014 and it continued until ISIS lost all of their land in Iraq. In 2017, ISIS's persecution of Iraqi Turkmen was officially recognized as a genocide by the Parliament of Iraq,^[10]^[11] and in 2018, the sexual slavery of Iraqi Turkmen girls and women was recognized by the United Nations.^[12]^[13]
Genocide of Yazidis by the Islamic State	Islamic State-controlled territory in northern Iraq and Syria	2014	2019	2,100 ^[14]	5,000 ^[15]
The Genocide of Yazidis ' by ISIS included mass killing, rape and enslavement of girls and women, forced abduction, indoctrination and recruitment of Yazidis boys (aged 7 to 15) to be used in armed conflicts, forced conversion to Islam and expulsion from their ancestral land. The United Nations' Commission of Inquiry on Syria officially declared in its report that ISIS was committing genocide against the Yazidis population.^[16] It is difficult to assess a precise figure for the killings^[17] but it is known that some thousand of Yazidis men and boys were still unaccounted for and ISIS genocidal actions against Yazidis people were still ongoing, as stated by the International Commission in June 2016. See also: 2007 Yazidi communities bombings.
Darfur genocide^{[N 1]}	Darfur, Sudan	2003	Present	98,000 ^[20]	500,000 ^[21]

Effacer le tableau^{[N 2]}	North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo	2002	2003	60,000 ^[24]^[22]	70,000 ^[24]
		40% of the Eastern Congo's Pygmy population killed^{[N 3]}
Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War^{[N 4]}	Kivu, Zaire (now the DRC)	1996	1997	200,000 ^[25]	232,000 ^[27]

Rwandan genocide^{[N 5]}	Rwanda	1994		491,000 ^[28]	800,000 ^[29]
		60–70% of Tutsis in Rwanda killed^[28] 7% of Rwanda's total population killed^[28]
Bosnian genocide^{[N 6]}	Bosnia and Herzegovina	1992	1995	31,107^[34]	62,013^[34]
		More than 3% of the Bosniak population of Bosnia and Herzegovina died during the Bosnian War.^[35]
Isaaq genocide^{[N 7]}	Somaliland, Somalia	1987	1989	50,000 ^[50]^[41]	200,000 ^[51]

Anfal genocide^{[N 8]}	Kurdistan Region during Ba'athist Iraq	1986	1989	50,000 ^[55]	182,000 ^[56]
Gukurahundi^{[N 9]}	Matabeleland, Zimbabwe	1983	1987	8,000 ^[59]	300,000 ^[60]
Cambodian genocide^{[N 10]}	Democratic Kampuchea, Cambodia	1975	1979	1,386,734 ^[69]^[70]	3,000,000 ^[64]^[71]	15–33% of total population of Cambodia killed^[72]^[73] including: 99% of Cambodian Viets 50% of Cambodian Chinese and Cham 40% of Cambodian Lao and Thai 25% of Urban Khmer 16% of Rural Khmer
East Timor genocide^{[N 11]}	East Timor, Indonesia	1974	1999	85,320 ^[78]	196,720 ^[79]	13% to 44% of East Timor's total population killed (See death toll of East Timor genocide)
Genocide of Acholi and Lango people under Idi Amin^{[N 12]}	Uganda	1972	1978	100,000 ^[80]	300,000 ^[80]
Ikiza^{[N 13]}	Burundi	1972		80,000 ^[81]^[82]	300,000 ^[83]	As much as 10% to 15% of the Hutu population of Burundi killed^[83]
Bangladesh genocide^{[N 14]}	East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)	1971		300,000 ^[86]	3,000,000 ^[87]^[88]	2%^{[citation needed]} to 4% of the population of East Pakistan^[89]
Zanzibar genocide^{[N 15]}	Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania)	1964	1964	13,000 ^[91]	20,000+ ^[92]	25% or more of the Arab population (50,000 people) of Zanzibar was killed by the end of 1964 due to expulsion, flight or mass murder.^[91]
Guatemalan genocide^{[N 16]}	Guatemala	1962	1996	166,000 ^[97]	166,000 ^[98]	40% of the Maya population (24,000 people) of Guatemala's Ixil and Rabinal regions were killed^{[citation needed]}
Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush^{[N 17]}	Soviet Union (now Russia)	1944	1948	100,000 ^[105]	400,000 ^[106]	23.5% to almost 50% of total Chechen population killed^[107] ^[99]^{[page needed]}^[100]^[101]^[108]
Deportation of the Crimean Tatars^{[N 18]}	Crimea, Soviet Union (now Ukraine)	1944	1948 (denied right to return until 1989)	34,000 ^[113]	195,471 ^[114]	The deportation and following exile reduced the Crimean Tatar population by between 18%^[113] and 46%.^[115]^{[N 19]}
The Holocaust^{[N 20]}	Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe	1941	1945	4,204,000 ^[118]^[119]^[120]	7,000,000 ^[121]	Around 2/3 of the Jewish population of Europe.^[122]^[123]
German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war,^[124]^[125] part of the Generalplan Ost and Hunger Plan	German-occupied Europe	1941	1945	3,300,000 ^[126]^[127]	3,500,000 ^[127]	During World War II, Nazi Germany engaged in a policy of deliberate maltreatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs), in contrast to their treatment of British and American POWs. This policy, which amounted to deliberately starving and working to death Soviet POWs, was grounded in Nazi racial theory, which depicted Slavs as sub-humans (Untermenschen).^[128]^[125]
The Holocaust in Croatia including the Genocide of Serbs^{[N 21]}	Independent State of Croatia (now Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia)	1941	1945	248,000 ^[130]^[131]^[132]^{[N 22]}	548,000 ^[130]^[132]^[131]^{[N 22]}
Genocide against Bosniaks and Croats by the Chetniks^{[N 23]}	Occupied Yugoslavia (now Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro)	1941	1945	50,000 ^[137]	68,000 ^[137]
Nazi crimes against the Polish nation,^[138]^[139] part of the Generalplan Ost	German-occupied Europe	1939	1945	1,800,000 ^[140]	3,000,000 ^[141]^[142]	From 6% to 10% (1.8 to 3 million) of the total Polish gentile population.^[142] In addition, 3 million Polish Jews were killed during the Holocaust in Poland (90% of Polish Jews).^[140]
Polish Operation of the NKVD^{[N 24]}	Soviet Union (now Ukraine, Belarus and Russia)	1937	1938	111,091 ^[147]	250,000 ^[148]	22% of the Polish population of the USSR was "sentenced" by the operation (140,000 people)^[149]
Parsley massacre^{[N 25]}	Dominican Republic	1937	1937	12,000	40,000^[155]	Details of the casualties are still hard to gather.
Romani Holocaust^{[N 26]}	German-occupied Europe	1935^[158]	1945	130,000 ^[159]	1,500,000^[160]^[161]	25% to 80% of Romani people in Europe killed
Holodomor^{[N 27]}	Ukraine and the heavily Ukrainian-populated northern Kuban,^[165] in the Soviet Union	1932	1933	3,000,000^[166]	5,000,000^[166]	In the Ukrainian SSR, an estimated 3–3.5 million people died of starvation and disease (from malnutrition), with total demographic losses, including famine-derived decrease in fertility, 4.5–4.8 million.^[167] Total population was about 32.3 million in 1932. Whether or not the Holodomor was intentional and therefore constitutes a genocide under the Genocide Convention is debated by scholalrs, see Holodomor genocide question.
Libyan genocide^{[N 28]}	Italian Libya (now Libya)	1929	1932	83,000 ^[171]	125,000+ ^[179]	25% of Cyrenaican population killed^[171] and half of the nomadic Bedouin population of Libya killed.^[180]
Osage Indian murders^{[N 29]}	Oklahoma, United States	1918	1931	60 ^[186]	200+ ^[187]	Estimates vary widely, with 10% of 591 full-blood Osage being killed with the lowest estimate.^[188]
Armenian genocide^{[N 30]}	Ottoman Empire (now Turkey, Syria and Iraq)	1915	1917	600,000 ^[194]	1,500,000 ^[195]	Approximately 90% of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were killed or expelled.^[196] The share of Christians in area within Turkey's current borders declined from 20-22% in 1914, or about 3.3.–3.6 million people, to around 3% in 1927.^[197]
Assyrian genocide	Ottoman Empire (now Turkey, Syria and Iraq)	1915	1919	200,000 ^[198]	750,000 ^[199]
Greek genocide Pontic genocide^{[N 31]}	Ottoman Empire (now Turkey)	1914	1922	300,000 ^[200]	900,000 ^[201]	At least 25% of Greeks in Anatolia (Turkey) killed ^{[citation needed]}
Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars	Ottoman Empire - Scutari vilayet, Kosovo vilayet, Manastir vilayet (now Albania, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, and North Macedonia)	1912	1913	120,000^[202]^[203]	270,000^[204]
Herero and Nama genocide^{[N 32]}	German South West Africa (now Namibia)	1904	1908	34,000 ^[205]	110,000 ^[206]^[207]	60% (24,000 out of 40,000^[205]) to 81.25% (65,000^[208]^[209] out of 80,000^[210]) of total Herero and 50%^[205] of Nama population killed.
Armenian massacres of 1894–1896^{[N 33]}	Ottoman Empire, Six Vilayets (now Turkey)	1894	1896	200,000 ^[214]	300,000 ^[214]
Selk'nam genocide^{[N 34]}	Tierra del Fuego, Chile, Argentina	1880	1910	2,500 ^[217]	4,000 ^[218]	84% The genocide reduced their numbers from around 3,000 to about 500 people.^[219]^[220]
Putumayo genocide	Area between the Putumayo River and the Caquetá River administered by the Peruvian Amazon Company, today part of Putumayo Department, Colombia	1879	1913	32,000^[221]	40,000+^[222]^[223]	80-86% of the total population in the Putumayo region perished during the Amazon rubber boom.^[224]^{[N 35]} Members of the Huitoto, Andoques, Yaguas, Ocaina and Boras groups were hunted and enslaved so they could be used to extract latex.^[225] During this time period, several tribes became extinct.^[226]
Circassian genocide^{[N 36]}	Russian Empire-occupied Circassia	1864^{[N 37]}	1867	1,000,000 ^[235]	2,000,000 ^[236] ^[237]	95%–97% of total Circassian population killed or deported by the forces of Tsarist Russia.^[238]^[239] Only a small percentage who accepted to convert to Christianity, Russify and resettle within the Russian Empire were spared. The remaining Circassian populations who refused were thus forcefully dispersed, deported or killed. Today, most Circassians live in exile.^[240]
California genocide^{[N 38]}	California, United States	1846	1873	9,492–16,094 ^[241]^[242]^{[N 39]}	120,000 ^[242]^{[N 40]}	Amerindian population in California declined by 80% during the period
Queensland Aboriginal genocide^{[N 41]}	Queensland (now Australia)	1840	1897	10,000 ^[249]	65,180 ^[250]	3.3% to over 50% of the aboriginal population was killed (10,000^[249] to 65,180^[250] killed out of 125,600)^{[clarification needed]}
Moriori genocide^{[N 42]}	Chatham Islands, New Zealand	1835	1863	1,900 ^[252]^[253]	1,900	95% of the Moriori population was eradicated by the invasion from Taranaki, a group of people from the Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama iwi.^[254]^[255] All were enslaved and many were cannibalised.^[256] The Moriori language is now extinct.^[251]^[257]
Massacre of Salsipuedes^{[N 43]}	Uruguay	1831	1831	40 ^[260]	40
Black War (Genocide of Aboriginal Tasmanians)^{[N 44]}	Van Diemen's Land (now Australia)	Mid 1820s	1832	400 ^[263]	1,000 ^[263]	~100%^[262]
1804 Haiti massacre^{[N 45]}	Haiti	1804	1804	3,000 ^[268]	5,000 ^[268]
Dzungar genocide^{[N 46]}	Dzungaria, during Qing-dynasty (now China)	1755	1758	480,000 ^[272]	600,000 ^[272]	80% of 600,000 Zungharian Oirats killed
Taíno genocide^{[N 47]}	Hispaniola (now Dominican Republic and Haiti)	1492	1514	68,000 ^[279]	968,000 ^[279]	68% to over 96% of the Taíno population perished under Spanish rule.^[279]
Albigensian Crusade (Cathar genocide)^{[N 48]}	Languedoc (now France)	1209	1229	200,000 ^[286]	1,000,000 ^[287]

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^ "Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report Chega!" (PDF).
^ "Chega! The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012.
^ Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.
* This estimates comes from taking the minimum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the minimum starved.
"Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report" (PDF).
"The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012.
^ Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings:*This estimates comes from taking the maximum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the maximum starved.
"Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report". cavr-timorleste.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "HOME". Combatgenocide (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 27 June 2023.
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^ ^a ^b Krueger, Robert; Krueger, Kathleen Tobin (2007). From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years During Genocide (PDF). University of Texas Press (PDF). p. 29. ISBN 9780292714861.
^ Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974.
^ Jahan 2013, p. 256.
^ Dummett, Mark (16 December 2011). "How one newspaper report changed world history". BBC News. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
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^ Rummel, R.J. (January 1997). Death By Government. Routledge. p. 331. ISBN 1560009276. The human death toll over only 267 days was incredible. Just to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics published in Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee, the Pakistani army killed 100,000 Bengalis in Dacca, 150,000 in Khulna, 75,000 in Jessore, 95,000 in Comilla, and 100,000 in Chittagong. For eighteen districts the total is 1,247,000 killed. This was an incomplete toll, and to this day no one really knows the final toll. Some estimates of the democide (i.e. Rummel's 'death by government') are much lower—one is of 300,000 dead—but most range from 1 million to 3 million. ... The Pakistani army and allied paramilitary groups killed about one out of every sixty-one people in Pakistan overall; one out of every twenty-five Bengalis, Hindus, and others in East Pakistan. If the rate of killing for all of Pakistan is annualised over the years the Yahya martial law regime was in power (March 1969 to December 1971), then this one regime was more lethal than that of the Soviet Union, China under the communists, or Japan under the military (even through World War II).
^ Kuper, Leo (5 July 2017). Race, Class, and Power: Ideology and Revolutionary Change in Plural Societies. Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-351-49504-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ibrahim, Abdullah Ali (June 2015). "The 1964 Zanzibar Genocide: The Politics of Denial" – via ResearchGate. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ ^a ^b "What We Forgot To Remember, Part 1: Genocide in Zanzibar". Areo. 2 July 2017. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
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^ CEH 1999.
^ CEH 1999, p. 20.
^ CEH 1999, p. 23.
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^ ^a ^b Nekrich, Aleksandr. The Punished Peoples.
^ ^a ^b Dunlop. Russia Confronts Chechnya. pp. 62–70.
^ ^a ^b Gammer, Moshe (2006). Lone Wolf and the Bear. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 166–171. ISBN 0822958988.
^ Rummel, R. J. (1990). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-887-3. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
^ "Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944". UNPO. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023.
^ "Press-Release: February 23, World Chechnya Day". Save Chechnya Campaign. Archived from the original on 27 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
^ Wong, Tom K. (2015). Rights, Deportation, and Detention in the Age of Immigration Control. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780804794572. LCCN 2014038930. page 68
^ Chanturiya, Kazbek (23 February 2017). "After 73 years, the memory of Stalin's deportation of Chechens and Ingush still haunts the survivors". OC Media. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
^ Wood, Tony. Chechnya: the Case for Independence. pp. 37–38.
^ "Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Death Rates". University of Hawaiʻi. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
^ Legters 1992, p. 104.
^ Fisher 2014, p. 150.
^ Allworth 1998, p. 216.
^ Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
^ ^a ^b Buckley, Cynthia J.; Ruble, Blair A.; Hofmann, Erin Trouth (2008). Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780801890758.
^ Allworth, Edward (1998). The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780822319948. LCCN 97019110. OCLC 610947243.
^ ""Punished Peoples" of the Soviet Union: The Continuing Legacy of Stalin's Deportations" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 1991. p. 34.
^ Allworth, Edward; Columbia University Center for the Study of Central Asia (1988). Tatars of the Crimea: Their Struggle for Survival: Original Studies from North America, Unofficial and Official Documents from Czarist and Soviet Sources. Duke University Press. pp. 173, 191–193. ISBN 978-0-8223-0758-7 – via Google Books.
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^
- Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event"" (PDF). Hypatia. 35 (4): 635. doi:10.1017/hyp.2020.41. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2023. ...between 5 and 6 million. According to Wolfgang Benz, at least 5.29 million up to around 6 million Jews of every age were murdered (Benz 1991, 17), whereas Raul Hilberg counts 5.1 million dead (Hilberg 2003, 1320–21)
- Fischel 2020, p. 10: "The number of Jews killed by the Germans in the Holocaust cannot be precisely calculated. Various historians, however, have provided estimates that range between 4,204,000 and 7,000,000, with the use of the round figure of six million Jews murdered as the best estimate to describe the immensity of the Nazi genocide. The Germans exterminated approximately 54 percent of the Jews within their reach..."
- Roth, John K. (2020). Sources of Holocaust Insight: Learning and Teaching about the Genocide. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 1n1. ISBN 978-1-5326-7418-1 – via Google Books. ...Raul Hilberg... 5.1 million... Israel Gutman and Robert Rozett... between 5–5 and 5.8 million... Wolfgang Benz... 6.2 million. The figures remain imprecise for several reasons, including...
- Rummel, R.J. (2017) [1978]. "Democide in Totalitarian States". In Charny, Israel W. (ed.). The widening circle of genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-29406-5 – via Google Books. 4,204,400 to 4,575,400... the lowest count by any reputable study.
- Oman, Nathan (2016). The dignity of commerce: markets and the moral foundations of contract law. University of Chicago Press. p. 203n64. ISBN 9780226415529 – via Google Books. Bloxham... "Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000...
- Stier, Oren Baruch (2015). Holocaust Icons: Symbolizing the Shoah in History and Memory. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-7404-2 – via Google Books. ... between five and six million. The late Raul Hilberg, for example, political scientist and widely acknowledged dean of Holocaust historiography, estimated 5.1 million Jewish victims, and that number did not change in the third edition of his monumental work. This indicates, one might presume, that he was satisfied with his rigorous investigation into this figure... The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust offers a number of "more than" five million in its definition of the Holocaust.18 In 2007 the Division of the Senior Historian at the USHMM developed a series of estimates (dependent on means of counting) of between 5.65 million and 5.93 million, based on published accounts by Hilberg and others as well as on Soviet documents available only since 1991... No estimate has gone higher than six million.
^
- Mawdsley, Evan (2015) [2005]. Thunder in the East: The Nazi-Soviet War 1941–1945. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 437n30. ISBN 978-1-4725-1008-2 – via Google Books. ... His total death toll for the European Holocaust was 5,100,00
- Rubinstein, William D. (2014) [2004]. Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Books. The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former
- Cesarani, David; Kushner, Tony; Reilly, Jo; Richmond, Colin (2013) [2007]. Belsen in History and Memory. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-25137-6 – via Google Books. ...5.29 million to over six million Jewish victims.
- Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) [2010]. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Books. Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million
^
Hoffmann, Peter (2011-07-11). Carl Goerdeler and the Jewish Question, 1933–1942. Cambridge University Press. p. xii. ISBN 978-1-139-49944-6 – via Google Books. The SS' own statistic for Jews killed under German authority is 5.1 million
- Bloxham, Donald (2009). The Final Solution: A Genocide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 1. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550333.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-955034-0 – via Google Books. Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000
- Moore, Deborah D. (2008). American Jewish Identity Politics. University of Michigan Press. pp. 77–78 n 5. ISBN 978-0-472-02464-3 – via Google Books. The exact number of Jews killed is not known and probably never will be known precisely. Raul Hilberg has placed the figure at 5.1 million; Lucy Dawidowicz estimated it at 5,933,900; Martin Gilbert, at 5–75 million; the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust states a minimum figure of 5,596,000 and a maximum of 5,860,000; and Wolfgang Benz sets the minimum at and a maximum of over six million. As previously unavailable archival materials in the former Soviet Union are made known to scholars, these figures are likely to be revised and, from early indications, probably upward. Some of these figures and an informed explanation of how they have been reached can be found in Franciszek Piper, "The Number of Victims," Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, ed. Yisrael Gutman and Michael Berenbaum (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 61—76.
- McKale, Donald M. (2006) [2002]. Hitler's Shadow War: The Holocaust and World War II. Taylor Trade Publishing. p. 454. ISBN 978-1-4616-3547-5 – via Google Books. According to the most reliable estimates, a minimum of 5,290,000 and maximum of slightly over 6 million Jews died.
- Welch, Steven Robert (2001). A Survey of Interpretive Paradigms in Holocaust Studies and a Comment on the Dimensions of the Holocaust; and "The Annihilation of Superfluous Eaters": Nazi Plans for and Use of Famine in Eastern Europe. Yale Center for International and Area Studies. Genocide Studies Program. p. 12. In one of the first scholarly attempts to quantify the overall scope of the Holocaust, Gerald Reitlinger in 1953 gave a minimum figure of 4,194,200 and a maximum of 4,581,200 Jewish victims... Raul Hilberg in his standard work estimated the total at 5.1 million... The study arrives at a minimum figure of 5.29 million and a maximum of just over six million. These figures may now need to be revised (probably upward) on the basis of material from the archives of the former Soviet Union. Benz's book, however, should be considered as the most thorough and reliable study now available.
^ Fischel 2020, p. 10.
^ "Remaining Jewish Population of Europe in 1945". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. According to the American Jewish Yearbook, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. In 1950, the Jewish population of Europe was about 3.5 million.
^ Berenbaum, Michael (2006). The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3.
^ Earl Porter, Thomas (20 November 2018). "Hitler's Rassenkampf in the East: The Forgotten Genocide of Soviet POWs". Nationalities Papers. 37 (6): 839–859. doi:10.1080/00905990903230785. S2CID 162190846. Archived from the original on 9 September 2023.
^ ^a ^b Jones, Adam (2017). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 377. ISBN 9781138823846. 'Next to the Jews in Europe,' wrote Alexander Werth', 'the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure and in other ways of ... Russian war prisoners.' Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time: 'a holocaust that devoured millions,' as Catherine Merridale acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide.
^ Taulbee, James Larry (2017). Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and War Crimes in Modern History: Blood and Conscience [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 124. ISBN 978-1440829857 – via Google Books.
^ ^a ^b Calvocoressi, Peter; Wint, Guy (1989). Total War (Revised ed.). Viking Press. The total number of prisoners taken by the German armies in the USSR was in the region of 5.5 million. Of these, the astounding number of 3.5 million or more had been lost by the middle of 1944 and the assumption must be that they were either deliberately killed or done to death by criminal negligence. Nearly two million of them died in camps and close on another million disappeared while in military custody either in the USSR or in rear areas; a further quarter of a million disappeared or died in transit between the front and destinations in the rear; another 473,000 died or were killed in military custody in Germany or Poland.
^ "Nazi persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020.
^ Fischer 2007, pp. 207–210.
^ ^a ^b Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941-1945. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780822977933. Although the estimates of the number of Serbs murdered by the regime vary, even the most conservative figures suggest that out of a pre-war population of 1.9 million, at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 died at the hands of Ustasha death squads, were executed, or perished in the state's concentration camps.
^ ^a ^b Cite error: The named reference AxisYugo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ ^a ^b "The JUST Act Report: Croatia". state.gov. U.S. Department of State. In all, approximately 30,000 Jews (between 75-80 percent of the Jews within the NDH) died during the Holocaust, the majority at the hands of the Ustasha, although the NDH also transferred some 7,000 Jews to the Nazis to be deported to Auschwitz... The NDH also killed an estimated 25,000 or more Roma men, women, and children, the vast majority of the Roma population under its control.
^ Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War. London; New York: Frank Cass. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 – via Google Books.
^ Klemenčič, Matjaž; Žagar, Mitja (2004). The former Yugoslavia's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-57607-294-3 – via Google Books.
^ Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943. Oxford University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0197263801 – via Google Books.
^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 379, 747.
^ ^a ^b ^c Geiger, Vladimir [in Croatian] (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators". Revue für Kroatische Geschichte = Revue d'Histoire Croate. VIII (1): 77–121. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023.
^ Furber, David; Lower, Wendy (2008). "Colonialism and genocide in Nazi-occupied Poland and Ukraine". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. p. 393. ISBN 978-1-78238-214-0 – via Google Books.
^ Bauer, Yehuda (1999). "Comparison of Genocides". In Chorbajian, Levon; Shirinian, George (eds.). Studies in Comparative Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 31–43. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-27348-5_3. ISBN 978-1-349-27348-5. According to Polish sources, about three million ethnic Poles lost their lives during the war, or about 10 per cent of the Polish nation(...) large numbers were murdered, or died as a result of direct German actions such as denying food or medical treatment to Poles, or incarceration in concentration camps. There is no way of estimating the exact proportions, but I believe it would be difficult to deny that we have here a case of mass murder directed against Poles. German plans regarding Poles talked about denationalizing the Polish people, or in other words, making them into individuals who would no longer have any national identity(...)This is a case of genocide – a purposeful attempt toeliminate an ethnicity or a nation, accompanied by the murder of large numbers of the targeted group.
^ ^a ^b "Polish Victims". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 30 October 2020. It is estimated that the Germans killed between 1.8 and 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II. In addition, the Germans murdered at least 3 million Jewish citizens of Poland.
^ Cherry, Robert D.; Orla-Bukowska, Annamaria (2007). Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7425-4666-0 – via Google Books. ...and the ruthlessness of German rule in Poland, where three million gentiles also perished and the punishment for hiding a Jew was execution of captured rescuers and their immediate families.
^ ^a ^b Banki & Pawlikowski 2001, p. 93: "...Along with those three million Polish Jews, three million Polish civilians were murdered as well...."
^ Ellman, Michael (June 2007). "Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited". Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4): 663–693. doi:10.1080/09668130701291899. JSTOR 20451381. S2CID 53655536.
^ Sebag-Montefiore, Simon (2003). Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Vintage Books. p. 229. ISBN 1-4000-7678-1.
^ Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
^ ^a ^b Naimark, Norman M. (November 2016). Genocide: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-063772-9.
^ Goldman, Wendy Z. (2011). Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-19196-8.
^ Rubenstein, Joshua. "The Devils' Playground". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2011. Rubenstein is the Northeast regional director of Amnesty International USA and a co-editor of The Unknown Black Book: The Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories.
^ Michael Ellman, Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine PDF file page 686
^ Cambeira, Alan (1997). Quisqueya la bella (1996 ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 182. ISBN 1-56324-936-7.
anyone of African descent found incapable of pronouncing correctly, that is, to the complete satisfaction of the sadistic examiners, became a condemned individual. This holocaust is recorded as having a death toll reaching thirty thousand innocent souls, Haitians as well as Dominicans.
^ Paulino, Edward (16 February 2016). Dividing Hispaniola: The Dominican Republic's Border Campaign against Haiti, 1930-1961. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822981039 – via Google Books.
^ Turits 2004, p. 590
^ Galván, Javier A. (2012). Latin American Dictators of the 20th Century: The Lives and Regimes of 15 Rulers. McFarland. p. 53.
^ Turits, Richard Lee (2004). Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History. Stanford University Press.
^ Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Liverpool University Press. p. 20. ISBN 9781781387573.
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^ Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-231-50590-1. Retrieved 5 July 2016 – via Google Books.
^ Hancock, Ian (2005), "True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview", The Historiography of the Holocaust, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 383–396, ISBN 978-1-4039-9927-6, archived from the original on 28 September 2011
^ Ignác, Benjamin (2018-08-02). "Why it is important to remember the Roma Holocaust?". European Roma Rights Centre. Retrieved 2023-08-02.
^ Rozenas, Arturas; Zhukov, Yuri M. (2019). "Mass Repression and Political Loyalty: Evidence from Stalin's 'Terror by Hunger'". American Political Science Review. 113 (2): 571. doi:10.1017/S0003055419000066. S2CID 143428346. Similar to famines in Ireland in 1846–1851 (Ó Gráda 2007) and China in 1959–1961 (Meng, Qian and Yared 2015), the politics behind Holodomor have been a focus of historiographic debate. The most common interpretation is that Holodomor was 'terror by hunger' (Conquest 1987, 224), 'state aggression' (Applebaum 2017) and 'clearly premeditated mass murder' (Snyder 2010, 42). Others view it as an unintended by-product of Stalin's economic policies (Kotkin 2017; Naumenko 2017), precipitated by natural factors like adverse weather and crop infestation (Davies and Wheatcroft 1996; Tauger 2001).
^ Andriewsky, Olga (2015). "Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 2: 37. doi:10.21226/T2301N.: "Historians of Ukraine are no longer debating whether the Famine was the result of natural causes (and even then not exclusively by them). The academic debate appears to come down to the issue of intentions, to whether the special measures undertaken in Ukraine in the winter of 1932–33 that intensified starvation were aimed at Ukrainians as such."
^ Grynevych, Liudmyla (2008). "The Present State of Ukrainian Historiography on the Holodomor and Prospects for Its Development". doi:10.7916/d8-enqm-hy61. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Naimark 2010, p. 70.
^ ^a ^b Naimark 2010, pp. 70, 147.
^ Naimark 2010, pp. 42, 76note 2
^ ^a ^b Mann, Michael (2006). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. p. 309. ISBN 9780521538541 – via Google Books.
^ Ahmida, Ali Abdullatif (23 March 2011). Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Second ed.). SUNY Press. p. 146. ISBN 9781438428932 – via Google Books.
^ Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul Robert (2008). Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. ABC-CLIO. p. 259. ISBN 9780313346422.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Duggan 2007, p. 497.
^ ^a ^b Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist. Pearson Longman. p. 109.
^ Cooper, Tom; Grandolini, Albert (19 January 2015). Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985. Helion and Company. p. 5. ISBN 9781910777510 – via Google Books.
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^ Stewart, C.C. (1986). "Islam" (PDF). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905 – c. 1940. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 196.
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^ Bloxham & Moses 2010, p. 358.
^ The Report: Libya 2008. Oxford Business Group. 2008. p. 17.
^ Wright, John (1982). A History of Modern Libya. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023.
^ Pappé, Ilan (2005). The Modern Middle East. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 0-415-21409-2.
^ Morska, Izabela (2022-12-08). "Animality as an excuse for murder: David Grann and Killers of the Flower Moon". Beyond Philology (19/4): 97–127. doi:10.26881/bp.2022.4.04. ISSN 2451-1498.
^ American Mythologies: New Essays on Contemporary Literature (DGO - Digital original ed.). Liverpool University Press. 2005. doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vjbd1. ISBN 978-0-85323-736-5. JSTOR j.ctt5vjbd1. To authorize the Osage terror as genocide and to connect a corner of Oklahoma to a global tribal history, she recreates the Holocaust as a site of hybridity.
^ Asenap, Jason (6 November 2023). "Killers of the Flower Moon and who gets to tell an Osage story". Vox. Archived from the original on 6 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
^ Coyne, Delaney (26 October 2023). "How the Osage Nation became Catholic: The hard truths in 'Killers of the Flower Moon'". America Magazine. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
^ Bryant, Michael (7 May 2020). "Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (1): 21–39. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632. ISSN 1911-0359.
^ Jefferson, Margo (31 August 1994). "BOOKS OF THE TIMES; Digging Up a Tale of Terror Among the Osages". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
^ "The FBI's First Big Case: The Osage Murders". History. 12 October 2023. Archived from the original on 10 February 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
^ United States Census (1930). "Indian Population of the United States" (PDF). 1930 Federal Population Census. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2024. At that time the mixed bloods had reached about 33 percent or the total. Since then, the population has steadily increased, but the number or full bloods has continued to decline. In 1910, 591, or 43.0%, claimed to be of full blood, but by 1930 the number of full bloods had declined to 545, or 23.3 percent.
^ Robertson, Geoffrey (2016). "Armenia and the G-word: The Law and the Politics". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 69–83. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3. Put another way – if these same events occurred today, there can be no doubt that prosecutions before the ICC of Talaat and other CUP officials for genocide, for persecution and for other crimes against humanity would succeed. Turkey would be held responsible for genocide and for persecution by the ICJ and would be required to make reparation.14 That Court would also hold Germany responsible for complicity with the genocide and persecution, since it had full knowledge of the massacres and deportations and decided not to use its power and influence over the Ottomans to stop them. But to the overarching legal question that troubles the international community today, namely whether the killings of Armenians in 1915 can properly be described as a genocide, the analysis in this chapter returns are sounding affirmative answer.
^ Lattanzi, Flavia (2018). "The Armenian Massacres as the Murder of a Nation?". The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later: Open Questions and Tentative Answers in International Law. Springer International Publishing. pp. 27–104. ISBN 978-3-319-78169-3. Starting from the claim by the Armenian community and the majority of historians that the 1915–1916 Armenian massacres and deportations constitute genocide as well as Turkey's fierce opposition to such a qualification, this paper investigates the possibility of identifying those massacres and deportations as the destruction of a nation. On the basis of a thorough analysis of the facts and the required mental element, the author shows that a deliberate destruction, in a substantial part, of the Armenian Christian nation as such, took place in those years. To come to this conclusion, this paper borrows the very same determinants as those used in the case-law of the Military Tribunals in occupied Germany, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in genocide cases.
^ "The Armenian Genocide (1915–16): In Depth". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 20 October 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2020. Although the term genocide was not coined until 1944, most scholars agree that the mass murder of Armenians fits this definition. The CUP government systematically used an emergency military situation to effect a long-term population policy aimed at strengthening Muslim Turkish elements in Anatolia at the expense of the Christian population (primarily Armenians, but also Christian Assyrians). Ottoman, Armenian, US, British, French, German, and Austrian documents from the time reveal that the CUP leadership intentionally targeted the Armenian population of Anatolia.
^ Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-674-24008-7.
^ Ze'evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (2020). "Response to Critique: The thirty-year genocide. Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924, by Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi, Cambridge, MA, and London, Harvard University Press, 2019, 672 pp., USD$35.00 (hardcover), ISBN 9780674916456". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (4): 561–566. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1735600. S2CID 216395523.
^ Bijak, Jakub; Lubman, Sarah (2016). "The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3.
^ Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-674-91645-6.
^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. p. xxi. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1.
^ Pamuk, Şevket (2018). Uneven Centuries: Economic Development of Turkey since 1820. Princeton University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0691184982.
^ Travis, Hannibal (December 2006). Native Christians Massacred': The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I. Genocide Studies and Prevention. Vol. 1. pp. 327–371.
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^ Jones, Adam (13 September 2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 166. ISBN 9781136937972. An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period.
^ Geshov, Ivan Evstratiev (1919). La genèse de la guerre mondiale: la débâcle de l'alliance balkanique (in French) (as for example that of the Serbian deputy Triša Kaclerovićh, who, in an article published in 1917 by the International Bulletin, affirms that in 1912-1913 120,000 Albanians were massacred by the Serbian army ed.). P. Haupt. p. 64. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
^ Rifati, Fitim (2021). "Kryengritjet shqiptare në Kosovë si alternativë çlirimi nga sundimi serbo-malazez (1913-1914)" (PDF). Journal of Balkan Studies. 1. Journal of Balkan Studies: 84. doi:10.51331/A004. According to Serbian Social Democrat politician Kosta Novakovic, from October 1912 to the end of 1913, the Serbo-Montenegrin regime exterminated more than 120,000 Albanians of all ages, and forcibly expelled more than 50,000 Albanians to the Ottoman Empire and Albania.
^ Ke, Jing. "Change the Hostile Other into Ingroup Partner: On the Albanian-Serb Relations" (PDF). Kosovo Public Policy Center: 83. 120,000-270,000 Albanians were killed and approximately 250,000 Albanians were expelled between 1912 and 1914.
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^ ^a ^b Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010). Historical Dictionary of Armenia (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 154..
^ Akçam 2006, p. 42.
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^ ^a ^b ^c Akçam 2006, p. 44.
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^ ^a ^b Barry, Ellen (20 May 2011). "Georgia Says Russia Committed Genocide in 19th Century". New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023.
^ Hildebrandt, Amber (14 August 2012). "Russia's Sochi Olympics awakens Circassian anger". CBC News. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
^ "Georgia Recognizes 'Circassian Genocide'". Civil Georgia. 20 May 2011. Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
^ "Gruziya priznala genotsid cherkesov v tsarskoy Rossii" Грузия признала геноцид черкесов в царской России [Georgia recognized the Circassian genocide in Tsarist Russia]. lenta.ru (in Russian). 20 May 2011. Archived from the original on 27 November 2023.
^ Richmond 2013; Levene 2005, p. 301: "..anything between 1 and 1.5 million Circassians perished either directly, or indirectly, as a result of the Russian military campaign"; Human Rights Association 2023: "Tsarist Russia pursued a policy of total extermination in the east of the Caucasus, in Dagestan and the Chechen-Ingush region, without discriminating between women and children throughout the war. More than one million Circassians were massacred and many more were exiled from their homeland."; Genel Komite 2014
^ Shenfield 1999, p. 154: "The number who died in the Circassian catastrophe of the 1860s could hardly, therefore, be less than one million, and may well have been closer to one-and-a-half million"; Richmond 2013; Genel Komite 2014; Ahmed 2013, p. 357: "In the 1860s Russia killed 1.5 million Circassians, half of their population, and expelled the other half from their lands."
^ Messenger, Evan (6 December 2023). "The Circassian Genocide: The Forgotten Tragedy of the First Modern Genocide". American University: Journal of International Service. The corroboration between both Turkish and Russian documents puts the number of Circassian deaths by military operations and pre-planned massacres between 1.5 – 2 million; ...
^ Richmond 2013, p. 132: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported."
^ Rosser-Owen, Isla. "The First Circassian Exodus to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, based on the accounts of Contemporary British Observers" (PDF). Circassianworld. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2024.
^ King, Charles. The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus. p. 95.
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[10] "albarlaman aleiraqiu yuetabar jarayim "daeish" bihaqi alturkuman 'iibadat jamaeiatan" البرلمان العراقي يعتبر جرائم "داعش" بحق التركمان إبادة جماعية [The Iraqi Parliament considers ISIS crimes against the Turkmen to be genocide] (in Arabic). Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 13 August 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2023.

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[FOOTNOTEWilliams2012192-18] Williams 2012, p. 192.

[FOOTNOTEElhag2014210-19] Elhag 2014, p. 210.

[21] Guha-Sapir, Debarati; Degomme, Olivier (2005). "Darfur: counting the deaths (2). What are the trends?". Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. hdl:2078.1/179717.

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[exter-23] Penketh, Anne (7 July 2004). "Extermination of the pygmies". The Independent. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.

[FOOTNOTEPenketh2004-24] Penketh 2004.

[SeshadriICE1-26] "Between October 2002 and January 2003, two the rebel groups, the MLC and RCD-N in the East of the Congo launched a premeditated, systematic genocide against the local tribes and Pygmies nicknamed operation "Effacer le Tableau" ("erase the board"). During their offensive against the civilian population of the Ituri region, the rebel groups left more than 60,000 dead and over 100,000 displaced. The rebels even engaged in slavery and cannibalism. Human Rights Reports state that this was due to the fact that rebel groups, often far away from their bases of supply and desperate for food, enslaved the Pygmies on captured farms to grow provisions for their militias or when times get really tough simply slaughter them like animals and devour their flesh which some believe gives them magical powers. 11. Fatality Level of Dispute (military and civilian fatalities): 70,000 estimated" see: Seshadri, Raja (7 November 2005). "Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict". Case Study 163. The Inventory of Conflict & Environment, American University. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2012.

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[31] F. Emizet, Kisangani N. (July 2000). "The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 38 (2): 163–202. doi:10.1017/S0022278X0000330X. JSTOR 161648. S2CID 154818651.

[McDoom-33] McDoom, Omar Shahabudin (2020). "Contested Counting: Toward a Rigorous Estimate of the Death Toll in the Rwandan Genocide" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 83–93. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703252. S2CID 214032255. If one examines the claims for the overall number killed, at the higher end lies the figure of 1,074,017 Rwandan dead. This number originates with the Rwandan government which conducted a nationwide census in July 2000, six years after the genocide. Toward the lower end lies an estimate from Human Rights Watch, one of the first organizations on the ground to investigate the genocide, of 507,000 Tutsi killed... I have estimated between 491,000 and 522,000 Tutsi, nearly two thirds of Rwanda's pre-genocide Tutsi population, were killed between 6 April and 19 July 1994. I calculated this death toll by subtracting my estimate of between 278,000 and 309,000 Tutsi survivors from my estimate of a baseline Tutsi population of almost exactly 800,000, or 10.8% of the overall population, on the eve of the genocide... In comparison with estimates at the higher and lower ends, my estimate is significantly lower than the Government of Rwanda's genocide census figure of 1,006,031 Tutsi killed. I believe this number is not credible.

[34] Guichaoua, André (2020). "Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (1): 125–141. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329. S2CID 213471539.

[FOOTNOTEIrwin2012-35] Irwin 2012.

[FOOTNOTEGutman1993-36] Gutman 1993.

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[89] Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.
* This estimates comes from taking the minimum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the minimum starved.
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"The CAVR Report". Archived from the original on 13 May 2012.

[90] Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/− 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/− 1,000) were either killed or disappeared, and that approximately 84,000 (+/− 11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically-based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound, however, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings:*This estimates comes from taking the maximum killed violently applying the 70% violent death responsibility given to Indonesian military combined with the maximum starved.
"Conflict-related Deaths in Timor Leste, 1954–1999. The Findings of the CAVR Report". cavr-timorleste.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2018.

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[burundik-96] Krueger, Robert; Krueger, Kathleen Tobin (2007). From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years During Genocide (PDF). University of Texas Press (PDF). p. 29. ISBN 9780292714861.

[FOOTNOTEHamoodur_Rahman_Commission_Report1974-97] Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report 1974.

[FOOTNOTEJahan2013256-98] Jahan 2013, p. 256.

[100] Dummett, Mark (16 December 2011). "How one newspaper report changed world history". BBC News. Archived from the original on 16 June 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2020.

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[103] Rummel, R.J. (January 1997). Death By Government. Routledge. p. 331. ISBN 1560009276. The human death toll over only 267 days was incredible. Just to give for five out of the eighteen districts some incomplete statistics published in Bangladesh newspapers or by an Inquiry Committee, the Pakistani army killed 100,000 Bengalis in Dacca, 150,000 in Khulna, 75,000 in Jessore, 95,000 in Comilla, and 100,000 in Chittagong. For eighteen districts the total is 1,247,000 killed. This was an incomplete toll, and to this day no one really knows the final toll. Some estimates of the democide (i.e. Rummel's 'death by government') are much lower—one is of 300,000 dead—but most range from 1 million to 3 million. ... The Pakistani army and allied paramilitary groups killed about one out of every sixty-one people in Pakistan overall; one out of every twenty-five Bengalis, Hindus, and others in East Pakistan. If the rate of killing for all of Pakistan is annualised over the years the Yahya martial law regime was in power (March 1969 to December 1971), then this one regime was more lethal than that of the Soviet Union, China under the communists, or Japan under the military (even through World War II).

[104] Kuper, Leo (5 July 2017). Race, Class, and Power: Ideology and Revolutionary Change in Plural Societies. Routledge. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-351-49504-2.

[Ibrahim_2015-105] Ibrahim, Abdullah Ali (June 2015). "The 1964 Zanzibar Genocide: The Politics of Denial" – via ResearchGate. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[Areo-Zanzibar-106] "What We Forgot To Remember, Part 1: Genocide in Zanzibar". Areo. 2 July 2017. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.

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[FOOTNOTECEH1999-109] CEH 1999.

[FOOTNOTECEH199920-110] CEH 1999, p. 20.

[FOOTNOTECEH199923-111] CEH 1999, p. 23.

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[Nekrich-115] Nekrich, Aleksandr. The Punished Peoples.

[Dunlop-116] Dunlop. Russia Confronts Chechnya. pp. 62–70.

[Gammera-117] Gammer, Moshe (2006). Lone Wolf and the Bear. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 166–171. ISBN 0822958988.

[Rummel-118] Rummel, R. J. (1990). Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56000-887-3. Retrieved 1 March 2014.

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[120] "Press-Release: February 23, World Chechnya Day". Save Chechnya Campaign. Archived from the original on 27 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2013.

[122] Wong, Tom K. (2015). Rights, Deportation, and Detention in the Age of Immigration Control. Stanford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780804794572. LCCN 2014038930. page 68

[123] Chanturiya, Kazbek (23 February 2017). "After 73 years, the memory of Stalin's deportation of Chechens and Ingush still haunts the survivors". OC Media. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.

[124] Wood, Tony. Chechnya: the Case for Independence. pp. 37–38.

[125] "Soviet Transit, Camp, and Deportation Death Rates". University of Hawaiʻi. Retrieved 29 May 2019.

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[FOOTNOTEFisher2014150-127] Fisher 2014, p. 150.

[FOOTNOTEAllworth1998216-128] Allworth 1998, p. 216.

[129] Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 June 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2018.

[buc-131] Buckley, Cynthia J.; Ruble, Blair A.; Hofmann, Erin Trouth (2008). Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780801890758.

[132] Allworth, Edward (1998). The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland: Studies and Documents. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780822319948. LCCN 97019110. OCLC 610947243.

[133] ""Punished Peoples" of the Soviet Union: The Continuing Legacy of Stalin's Deportations" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 1991. p. 34.

[134] Allworth, Edward; Columbia University Center for the Study of Central Asia (1988). Tatars of the Crimea: Their Struggle for Survival: Original Studies from North America, Unofficial and Official Documents from Czarist and Soviet Sources. Duke University Press. pp. 173, 191–193. ISBN 978-0-8223-0758-7 – via Google Books.

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[138] 
Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event"" (PDF). Hypatia. 35 (4): 635. doi:10.1017/hyp.2020.41. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2023. ...between 5 and 6 million. According to Wolfgang Benz, at least 5.29 million up to around 6 million Jews of every age were murdered (Benz 1991, 17), whereas Raul Hilberg counts 5.1 million dead (Hilberg 2003, 1320–21)

Fischel 2020, p. 10: "The number of Jews killed by the Germans in the Holocaust cannot be precisely calculated. Various historians, however, have provided estimates that range between 4,204,000 and 7,000,000, with the use of the round figure of six million Jews murdered as the best estimate to describe the immensity of the Nazi genocide. The Germans exterminated approximately 54 percent of the Jews within their reach..."

Roth, John K. (2020). Sources of Holocaust Insight: Learning and Teaching about the Genocide. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 1n1. ISBN 978-1-5326-7418-1 – via Google Books. ...Raul Hilberg... 5.1 million... Israel Gutman and Robert Rozett... between 5–5 and 5.8 million... Wolfgang Benz... 6.2 million. The figures remain imprecise for several reasons, including...

Rummel, R.J. (2017) [1978]. "Democide in Totalitarian States". In Charny, Israel W. (ed.). The widening circle of genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-29406-5 – via Google Books. 4,204,400 to 4,575,400... the lowest count by any reputable study.

Oman, Nathan (2016). The dignity of commerce: markets and the moral foundations of contract law. University of Chicago Press. p. 203n64. ISBN 9780226415529 – via Google Books. Bloxham... "Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000...

Stier, Oren Baruch (2015). Holocaust Icons: Symbolizing the Shoah in History and Memory. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-7404-2 – via Google Books. ... between five and six million. The late Raul Hilberg, for example, political scientist and widely acknowledged dean of Holocaust historiography, estimated 5.1 million Jewish victims, and that number did not change in the third edition of his monumental work. This indicates, one might presume, that he was satisfied with his rigorous investigation into this figure... The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust offers a number of "more than" five million in its definition of the Holocaust.18 In 2007 the Division of the Senior Historian at the USHMM developed a series of estimates (dependent on means of counting) of between 5.65 million and 5.93 million, based on published accounts by Hilberg and others as well as on Soviet documents available only since 1991... No estimate has gone higher than six million.

[119] Riep, Leonhard (2020). "The Production of the Muselmann and the Singularity of Auschwitz: A Critique of Adriana Cavarero's Account of the "Auschwitz Event"" (PDF). Hypatia. 35 (4): 635. doi:10.1017/hyp.2020.41. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2023. ...between 5 and 6 million. According to Wolfgang Benz, at least 5.29 million up to around 6 million Jews of every age were murdered (Benz 1991, 17), whereas Raul Hilberg counts 5.1 million dead (Hilberg 2003, 1320–21)

[120] Fischel 2020, p. 10: "The number of Jews killed by the Germans in the Holocaust cannot be precisely calculated. Various historians, however, have provided estimates that range between 4,204,000 and 7,000,000, with the use of the round figure of six million Jews murdered as the best estimate to describe the immensity of the Nazi genocide. The Germans exterminated approximately 54 percent of the Jews within their reach..."

[121] Roth, John K. (2020). Sources of Holocaust Insight: Learning and Teaching about the Genocide. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 1n1. ISBN 978-1-5326-7418-1 – via Google Books. ...Raul Hilberg... 5.1 million... Israel Gutman and Robert Rozett... between 5–5 and 5.8 million... Wolfgang Benz... 6.2 million. The figures remain imprecise for several reasons, including...

[122] Rummel, R.J. (2017) [1978]. "Democide in Totalitarian States". In Charny, Israel W. (ed.). The widening circle of genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-29406-5 – via Google Books. 4,204,400 to 4,575,400... the lowest count by any reputable study.

[123] Oman, Nathan (2016). The dignity of commerce: markets and the moral foundations of contract law. University of Chicago Press. p. 203n64. ISBN 9780226415529 – via Google Books. Bloxham... "Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000...

[124] Stier, Oren Baruch (2015). Holocaust Icons: Symbolizing the Shoah in History and Memory. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-7404-2 – via Google Books. ... between five and six million. The late Raul Hilberg, for example, political scientist and widely acknowledged dean of Holocaust historiography, estimated 5.1 million Jewish victims, and that number did not change in the third edition of his monumental work. This indicates, one might presume, that he was satisfied with his rigorous investigation into this figure... The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust offers a number of "more than" five million in its definition of the Holocaust.18 In 2007 the Division of the Senior Historian at the USHMM developed a series of estimates (dependent on means of counting) of between 5.65 million and 5.93 million, based on published accounts by Hilberg and others as well as on Soviet documents available only since 1991... No estimate has gone higher than six million.

[139] 
Mawdsley, Evan (2015) [2005]. Thunder in the East: The Nazi-Soviet War 1941–1945. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 437n30. ISBN 978-1-4725-1008-2 – via Google Books. ... His total death toll for the European Holocaust was 5,100,00

Rubinstein, William D. (2014) [2004]. Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Books. The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former

Cesarani, David; Kushner, Tony; Reilly, Jo; Richmond, Colin (2013) [2007]. Belsen in History and Memory. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-25137-6 – via Google Books. ...5.29 million to over six million Jewish victims.

Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) [2010]. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Books. Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million

[126] Mawdsley, Evan (2015) [2005]. Thunder in the East: The Nazi-Soviet War 1941–1945. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 437n30. ISBN 978-1-4725-1008-2 – via Google Books. ... His total death toll for the European Holocaust was 5,100,00

[127] Rubinstein, William D. (2014) [2004]. Genocide. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-86995-5 – via Google Books. The number of Jews killed at the hands of the Nazis is invariably given, in shorthand terms at any rate, as 6 million, a figure which has, of course, entered the common consciousness and is endlessly repeated.122 It appears likely, however, that this number is too high by a considerable amount, as some careful Holocaust scholars such as Gerald Reitlinger and Raul Hilberg have pointed out. Reitlinger's early (1953) but carefully argued estimate of between 4,194,000 and 4,581,000 Jewish deaths is certainly the lowest ever offered by a serious historian; Hilberg's more recent, but even more carefully argued estimate of 5,100,000... appears to be the next lowest among reputable scholars... it appears to this historian that Reitlinger's figures are probably most nearly correct, with the figure of Jewish victims of the Holocaust numbering about 4.7 million, although there is a wide margin of imprecision. Given that about 2.7 million Jews perished in the six major extermination camps, a figure of 6 million Jewish dead necessarily means that 3.3 million perished in other ways: this is very difficult to believe and is almost certainly an exaggeration. In demographic terms, there are two ways of approaching this question: to compare the number of Jews in Nazi-occupied countries in September 1939 with those alive in May 1945 (bearing in mind such other factors as the escape of refugees and battle deaths), and to provide an estimate of the number of Jews who perished by method of death in the extermination camps, at the hands of the Einsatzgruppen, etc. Both are fraught with difficulties, especially the former

[128] Cesarani, David; Kushner, Tony; Reilly, Jo; Richmond, Colin (2013) [2007]. Belsen in History and Memory. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-25137-6 – via Google Books. ...5.29 million to over six million Jewish victims.

[129] Hayes, Peter; Roth, John K. (2012) [2010]. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-19-165079-6 – via Google Books. Nevertheless, scholarly research, aided by recently opened archives and computerized data processing capacities, has put statistical estimates on a firmer footing than was possible in earlier decades. In previous stages of research, estimates of the Jewish victims ranged from 4,202,000—4,575,400 (Reitlinger 1961: 533–46), to 5.1 million (Hilberg 1961: 767), to 5,820,960 (Robinson 1971'. 889), to 6,093,000 (Lestchinsky 1948:60). At the end of the 1980s two different teams, one headed by a German scholar, another by an Israeli, meticulously reviewed all the available data and arrived at the following numbers for Jewish fatalities during the Holocaust: 5,596,000 to 5,860,149 (Gutman 1990: 1799) and 5.29 million to slightly more than 6 million (Benz 1991: 17). The new Yad Vashem museum, which opened in 2005, mentions 5,786,748 Jewish victims. One can be skeptical of such precision, but the most current research reliably calculates a total number of victims close to the now iconic figure Six Million

[140] Hoffmann, Peter (2011-07-11). Carl Goerdeler and the Jewish Question, 1933–1942. Cambridge University Press. p. xii. ISBN 978-1-139-49944-6 – via Google Books. The SS' own statistic for Jews killed under German authority is 5.1 million
Bloxham, Donald (2009). The Final Solution: A Genocide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 1. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550333.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-955034-0 – via Google Books. Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000

Moore, Deborah D. (2008). American Jewish Identity Politics. University of Michigan Press. pp. 77–78 n 5. ISBN 978-0-472-02464-3 – via Google Books. The exact number of Jews killed is not known and probably never will be known precisely. Raul Hilberg has placed the figure at 5.1 million; Lucy Dawidowicz estimated it at 5,933,900; Martin Gilbert, at 5–75 million; the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust states a minimum figure of 5,596,000 and a maximum of 5,860,000; and Wolfgang Benz sets the minimum at and a maximum of over six million. As previously unavailable archival materials in the former Soviet Union are made known to scholars, these figures are likely to be revised and, from early indications, probably upward. Some of these figures and an informed explanation of how they have been reached can be found in Franciszek Piper, "The Number of Victims," Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, ed. Yisrael Gutman and Michael Berenbaum (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 61—76.

McKale, Donald M. (2006) [2002]. Hitler's Shadow War: The Holocaust and World War II. Taylor Trade Publishing. p. 454. ISBN 978-1-4616-3547-5 – via Google Books. According to the most reliable estimates, a minimum of 5,290,000 and maximum of slightly over 6 million Jews died.

Welch, Steven Robert (2001). A Survey of Interpretive Paradigms in Holocaust Studies and a Comment on the Dimensions of the Holocaust; and "The Annihilation of Superfluous Eaters": Nazi Plans for and Use of Famine in Eastern Europe. Yale Center for International and Area Studies. Genocide Studies Program. p. 12. In one of the first scholarly attempts to quantify the overall scope of the Holocaust, Gerald Reitlinger in 1953 gave a minimum figure of 4,194,200 and a maximum of 4,581,200 Jewish victims... Raul Hilberg in his standard work estimated the total at 5.1 million... The study arrives at a minimum figure of 5.29 million and a maximum of just over six million. These figures may now need to be revised (probably upward) on the basis of material from the archives of the former Soviet Union. Benz's book, however, should be considered as the most thorough and reliable study now available.

[131] Bloxham, Donald (2009). The Final Solution: A Genocide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 1. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550333.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-955034-0 – via Google Books. Between 5,100,000 and 6,200,000

[132] Moore, Deborah D. (2008). American Jewish Identity Politics. University of Michigan Press. pp. 77–78 n 5. ISBN 978-0-472-02464-3 – via Google Books. The exact number of Jews killed is not known and probably never will be known precisely. Raul Hilberg has placed the figure at 5.1 million; Lucy Dawidowicz estimated it at 5,933,900; Martin Gilbert, at 5–75 million; the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust states a minimum figure of 5,596,000 and a maximum of 5,860,000; and Wolfgang Benz sets the minimum at and a maximum of over six million. As previously unavailable archival materials in the former Soviet Union are made known to scholars, these figures are likely to be revised and, from early indications, probably upward. Some of these figures and an informed explanation of how they have been reached can be found in Franciszek Piper, "The Number of Victims," Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, ed. Yisrael Gutman and Michael Berenbaum (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 61—76.

[133] McKale, Donald M. (2006) [2002]. Hitler's Shadow War: The Holocaust and World War II. Taylor Trade Publishing. p. 454. ISBN 978-1-4616-3547-5 – via Google Books. According to the most reliable estimates, a minimum of 5,290,000 and maximum of slightly over 6 million Jews died.

[134] Welch, Steven Robert (2001). A Survey of Interpretive Paradigms in Holocaust Studies and a Comment on the Dimensions of the Holocaust; and "The Annihilation of Superfluous Eaters": Nazi Plans for and Use of Famine in Eastern Europe. Yale Center for International and Area Studies. Genocide Studies Program. p. 12. In one of the first scholarly attempts to quantify the overall scope of the Holocaust, Gerald Reitlinger in 1953 gave a minimum figure of 4,194,200 and a maximum of 4,581,200 Jewish victims... Raul Hilberg in his standard work estimated the total at 5.1 million... The study arrives at a minimum figure of 5.29 million and a maximum of just over six million. These figures may now need to be revised (probably upward) on the basis of material from the archives of the former Soviet Union. Benz's book, however, should be considered as the most thorough and reliable study now available.

[FOOTNOTEFischel2020[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidT4LQDwAAQBAJpgPA10_10]-141] Fischel 2020, p. 10.

[142] "Remaining Jewish Population of Europe in 1945". Holocaust Encyclopedia. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. According to the American Jewish Yearbook, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. In 1950, the Jewish population of Europe was about 3.5 million.

[143] Berenbaum, Michael (2006). The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. ISBN 978-0-8018-8358-3.

[144] Earl Porter, Thomas (20 November 2018). "Hitler's Rassenkampf in the East: The Forgotten Genocide of Soviet POWs". Nationalities Papers. 37 (6): 839–859. doi:10.1080/00905990903230785. S2CID 162190846. Archived from the original on 9 September 2023.

[genocide-pows-145] Jones, Adam (2017). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 377. ISBN 9781138823846. 'Next to the Jews in Europe,' wrote Alexander Werth', 'the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger, exposure and in other ways of ... Russian war prisoners.' Yet the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of the most intensive genocides of all time: 'a holocaust that devoured millions,' as Catherine Merridale acknowledges. The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide.

[146] Taulbee, James Larry (2017). Genocide, Mass Atrocity, and War Crimes in Modern History: Blood and Conscience [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 124. ISBN 978-1440829857 – via Google Books.

[deathtoll-147] Calvocoressi, Peter; Wint, Guy (1989). Total War (Revised ed.). Viking Press. The total number of prisoners taken by the German armies in the USSR was in the region of 5.5 million. Of these, the astounding number of 3.5 million or more had been lost by the middle of 1944 and the assumption must be that they were either deliberately killed or done to death by criminal negligence. Nearly two million of them died in camps and close on another million disappeared while in military custody either in the USSR or in rear areas; a further quarter of a million disappeared or died in transit between the front and destinations in the rear; another 473,000 died or were killed in military custody in Germany or Poland.

[148] "Nazi persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020.

[FOOTNOTEFischer2007207–210-149] Fischer 2007, pp. 207–210.

[Yeomans-151] Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941-1945. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780822977933. Although the estimates of the number of Serbs murdered by the regime vary, even the most conservative figures suggest that out of a pre-war population of 1.9 million, at least 200,000 and possibly as many as 500,000 died at the hands of Ustasha death squads, were executed, or perished in the state's concentration camps.

[AxisYugo-152] Cite error: The named reference AxisYugo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[stategov-153] "The JUST Act Report: Croatia". state.gov. U.S. Department of State. In all, approximately 30,000 Jews (between 75-80 percent of the Jews within the NDH) died during the Holocaust, the majority at the hands of the Ustasha, although the NDH also transferred some 7,000 Jews to the Nazis to be deported to Auschwitz... The NDH also killed an estimated 25,000 or more Roma men, women, and children, the vast majority of the Roma population under its control.

[155] Redžić, Enver (2005). Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War. London; New York: Frank Cass. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-7146-5625-0 – via Google Books.

[156] Klemenčič, Matjaž; Žagar, Mitja (2004). The former Yugoslavia's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook. ABC-CLIO. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-57607-294-3 – via Google Books.

[157] Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943. Oxford University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0197263801 – via Google Books.

[FOOTNOTETomasevich2001379,_747-158] Tomasevich 2001, pp. 379, 747.

[Geiger-159] Geiger, Vladimir [in Croatian] (2012). "Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators". Revue für Kroatische Geschichte = Revue d'Histoire Croate. VIII (1): 77–121. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023.

[161] Furber, David; Lower, Wendy (2008). "Colonialism and genocide in Nazi-occupied Poland and Ukraine". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. p. 393. ISBN 978-1-78238-214-0 – via Google Books.

[162] Bauer, Yehuda (1999). "Comparison of Genocides". In Chorbajian, Levon; Shirinian, George (eds.). Studies in Comparative Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 31–43. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-27348-5_3. ISBN 978-1-349-27348-5. According to Polish sources, about three million ethnic Poles lost their lives during the war, or about 10 per cent of the Polish nation(...) large numbers were murdered, or died as a result of direct German actions such as denying food or medical treatment to Poles, or incarceration in concentration camps. There is no way of estimating the exact proportions, but I believe it would be difficult to deny that we have here a case of mass murder directed against Poles. German plans regarding Poles talked about denationalizing the Polish people, or in other words, making them into individuals who would no longer have any national identity(...)This is a case of genocide – a purposeful attempt toeliminate an ethnicity or a nation, accompanied by the murder of large numbers of the targeted group.

[USHMM-Poles-163] "Polish Victims". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 30 October 2020. It is estimated that the Germans killed between 1.8 and 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II. In addition, the Germans murdered at least 3 million Jewish citizens of Poland.

[164] Cherry, Robert D.; Orla-Bukowska, Annamaria (2007). Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7425-4666-0 – via Google Books. ...and the ruthlessness of German rule in Poland, where three million gentiles also perished and the punishment for hiding a Jew was execution of captured rescuers and their immediate families.

[Banki-165] Banki & Pawlikowski 2001, p. 93: "...Along with those three million Polish Jews, three million Polish civilians were murdered as well...."

[166] Ellman, Michael (June 2007). "Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited". Europe-Asia Studies. 59 (4): 663–693. doi:10.1080/09668130701291899. JSTOR 20451381. S2CID 53655536.

[167] Sebag-Montefiore, Simon (2003). Stalin. The Court of the Red Tsar. New York: Vintage Books. p. 229. ISBN 1-4000-7678-1.

[168] Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). "The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 August 2018.

[stalpol-169] Naimark, Norman M. (November 2016). Genocide: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-063772-9.

[171] Goldman, Wendy Z. (2011). Inventing the Enemy: Denunciation and Terror in Stalin's Russia. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-19196-8.

[172] Rubenstein, Joshua. "The Devils' Playground". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2011. Rubenstein is the Northeast regional director of Amnesty International USA and a co-editor of The Unknown Black Book: The Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories.

[173] Michael Ellman, Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine PDF file page 686

[Alan_Cambeira-174] Cambeira, Alan (1997). Quisqueya la bella (1996 ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 182. ISBN 1-56324-936-7.
anyone of African descent found incapable of pronouncing correctly, that is, to the complete satisfaction of the sadistic examiners, became a condemned individual. This holocaust is recorded as having a death toll reaching thirty thousand innocent souls, Haitians as well as Dominicans.

[175] Paulino, Edward (16 February 2016). Dividing Hispaniola: The Dominican Republic's Border Campaign against Haiti, 1930-1961. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822981039 – via Google Books.

[Turits,_590-176] Turits 2004, p. 590

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[Turits-178] Turits, Richard Lee (2004). Foundations of Despotism: Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Dominican History. Stanford University Press.

[180] Maria Cristina Fumagalli (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Liverpool University Press. p. 20. ISBN 9781781387573.

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[185] Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-231-50590-1. Retrieved 5 July 2016 – via Google Books.

[186] Hancock, Ian (2005), "True Romanies and the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation and an overview", The Historiography of the Holocaust, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 383–396, ISBN 978-1-4039-9927-6, archived from the original on 28 September 2011

[187] Ignác, Benjamin (2018-08-02). "Why it is important to remember the Roma Holocaust?". European Roma Rights Centre. Retrieved 2023-08-02.

[188] Rozenas, Arturas; Zhukov, Yuri M. (2019). "Mass Repression and Political Loyalty: Evidence from Stalin's 'Terror by Hunger'". American Political Science Review. 113 (2): 571. doi:10.1017/S0003055419000066. S2CID 143428346. Similar to famines in Ireland in 1846–1851 (Ó Gráda 2007) and China in 1959–1961 (Meng, Qian and Yared 2015), the politics behind Holodomor have been a focus of historiographic debate. The most common interpretation is that Holodomor was 'terror by hunger' (Conquest 1987, 224), 'state aggression' (Applebaum 2017) and 'clearly premeditated mass murder' (Snyder 2010, 42). Others view it as an unintended by-product of Stalin's economic policies (Kotkin 2017; Naumenko 2017), precipitated by natural factors like adverse weather and crop infestation (Davies and Wheatcroft 1996; Tauger 2001).

[189] Andriewsky, Olga (2015). "Towards a Decentred History: The Study of the Holodomor and Ukrainian Historiography". East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies. 2: 37. doi:10.21226/T2301N.: "Historians of Ukraine are no longer debating whether the Famine was the result of natural causes (and even then not exclusively by them). The academic debate appears to come down to the issue of intentions, to whether the special measures undertaken in Ukraine in the winter of 1932–33 that intensified starvation were aimed at Ukrainians as such."

[190] Grynevych, Liudmyla (2008). "The Present State of Ukrainian Historiography on the Holodomor and Prospects for Its Development". doi:10.7916/d8-enqm-hy61. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[FOOTNOTENaimark201070-192] Naimark 2010, p. 70.

[FOOTNOTENaimark201070,_147-193] Naimark 2010, pp. 70, 147.

[FOOTNOTENaimark201042,_76-194] Naimark 2010, pp. 42, 76note 2

[Mann309-195] Mann, Michael (2006). The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing. Cambridge University Press. p. 309. ISBN 9780521538541 – via Google Books.

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[FOOTNOTEDuggan2007497-198] Duggan 2007, p. 497.

[Cardoza,_109-199] Cardoza, Anthony L. (2006). Benito Mussolini: the first fascist. Pearson Longman. p. 109.

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[refioseercito-203] "La Milizia Volontaria Sicurezza Nazionale: La partecipazione della Milizia alla riconquista della Libia" [The National Security Volunteer Militia: The participation of the Militia in the reconquest of Libya] (in Italian). Regioesercito. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024.

[FOOTNOTEBloxhamMoses2010358-204] Bloxham & Moses 2010, p. 358.

[thelibyareport-205] The Report: Libya 2008. Oxford Business Group. 2008. p. 17.

[Wright-207] Wright, John (1982). A History of Modern Libya. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023.

[208] Pappé, Ilan (2005). The Modern Middle East. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 0-415-21409-2.

[209] Morska, Izabela (2022-12-08). "Animality as an excuse for murder: David Grann and Killers of the Flower Moon". Beyond Philology (19/4): 97–127. doi:10.26881/bp.2022.4.04. ISSN 2451-1498.

[210] American Mythologies: New Essays on Contemporary Literature (DGO - Digital original ed.). Liverpool University Press. 2005. doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vjbd1. ISBN 978-0-85323-736-5. JSTOR j.ctt5vjbd1. To authorize the Osage terror as genocide and to connect a corner of Oklahoma to a global tribal history, she recreates the Holocaust as a site of hybridity.

[211] Asenap, Jason (6 November 2023). "Killers of the Flower Moon and who gets to tell an Osage story". Vox. Archived from the original on 6 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.

[212] Coyne, Delaney (26 October 2023). "How the Osage Nation became Catholic: The hard truths in 'Killers of the Flower Moon'". America Magazine. Archived from the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.

[213] Bryant, Michael (7 May 2020). "Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 14 (1): 21–39. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632. ISSN 1911-0359.

[215] Jefferson, Margo (31 August 1994). "BOOKS OF THE TIMES; Digging Up a Tale of Terror Among the Osages". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2023.

[216] "The FBI's First Big Case: The Osage Murders". History. 12 October 2023. Archived from the original on 10 February 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2023.

[217] United States Census (1930). "Indian Population of the United States" (PDF). 1930 Federal Population Census. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2024. At that time the mixed bloods had reached about 33 percent or the total. Since then, the population has steadily increased, but the number or full bloods has continued to decline. In 1910, 591, or 43.0%, claimed to be of full blood, but by 1930 the number of full bloods had declined to 545, or 23.3 percent.

[218] Robertson, Geoffrey (2016). "Armenia and the G-word: The Law and the Politics". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 69–83. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3. Put another way – if these same events occurred today, there can be no doubt that prosecutions before the ICC of Talaat and other CUP officials for genocide, for persecution and for other crimes against humanity would succeed. Turkey would be held responsible for genocide and for persecution by the ICJ and would be required to make reparation.14 That Court would also hold Germany responsible for complicity with the genocide and persecution, since it had full knowledge of the massacres and deportations and decided not to use its power and influence over the Ottomans to stop them. But to the overarching legal question that troubles the international community today, namely whether the killings of Armenians in 1915 can properly be described as a genocide, the analysis in this chapter returns are sounding affirmative answer.

[219] Lattanzi, Flavia (2018). "The Armenian Massacres as the Murder of a Nation?". The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later: Open Questions and Tentative Answers in International Law. Springer International Publishing. pp. 27–104. ISBN 978-3-319-78169-3. Starting from the claim by the Armenian community and the majority of historians that the 1915–1916 Armenian massacres and deportations constitute genocide as well as Turkey's fierce opposition to such a qualification, this paper investigates the possibility of identifying those massacres and deportations as the destruction of a nation. On the basis of a thorough analysis of the facts and the required mental element, the author shows that a deliberate destruction, in a substantial part, of the Armenian Christian nation as such, took place in those years. To come to this conclusion, this paper borrows the very same determinants as those used in the case-law of the Military Tribunals in occupied Germany, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in genocide cases.

[220] "The Armenian Genocide (1915–16): In Depth". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 20 October 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2020. Although the term genocide was not coined until 1944, most scholars agree that the mass murder of Armenians fits this definition. The CUP government systematically used an emergency military situation to effect a long-term population policy aimed at strengthening Muslim Turkish elements in Anatolia at the expense of the Christian population (primarily Armenians, but also Christian Assyrians). Ottoman, Armenian, US, British, French, German, and Austrian documents from the time reveal that the CUP leadership intentionally targeted the Armenian population of Anatolia.

[221] Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-674-24008-7.

[222] Ze'evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (2020). "Response to Critique: The thirty-year genocide. Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924, by Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi, Cambridge, MA, and London, Harvard University Press, 2019, 672 pp., USD$35.00 (hardcover), ISBN 9780674916456". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (4): 561–566. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1735600. S2CID 216395523.

[224] Bijak, Jakub; Lubman, Sarah (2016). "The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923". The Armenian Genocide Legacy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-137-56163-3.

[225] Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-674-91645-6.

[226] Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. p. xxi. ISBN 978-1-4008-6558-1.

[227] Pamuk, Şevket (2018). Uneven Centuries: Economic Development of Turkey since 1820. Princeton University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0691184982.

[228] Travis, Hannibal (December 2006). Native Christians Massacred': The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I. Genocide Studies and Prevention. Vol. 1. pp. 327–371.

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[Sjöberg-231] Sjöberg, Erik (2016). The Making of the Greek Genocide: Contested Memories of the Ottoman Greek Catastrophe. Berghahn Books. p. 234. ISBN 978-1-78533-326-2. Activists tend to inflate the overall total of Ottoman Greek deaths, from the cautious estimates between 300,000 to 700,000...

[Jonesa-232] Jones, Adam (13 September 2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 166. ISBN 9781136937972. An estimate of the Pontian Greek death toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about 350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers found in the early postwar period.

[:18-233] Geshov, Ivan Evstratiev (1919). La genèse de la guerre mondiale: la débâcle de l'alliance balkanique (in French) (as for example that of the Serbian deputy Triša Kaclerovićh, who, in an article published in 1917 by the International Bulletin, affirms that in 1912-1913 120,000 Albanians were massacred by the Serbian army ed.). P. Haupt. p. 64. Retrieved 9 August 2023.

[:7-234] Rifati, Fitim (2021). "Kryengritjet shqiptare në Kosovë si alternativë çlirimi nga sundimi serbo-malazez (1913-1914)" (PDF). Journal of Balkan Studies. 1. Journal of Balkan Studies: 84. doi:10.51331/A004. According to Serbian Social Democrat politician Kosta Novakovic, from October 1912 to the end of 1913, the Serbo-Montenegrin regime exterminated more than 120,000 Albanians of all ages, and forcibly expelled more than 50,000 Albanians to the Ottoman Empire and Albania.

[:12-235] Ke, Jing. "Change the Hostile Other into Ingroup Partner: On the Albanian-Serb Relations" (PDF). Kosovo Public Policy Center: 83. 120,000-270,000 Albanians were killed and approximately 250,000 Albanians were expelled between 1912 and 1914.

[FOOTNOTENuhn1989-237] Nuhn 1989.

[FOOTNOTEWhitaker_Report1985-238] Whitaker Report 1985.

[HereroBiblio-239] Moses 2008, p. 296
Sarkin-Hughes 2008, p. 142
Schaller 2008, p. 296
Friedrichsmeyer, Lennox & Zantop 1998, p. 87
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[240] "Germany admits Namibia genocide". BBC News. 14 August 2004. Archived from the original on 27 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2016.

[241] "German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia". The Guardian. 16 August 2004. Archived from the original on 24 September 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2016.

[242] "UN Whitaker Report on Genocide, 1985". Prevent Genocide International. Archived from the original on 11 February 2024. paragraphs 14 to 24, pages 5 to 10

[Adalian-243] Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010). Historical Dictionary of Armenia (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 154..

[FOOTNOTEAkçam200642-244] Akçam 2006, p. 42.

[245] "Fifty Thousand Orphans Made So by the Turkish Massacres of Armenians". The New York Times. 18 December 1896. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. The number of Armenian children under twelve years of age made orphans by the massacres of 1895 is estimated by the missionaries at 50.000

[FOOTNOTEAkçam200644-246] Akçam 2006, p. 44.

[angold2006-247] Angold, Michael (2006). O'Mahony, Anthony (ed.). Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5. Eastern Christianity. Cambridge University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-521-81113-2 – via Google Books.

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[FOOTNOTEChapman2010544-250] Chapman 2010, p. 544.

[252] Adhikari, Mohamed; Carmichael, Cathie; Jones, Adam; Kapila, Shruti; Naimark, Norman; Weitz, Eric D. (2018). "Genocide and Global and/or World History: Reflections". Journal of Genocide Research. 20 (1): 134–153. doi:10.1080/14623528.2017.1363476. S2CID 80081680.

[FOOTNOTEGardini1984-253] Gardini 1984.

[FOOTNOTERay200795-254] Ray 2007, p. 95.

[255] Tully, John (2011). The Devil's Milk A Social History of Rubber. Monthly Review Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-58367-261-7.

[256] Uriarte, Javier; Martínez-Pinzón, Felipe, eds. (2019). Intimate Frontiers A Literary Geography of the Amazon. Liverpool University Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781786949721.

[257] Slavery in Peru: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report of the Secretary of State, with Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Alleged Existence of Slavery in Peru. United States. Department of State. 1913. pp. 119, 160.

[258] Slavery in Peru: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report of the Secretary of State, with Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Alleged Existence of Slavery in Peru. United States. Department of State. 1913. p. 435.

[260] Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 160, 194, 290. ISBN 1372293019.

[261] Valcárcel, Carlos (1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos [The Putumayo process and its unprecedented secrets] (in Spanish). Centro de Estudios Teológicos de la Amazonía. p. 165. ISBN 978-9972-9410-9-2.

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[272] Richmond 2013; Levene 2005, p. 301: "..anything between 1 and 1.5 million Circassians perished either directly, or indirectly, as a result of the Russian military campaign"; Human Rights Association 2023: "Tsarist Russia pursued a policy of total extermination in the east of the Caucasus, in Dagestan and the Chechen-Ingush region, without discriminating between women and children throughout the war. More than one million Circassians were massacred and many more were exiled from their homeland."; Genel Komite 2014

[273] Shenfield 1999, p. 154: "The number who died in the Circassian catastrophe of the 1860s could hardly, therefore, be less than one million, and may well have been closer to one-and-a-half million"; Richmond 2013; Genel Komite 2014; Ahmed 2013, p. 357: "In the 1860s Russia killed 1.5 million Circassians, half of their population, and expelled the other half from their lands."

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[FOOTNOTERichmond2013132-275] Richmond 2013, p. 132: "If we assume that Berzhe's middle figure of 50,000 was close to the number who survived to settle in the lowlands, then between 95 percent and 97 percent of all Circassians were killed outright, died during Evdokimov's campaign, or were deported."

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[Sino1-315] Cite error: The named reference Sino1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[Sino2-316] Cite error: The named reference Sino2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

[FOOTNOTEPerdue2005-317] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Perdue 2005.

[FOOTNOTEWei1842-318] Wei 1842.

[FOOTNOTELattimore1950[httpsarchiveorgdetailspivotofasiasinki0000lattpage126_126]-319] Lattimore 1950, p. 126.

[FOOTNOTEClarke200437-320] Clarke 2004, p. 37.

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