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{{Main|Travel in classical antiquity}}
{{Main|Travel in classical antiquity}}


Long-distance travel was difficult to access for [[Poverty in ancient Rome|poorer Romans]] due to limited time and economic constraints.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Lomine |first=Loykie |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781845410339/html |title=Histories of Tourism |date=2005-10-12 |work= |publisher=Channel View Publications |isbn=978-1-84541-033-9 |pages=69–87 |language=en |chapter=Tourism in Augustan Society (44 BC-AD 69) |doi=10.21832/9781845410339-006/pdf?licensetype=restricted |access-date=2024-03-18 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781845410339-006/pdf?licenseType=restricted}}</ref>{{Rp|page=77}} Shipwrecks, storms,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=149-150}} poor maps,<ref>Adams, Colin; et al. (2011). ''[[iarchive:isbn_0415230349|Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire]]''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-62018-5}}.</ref>{{Rp|pages=10-11}} and [[Weather|weather conditions]] also presented challenges for tourists, although there was little [[piracy]] in ancient Rome.<ref name=":0">Casson, Lionel (1994). ''[[iarchive:travelinancientw0000cass|Travel in the Ancient World]]''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp 76, 78, 202 {{ISBN|978-0-8018-4808-7}}.</ref>{{Rp|pages=149-150}} Usage of the [[Roman roads]] was limited by the poorer quality of roads more distant from cities and towns.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=168}} Roads were primarily intended for the transportation of military forces rather than for tourism.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=164}}<ref>Talbert, R.J.A. "[https://www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1994_num_96_3_4599_t1_0637_0000_2 Gouvernants et Gouvernés dans l<nowiki>''</nowiki>Impérium Romanum]'". ''Cahier des Études Anciennes''. Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières.</ref> Travelers were aided by the [[hospitality]] traditions of the Greco-Roman world. The Romans viewed hospitality, which they termed ''[[hospitium]]'', as a [[moral obligation]].<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|wstitle=Hospitium|volume=13|page=801|inline=1}}</ref> [[Guide book|Guidebooks]] and tour [[Guide|guides]] provided additional assistance to ancient Roman tourists. In [[Amores (Lucian)|''Amores'']], [[Lucian]] satirically describes an incident at the Sanctuary of [[Dionysus]] where numerous opportunists beset one of the characters, offering to explain the stories behind the various sites for a price.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=82}} According to [[Plutarch]], the tour guides were notoriously loquacious. In ''[[Moralia]]'', Plutarch wrote that "the guides went through their standard speech, paying no attention whatsoever to our entreaties to cut the talk short and leave out most of the explanations on the inscriptions and epitaphs."<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=83}} [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], as quoted by [[Nonius Marcellus|Nonius]], once satirically wrote a prayer invoking protection against these tour guides: "[[Zeus]], protect me from your guides at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], and you, [[Athena]], from yours at [[Athens]]."<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=82}} Contemporary tour guides typically regaled tourists with myths and stories about the various attractions. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanius]] wrote, "even the guides of the [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argives]] themselves are aware that their account is not entirely correct."<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''[[Description of Greece]]''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200806062304/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/6768 2.23.6]</ref> [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] wrote satirically of a character named Caius Licinius Mucianus, a gullible tourist who believed these rumors.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=83}}
Long-distance travel was difficult to access for [[Poverty in ancient Rome|poorer Romans]] due to limited time and economic constraints.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Lomine |first=Loykie |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781845410339/html |title=Histories of Tourism |date=2005-10-12 |work= |publisher=Channel View Publications |isbn=978-1-84541-033-9 |pages=69–87 |language=en |chapter=Tourism in Augustan Society (44 BC-AD 69) |doi=10.21832/9781845410339-006/pdf?licensetype=restricted |access-date=2024-03-18 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.21832/9781845410339-006/pdf?licenseType=restricted}}</ref>{{Rp|page=77}} Shipwrecks, storms,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|pages=149-150}} poor maps,<ref>Adams, Colin; et al. (2011). ''[[iarchive:isbn_0415230349|Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire]]''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-62018-5}}.</ref>{{Rp|pages=10-11}} and [[Weather|weather conditions]] also presented challenges for tourists, although there was little [[piracy]] in ancient Rome.<ref name=":0">Casson, Lionel (1994). ''[[iarchive:travelinancientw0000cass|Travel in the Ancient World]]''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp 76, 78, 202 {{ISBN|978-0-8018-4808-7}}.</ref>{{Rp|pages=149-150}} Usage of the [[Roman roads]] was limited by the poorer quality of roads more distant from cities and towns.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=168}} Roads were primarily intended for the transportation of military forces rather than for tourism.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=164}}<ref>Talbert, R.J.A. "[https://www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1994_num_96_3_4599_t1_0637_0000_2 Gouvernants et Gouvernés dans l<nowiki>''</nowiki>Impérium Romanum]'". ''Cahier des Études Anciennes''. Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières.</ref> Travelers were aided by the [[hospitality]] traditions of the Greco-Roman world. The Romans viewed hospitality, which they termed ''[[hospitium]]'', as a [[moral obligation]].<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|wstitle=Hospitium|volume=13|page=801|inline=1}}</ref> [[Guide book|Guidebooks]] and tour [[Guide|guides]] provided additional assistance to ancient Roman tourists. In [[Amores (Lucian)|''Amores'']], [[Lucian]] satirically describes an incident at the Sanctuary of [[Dionysus]] where numerous opportunists beset one of the characters, offering to explain the stories behind the various sites for a price.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=82}}<ref>Lucian, ''[https://people.well.com/user/aquarius/lucian-amores.htm Amores]''. 8.</ref> According to [[Plutarch]], the tour guides were notoriously loquacious. In ''[[Moralia]]'', Plutarch wrote that "the guides went through their standard speech, paying no attention whatsoever to our entreaties to cut the talk short and leave out most of the explanations on the inscriptions and epitaphs."<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=83}} [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], as quoted by [[Nonius Marcellus|Nonius]], once satirically wrote a prayer invoking protection against these tour guides: "[[Zeus]], protect me from your guides at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], and you, [[Athena]], from yours at [[Athens]]."<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=82}} Contemporary tour guides typically regaled tourists with myths and stories about the various attractions. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanius]] wrote, "even the guides of the [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argives]] themselves are aware that their account is not entirely correct."<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''[[Description of Greece]]''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200806062304/https://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/6768 2.23.6]</ref> [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] wrote satirically of a character named Caius Licinius Mucianus, a gullible tourist who believed these rumors.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=83}}


== Attractions ==
== Attractions ==

Revision as of 19:00, 30 April 2024

This article is about tourism in ancient Rome. For tourism of the modern city, see Tourism in Rome.

Tourism in ancient Rome was limited to the Roman upper class due to its expense and long travel times. Travel was made increasingly difficult due to shipwrecks, storms, poor maps, and a lack of modern transportation methods. Common destinations for ancient Roman tourists were Greece, Egypt, and the coast of Campania. Roman tourists sought out sites in Greece of cultural and historical importance, such as the numerous Greco-Roman temples and the athletic games such as the Olympics. Egypt was one of the most popular destinations for Roman tourists; they were enticed by their perception of Egypt as exotic and foreign. Roman travelers toured Egypt to observe sites such as the Pyramids and to visit cities such as Alexandria or Luxor. Wealthy Romans would spend the hottest parts of the year in villas outside of the city of Rome or in resort towns such as Baiae. During the same summertime months, non-Romans would travel to Rome to see the many monuments and structures throughout the city.

Roman tourists were motivated by the Roman concept of otium, or leisure time. The Romans believed that such time should be spent engaging in intellectual, artistic, or philosophical pursuits. Roman tourism was sometimes motivated by educational pursuits; these tourists sought out famed rhetoricians or teachers at their destinations. Tourists would also travel to other areas in hopes of seeing sites of historical or religious importance, such as the ruins of Troy or temples throughout the Greco-Roman world. Religious tourists sometimes hoped to attain the services of a certain god, such as medical help at a temple of Asclepius or advice from an oracle.

Methods of travel

Main article: Travel in classical antiquity

Long-distance travel was difficult to access for poorer Romans due to limited time and economic constraints.[1]: 77  Shipwrecks, storms,[2]: 149–150  poor maps,[3]: 10–11  and weather conditions also presented challenges for tourists, although there was little piracy in ancient Rome.[2]: 149–150  Usage of the Roman roads was limited by the poorer quality of roads more distant from cities and towns.[2]: 168  Roads were primarily intended for the transportation of military forces rather than for tourism.[2]: 164 [4] Travelers were aided by the hospitality traditions of the Greco-Roman world. The Romans viewed hospitality, which they termed hospitium, as a moral obligation.[5] Guidebooks and tour guides provided additional assistance to ancient Roman tourists. In Amores, Lucian satirically describes an incident at the Sanctuary of Dionysus where numerous opportunists beset one of the characters, offering to explain the stories behind the various sites for a price.[1]: 82 [6] According to Plutarch, the tour guides were notoriously loquacious. In Moralia, Plutarch wrote that "the guides went through their standard speech, paying no attention whatsoever to our entreaties to cut the talk short and leave out most of the explanations on the inscriptions and epitaphs."[1]: 83  Varro, as quoted by Nonius, once satirically wrote a prayer invoking protection against these tour guides: "Zeus, protect me from your guides at Olympia, and you, Athena, from yours at Athens."[1]: 82  Contemporary tour guides typically regaled tourists with myths and stories about the various attractions. Pausanius wrote, "even the guides of the Argives themselves are aware that their account is not entirely correct."[7] Pliny wrote satirically of a character named Caius Licinius Mucianus, a gullible tourist who believed these rumors.[1]: 83 

Attractions

Anatolia and Greece

Model of Olympia, the home city of the ancient Olympic games

Roman tourists frequently traveled to Greece to witness the Olympic Games, the Pythian Games, the Isthmian Games, and the Nemean Games, as well as to visit Greek temples.[8]: 133 [9][10] Greek and Roman temples were enticing attractions partially due to their religious significance. Greco-Roman temples represented the home of the god through the statue depicting the deity. Religious rituals occurred outside the temples at altars. Temples were also analogous to modern museums; they could contain large collections of artifacts, such as the sword of Julius Caesar at the Temple of Mars in Rome. However, these temples did not collect as diverse an assortment of artifacts as modern museums; they focused on preserving the history of the local deities and communities.[11]: 246–247  Temples often profited greatly from tourism; visitors were typically required to pay entrance fees—usually in food, money, or objects—to access the temples. These fees served as a source of revenue for temples.[1] Temples of Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine, were often visited by individuals seeking medical advice.[1] People visited Greece to consult the Oracle of Delphi and other "oracles of the dead," which were located in caves and were believed to allow one to contact one's dead friends and family.[12][13]

It was common for ancient Romans to travel to the islands of Lesbos, Rhodes, Chios, and the islands of Ionia.[14]: 229  Greek cities in Asia Minor and renowned cities such as Athens or Sparta were also popular tourist destinations.[2]: 255  Sparta became a hub of tourist activity during their yearly festival in honor of Artemis Orthia. During this festival, adolescent men known as ephebes were whipped at the altar. By the time of Cicero, tourists from throughout the empire came to observe the rituals.[1] The ancient Romans were attracted to sites such as the Colossus of Rhodes, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia,[1] and the Satyr of Protogenes.[2]: 237  Greece was also popular because the Romans viewed non-Greco-Roman cultures as barbaric.[2] The ruins of Troy were particularly intriguing for ancient Roman tourists. Julius Caesar visited the site and toured the area with a guide. Afterward, he erected an altar to his Trojan ancestors. Similarly, Germanicus worshipped at the tomb of Hector in Troy and Hadrian restored the tomb to Ajax. Caracalla sacrificed at the tomb of Achilles, erected a bronze statue in the area, and held races at the tomb.[1]

The Egyptian pyramids were popular tourist attractions for the ancient Romans

Egypt

Egypt was the most popular destination for ancient Roman tourists. The Romans viewed Egypt as exotic, mysterious, and ancient.[12]: 21  These perceptions were, more often than not, misconceptions.[12]: 294  The ancient Romans misconstrued a statue in Thebes, likely of Amenhotep II, as a statue of Memnon. These statues were famed throughout the ancient world for their supposed ability to talk. Consequently, they became a popular tourist attraction. Strabo recounts visiting the statues and hearing noises; however, he remained skeptical about whether the sounds were produced by the noise or nearby people.[1]: 76–77  Egyptian locals fed misinformation to the Romans to draw them in and profit from them.[12] Strabo describes another possible example of an ancient Egyptian tourist trap at Syene. Strabo writes that local boatmen would sail upstream past the first cataract of the Nile into the rapids to entertain tourists.[1]: 76–77 Roman tourists were infatuated by Egyptian funerary rituals; they often requested to be mummified after their deaths. Egyptian markets for mummification and stores selling copies of the Book of the Dead catered to this market of tourists. Embalming shops were in high demand for ancient Romans; the largest of such shops was located in Memphis. Roman visitors created their own unique mummification ritual: the creation of a detailed portrait of the deceased's face. The most notable collection of these images is the Fayum portraits.[12]: 298–299  Alexandria and the Pyramids were the most popular sites in Egypt.[15] Alexandria's most popular attractions included the Serapeum, the Musaeum, and the Pharos. Sightseers would also visit the Bull of Apis in Memphis and the cities of Thebes and Luxor.[14]: 230–231  Egyptian temples such as the Temple of Ptah in Memphis were open to outside visitors. Tourists would have been allowed to partake in the local rituals.[1]: 83 

Italy

Ancient Roman villa in Baiae

Many of the common folk of ancient Rome left the city during summer due to the oppressive heat. Wealthy Romans would purchase vacation villas outside of the city of Rome, where they would spend the hottest months of the year. They could also be located on the coast of Campania in the Tyrrhenian Sea.[16] Non-Roman tourists frequently visited Rome during summertime. They would tour the baths, chariot racing, gladiatorial games, visit the Colosseum, shop at the various markets throughout the city, or see the many monuments of Rome.[1]: 80  Stadia throughout the Roman world became popular attractions for sports tourists.[17] Visitors often traveled to the base of the Palatine hill, where a fig tree supposedly marked the location where the cradle of Romulus and Remus was overturned.[1]: 80 

Roman tourists frequently vacated to resorts across the shoreline from Rome to Naples.[1]: 78  Baiae was an ancient Roman town located in modern Bacoli on the Gulf of Naples. It was a popular resort in ancient Rome, primarily during the end of the Roman Republic. The town was known for corruption, scandals, and hedonism.[12]: 66 [18] Bars dotted the area, and upper-class women were said to pretend to be prostitutes, Varro wrote that in Baiae men acted like boys, and boys acted like girls.[12]: 66–67 [19] Another resort town called Puteoli was known for its danger and high night-time crime rates. It was a common practice for visitors to bring bodyguards with them.[12]: 78  It was common to visit the areas by Herculaneum and Pompeii in the Gulf of Naples.[18] Other popular tourist destinations included areas by the Bay of Sorrento, Cumae, and Cape Misenum. Horace, a Roman poet, described how the luxury villas in these areas were packed so tightly that "the fish were feeling cramped." For ancient Roman villa owners, traversing the shore in litters and riding on oar-propelled boats were common activities.[1]: 78 

Countryside tourism was also popular in ancient Rome. Roman people frequently visited the Alban and Sabine hills east of Rome. Numerous lavish country estates were built in the Roman countryside. Such villas often functioned as homes and resorts; these villas were self-sufficient, containing farms, large storages of food or wine, and often other amenities such as bakeries. Many villas lacked these same luxuries and exclusively served as resort homes. Tourism in the Alps was not popular; people viewed the mountains more as obstructions rather than as attractions. However, Mount Etna was a popular attraction due to its religious significance and the view of the sunrise from the summit. There was an inn at the top of the mountain for visitors.[1]: 79–80 

Motives

1st-century CE Engraving of Athena Parthenos by the philosopher Aspasius

During the reign of Augustus tourism and leisure assumed a more prominent role in Roman culture. It is unclear if people ventured on "Grand Tours" in which they traveled across the Mediterranean to see various notable tourist attractions such as Athens or Delphi.[15] Traveling this often may have been too expensive and dangerous. However, it is known that people would travel across the Empire after winning notable battles or notable achievements.[14] Many tourists returned home with memorabilia from their destination.[20] It was common for ancient Roman tourists to draw sketches of themselves near famous attractions or to commission such drawings.[1] In Athens, tourists could collect paintings, pottery, terracotta, artifacts, silver statuettes, glass bottles, and miniature figures depicting the Statue of Athena by Phidias.[1]: 73  According to Lucian, tourists could acquire obscene pottery as a souvenir. In the Acts of Saint Paul, he describes an encounter with an Athenian silversmith who produced and sold silver temples of Diana.[1]: 74  Travelers often engraved evidence of their journey in graffiti. In Egypt, an inscription was found reading "I, Lysa, slave of Publius Annius Plocannus, came here in year 35 of Caesar." Another Egyptian inscription reads "I, Gaius Numidius Eros, was here in year 28 of Caesar, returning from India, in the month Phamenoth."[1]: 70 

Roman tourism was heavily influenced by the concept of otium, a term referring to leisure time. The Romans believed otium should be dedicated to artistically, physically, or academically beneficial activities. Tourism was often motivated by the desire to fulfill the concept of otium. Wealthy and upper-class Romans may have traveled to areas throughout Greece or Asia Minor for educational or philosophical pursuits.[1]: 70–72  Greece, Massalia, and Alexandria were common destinations for tourists who intended to further their education.[14] Many of these tourists sought high-quality teachers and rhetoricians in the areas they visited.[21]: 393 

Educational motivations included the desire to see sights of historic or cultural significance.[1]: 84  Many wealthy and important Romans, such as Germanicus and Septimius Severus, traveled throughout the eastern parts of the Roman Empire hoping to visit ancient and famous sites of historical importance. Ancient inscriptions reveal that there were Roman pilgrims who traveled across the empire seeking sites of religious importance. One inscription from the Temple of Mandulis in Talmis references a man named Sansnos who traveled to sites throughout the empire with the hope of worshipping each god.[21]: 407  Pliny described the Augustan tourist gaze: "There are a number of things in this city of ours and its environs which we have not even heard of, much less seen; yet, if they were in Greece or Egypt or Asia, we would have heard all about them, read all about them, looked over all there was to see."[1]: 84 [22]

Medical tourism was popular in the ancient Roman world. Travelers sought the advice of oracles, particularly oracles of Apollo in Delphi, Delos, or Claros. The oracles of Heracles, the oracle of Trophonius near Lebadea, and the Temple of Fortuna at Praeneste were other oracles in high demand. Temples of Asclepius were often visited for medical reasons. Hippocrates and his school of medicine practiced near one of his temples on the Greek island of Kos. Similarly, the surgeon Galen practiced near a Temple of Asclepius in Pergamon. These sites were often visited by tourists seeking medical advice or treatment. Celsus, a Roman medical scholar, advocated for long sea voyages as a treatment for tuberculosis. He believed that maritime travel could treat the disease by providing a fresh change of air. Celsus argued that the journey from Italy to Alexandria was perfect for such a trip.[1]: 80–81 

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Lomine, Loykie (12 October 2005). "Tourism in Augustan Society (44 BC-AD 69)". Histories of Tourism. Channel View Publications. pp. 69–87. doi:10.21832/9781845410339-006/pdf?licensetype=restricted. ISBN 978-1-84541-033-9. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Casson, Lionel (1994). Travel in the Ancient World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp 76, 78, 202 ISBN 978-0-8018-4808-7.
  3. ^ Adams, Colin; et al. (2011). Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-62018-5.
  4. ^ Talbert, R.J.A. "Gouvernants et Gouvernés dans l''Impérium Romanum'". Cahier des Études Anciennes. Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières.
  5. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hospitium". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 801.
  6. ^ Lucian, Amores. 8.
  7. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece. 2.23.6
  8. ^ Thompson, Nancy Lorraine; Montebello, Philippe De; Lydecker, John Kent; Picón, Carlos A. (2007). Roman Art: A Resource for Educators. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-222-0.
  9. ^ Deckker, Zilah (2007). National Geographic Investigates Ancient Rome: Archaeology Unlocks the Secrets of Rome's Past. National Geographic Books. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-4263-0128-5.
  10. ^ Conti, Flavio (2003). A Profile of Ancient Rome. Getty Publications. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-89236-697-2.
  11. ^ Elsner, Jas; Rutherford, Ian (20 December 2007). Pilgrimage in Graeco-Roman and Early Christian Antiquity. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199237913.003.0009. ISBN 978-0-19-923791-3.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h Perrottet, Tony (2002). Route 66 A.D: On the trail of ancient Roman tourists. Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50432-7.
  13. ^ Christou, Prokopis A. (11 February 2022). The History and Evolution of Tourism. CABI. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-80062-128-2.
  14. ^ a b c d Balsdon, J. P. V. D. (John Percy Vyvian Dacre) (1969). Life and Leisure in ancient Rome. Bodley Head. pp. 224–244. ISBN 978-0-370-00444-0.
  15. ^ a b Norman, Alex (24 November 2011). Spiritual Tourism: Travel and Religious Practice in Western Society. A&C Black. pp. 79–81. ISBN 978-1-4411-5044-8.
  16. ^ Mill, Robert Christie (2008). Resorts: Management and Operation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-471-74722-2.
  17. ^ Vamplew, Wray (3 May 2022). "Bread and Circuses, Olive Oil and Money: Commercialised Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 39 (6): 589–608. doi:10.1080/09523367.2022.2099383. ISSN 0952-3367.
  18. ^ a b "Parco Archeologico Sommerso di Baia – Campi Flegrei". Parco Archeologico Sommerso di Baia (in Italian). Archived from the original on 22 October 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  19. ^ Ogden, Daniel (2002). Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-19-515123-7.
  20. ^ Beard, Mary (20 May 2022). "Evidence of tourism in the ancient world". TLS. Archived from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
  21. ^ a b Hunt, E. D. (1984). "Travel, Tourism and Piety in the Roman Empire: A Context for the Beginnings of Christian Pilgrimage". Echos du monde classique: Classical news and views. 28 (3): 391–417. ISSN 1913-5416 – via Project MUSE.
  22. ^ Pliny, Epistulae. 8.20.1-2.
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