Jump to content

Lovely's Purchase: Difference between revisions

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
→Lovely County: add sub-sect
No edit summary
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit
 
(3 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown)
Line 2: Line 2:
{{Use American English|date=April 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2023}}
[[File:Arkansasterritory.PNG|thumb|upright=1.5|Map shows the progression of the two territorial governments: [[Indian Territory]] is in teal; [[Arkansas]] is in dark green. The western portion of Lovely's Purchase is in light green (assigned to Indian Territory, 1828). Together with an almost equal amount of lands to the east of the 1828 demarcation line with [[Indian Territory]], was the area that made up the short lived [[Lovely County, Arkansas Territory]].]]
[[File:Arkansasterritory.PNG|thumb|upright=1.5|On this map, the: [[Indian Territory]] is in teal and [[Arkansas]] is in dark green. The western portion of Lovely's Purchase, assigned to Indian Territory in 1828, is in light green. Together with an almost equal amount of lands to the east of the 1828 demarcation line with [[Indian Territory]], was the area that made up the short lived [[Lovely County, Arkansas Territory]].]]


'''Lovely's Purchase''' (also '''Lovely's Donation'''), was part of the early nineteenth century [[Missouri Territory|Missouri]] and [[Arkansas Territory|Arkansaw]] territories. It was created in 1817, to give a haven to the [[Cherokee people|Cherokee]] and other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] who were being forced to leave the [[southeastern United States]] and moving west to [[Indian Territory]] (modern [[Oklahoma]]) through territory then inhabited by sometimes hostile White settlers and several other Indian tribes, especially members of the [[Osage people|Osage Indian Nation]]. Following years of political maneuvering and sometimes conflicting treaties, the Purchase was finally split between the Cherokee and White settlers, with the larger section going solely to the [[Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)|Cherokee Nation]].
'''Lovely's Purchase,''' also called '''Lovely's Donation,''' was part of the [[Missouri Territory]] and the [[Arkansas Territory|Arkansas Territory]] of the early nineteenth century. It was created in 1817, to give a haven to the [[Cherokee people|Cherokee]] and other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] who were being forced to leave the [[southeastern United States]] and moving west to [[Indian Territory]] (modern-day [[Oklahoma]]) through territory then inhabited by sometimes hostile White settlers and several other Indigenous nations, especially citizens of the [[Osage Nation]]. Following years of political maneuvering and sometimes conflicting treaties, the purchase was finally split between the Cherokee and [[White Americans|White American]] settlers, with the larger section going solely to the [[Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)|Cherokee Nation]].


==Background==
==Background==
President [[James Monroe]] had promised an exclusive "gateway to the setting sun"—an area devoted to settlement for the members of the Cherokee Nation where they were not "...surrounded by the White man."<ref name= "B-Vill" /><ref name= "jStor1" /> Starting in 1809, [[Overhill Cherokee|members of the Cherokee Nation living west of the Appalachians]] in Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas, had started migrating west to the lands set aside by the United States government for those tribal members willing to exchange their eastern property for homesteads in the recently set-aside Indian Territory.{{efn|These early Cherokee migrants came to be known as the "[[Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)|Old Settler]]s". They had voluntarily uprooted themselves and moved west to lands promised to them by the [[Federal government of the United States|United States federal government]] in exchange for giving up their traditional lands back east.<ref name= "AHD" />}}<ref name= "Ark.net'' /> A route was planned by the U.S. federal government with the purpose to insulate newly arriving Cherokee to the area from interference and harassment by hostile American settlers and warriors from other Indian Nations. These others lived, hunted, and had (in many instances) [[Squatter|squatted]] on the promised tracts of land. They viewed the Cherokee as rivals.<ref name= "Ark.net'' />
President [[James Monroe]] had promised an exclusive "gateway to the setting sun"—an area devoted to settlement for the members of the Cherokee Nation where they were not "...surrounded by the White man."<ref name= "B-Vill" /><ref name= "jStor1" /> Starting in 1809, [[Overhill Cherokee|members of the Cherokee Nation living west of the Appalachians]] in Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas, had started migrating west to the lands set aside by the United States government for those citizens willing to exchange their eastern property for homesteads in the recently set-aside Indian Territory.{{efn|These early Cherokee migrants came to be known as the "[[Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)|Old Settler]]s". They had voluntarily uprooted themselves and moved west to lands promised to them by the [[Federal government of the United States|United States federal government]] in exchange for giving up their traditional lands back east.<ref name= "AHD" />}}<ref name= "Ark.net'' /> A route was planned by the U.S. government with the purpose to insulate newly arriving Cherokee to the area from interference and harassment by hostile American settlers and warriors from other Indigenous nations. These others lived, hunted, and had (in many instances) [[Squatter|squatted]] on the promised tracts of land. They viewed the Cherokee as rivals.<ref name= "Ark.net'' />


The Osage Nation had given-up exclusive hunting rights to the area that would become a large part of Lovely's Purchase in the 1808 [[Treaty of Fort Clark]]. They still owned the land outright, however, and maintained several settlements on it.<ref name= "Ark.net'' /> The new Cherokee migrants came into almost immediate conflict with Native and White settlers who had preemptively occupied lands along the route. This included members of the [[Quapaw|Quapaw tribe]] and the Osage Indian Nation, as well as other Indian nations, who held a special animosity towards what they viewed as Cherokee usurpers of their lands and way of life.<ref name= "Ark.net'' /> Violent incidents continued to plague both groups, however, and peaked in 1817 following Lovely's death. The next year saw the arrival from the east of a strong Cherokee leader, [[John Jolly]], and these incidents grew less frequent, although they still occasionally occurred.<ref name= "Ark.net'' />
The Osage Nation had given-up exclusive hunting rights to the area that would become a large part of Lovely's Purchase in the [[Treaty of Fort Clark]] (1808). The Osage still owned the land outright, however, and maintained several settlements on it.<ref name= "Ark.net'' /> The new Cherokee emigrants came into almost immediate conflict with Indigenous and White settlers who had preemptively occupied lands along the route. This included citizens of the [[Quapaw]] and the Osage Nation, as well as other Indigenous nations, who held a special animosity towards what they viewed as Cherokee usurpers of their lands and way of life.<ref name= "Ark.net'' /> Violent incidents continued to plague both groups, however, and peaked in 1817 following Lovely's death. The next year saw the arrival from the east of a strong Cherokee leader, [[John Jolly]], and these incidents grew less frequent, although they still occasionally occurred.<ref name= "Ark.net'' />


==Purchase history==
==Purchase history==
Line 15: Line 15:
===Major Lovely===
===Major Lovely===
{{anchor|William Lewis Lovely}}
{{anchor|William Lewis Lovely}}
Major William Lovely, an assistant Indian agent to the [[Tennessee]] Cherokee, was promoted to [[Indian agent]] of the Missouri Territory (Arkansas Region), and sent to quell these frontier disturbances in the [[Missouri Territory]].<ref name="Ark.net''>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Miller |first = C.J. |encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia of Arkansas]] |title = Lovely County |publisher = [[Central Arkansas Library System]] |url = https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/lovely-county-2940/ |access-date = 2022-08-25}}</ref> He held the position from 1813 to 1817.<ref name= "AHD" /> His wife, Persis,{{efn|Persis Lovely died 1841.}} accompanied him to "...an abandoned Osage village far from what [is] considered civilization..."{{efn| In a September 1815 letter addressed to President James Madison, Lovely described the isolation and his neighbors as Indians and “...the worst of White settlers.”<ref name="Ark.net'' />}}<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Lovely, a veteran of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]],<ref name= "jStor2" /> made several failed diplomatic attempts to make peace between the warring Osage and Cherokee transplants to Indian Territory. His ultimate solution was to create a large strip of land to act as a buffer between the people of the two nations.<ref name= "Ark.net'' /><ref name= "mapp">[https://history.cosl.org/lovely.htm ''Lovely Donations (1828)'']; Map description; Arkansas Historical Documents & Index; retrieved February 2023</ref>
Major William Lovely, an assistant Indian agent to the [[Tennessee]] Cherokee, was promoted to [[Indian agent]] of the Missouri Territory (Arkansas Region), and sent to quell these frontier disturbances in the [[Missouri Territory]].<ref name="Ark.net''>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Miller |first = C.J. |encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia of Arkansas]] |title = Lovely County |publisher = [[Central Arkansas Library System]] |url = https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/lovely-county-2940/ |access-date = 2022-08-25}}</ref> He held the position from 1813 to 1817.<ref name= "AHD" /> His wife, Persis,{{efn|Persis Lovely died 1841.}} accompanied him to "...an abandoned Osage village far from what [is] considered civilization..."{{efn| In a September 1815 letter addressed to President James Madison, Lovely described the isolation and his neighbors as Indians and “...the worst of White settlers.”<ref name="Ark.net'' />}}<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Lovely, a veteran of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]],<ref name= "jStor2" /> made several failed diplomatic attempts to make peace between the Cherokee emigrants to Indian Territory and the Osage. His ultimate solution was to create a large strip of land to act as a buffer between the people of the two nations.<ref name= "Ark.net'' /><ref name= "mapp">[https://history.cosl.org/lovely.htm ''Lovely Donations (1828)'']; Map description; Arkansas Historical Documents & Index; retrieved February 2023</ref>


Lovely's Purchase, set in the early [[Arkansas Territory|Arkansaw District]] of the Missouri Territory, was created as a buffer zone to separate the adversarial Cherokee and Osage Indian Nations.<ref name= "passed" /><ref name= "mapp"/> In the summer of 1813, land agent Lovely was sent to administer the first section of acreage that would eventually belong to the Purchase. This land comprised approximately {{convert|4000000|acre|spell=in}} that had been ceded to the federal government in 1808 by the Osage Nation. At Lovely's behest, another treaty summit took place on July 9, 1816, at the mouth of the [[Verdigris River]].<ref name= "jStor1" /><ref name= "B-Vill" /><ref name= "jStor2" /><ref name= "GrantF" /> At this time, and on his own authority, Lovely agreed to buy an additional three million hunting acres of Osage land that was located between the Verdigris and [[White River (Arkansas–Missouri)|White River]]s on behalf of the Cherokee. All together, the treaty lands ceded by, and bought from, the Osage totaled over {{convert|7000000|acre|spell=in}}. The area began to be referred to as Lovely's Purchase thereafter.<ref name= "jStor2" /><ref name= "GrantF">Foreman, Grant; ''Indians and Pioneers : The story of the American Southwest before 1830''; New Haven; (1930); pp. 38, 46, 47, notes 35 & 59</ref> The entire northwest corner of the Arkansas Territory now belonged to the Cherokee.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Both the Osage and the Cherokee pledged to honor the 1816 treaty, although the federal government had not authorized nor endorsed it, and therefore did not officially recognize its terms.<ref name="Ark.net'' />
Lovely's Purchase, set in the early [[Arkansas Territory|Arkansaw District]] of the Missouri Territory, was created as a buffer zone to separate the adversarial Cherokee Nation and Osage Nation.<ref name= "passed" /><ref name= "mapp"/> In the summer of 1813, Lovely was sent to administer the first section of acreage that would eventually belong to the purchase. This land comprised approximately {{convert|4000000|acre|spell=in}} that had been ceded to the U.S. government in 1808 by the Osage Nation. At Lovely's behest, another treaty summit took place on July 9, 1816, at the mouth of the [[Verdigris River]].<ref name= "jStor1" /><ref name= "B-Vill" /><ref name= "jStor2" /><ref name= "GrantF" /> At this time, and on his own authority, Lovely agreed to buy an additional three million hunting acres of Osage land that was located between the Verdigris and [[White River (Arkansas–Missouri)|White River]] on behalf of the Cherokee. All together, the treaty lands ceded by, and bought from, the Osage totaled over {{convert|7000000|acre|spell=in}}. The area began to be referred to as Lovely's Purchase thereafter.<ref name= "jStor2" /><ref name= "GrantF">Foreman, Grant; ''Indians and Pioneers : The story of the American Southwest before 1830''; New Haven; (1930); pp. 38, 46, 47, notes 35 & 59</ref> The entire northwest corner of the Arkansas Territory now belonged to the Cherokee.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Both the Osage and the Cherokee pledged to honor the 1816 treaty, although the U.S. government had not authorized nor endorsed it, and therefore did not officially recognize its terms.<ref name="Ark.net'' />


[[File:Map of Indian territory 1836.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Expandable map of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]] settlements and land allotments]]
[[File:Map of Indian territory 1836.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Expandable map of the settlements and land allotments]]


===Military intervention===
===Military intervention===
The treaty, however, still did not stop the violence between members of the two groups.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Due to the buffer area not living up to expectations, in 1817 the U.S. Army built [[Fort Smith National Historic Site |Fort Smith]],{{efn|Historic Ft. Smith was in [[Sebastian County, Arkansas]].}} and the federal government made it clear that Lovely's Purchase would only house Native Americans from that time on.{{efn|With a presidential proviso that "...[Persis Lovely] is to remain where she lives during life...” According to the Treaty of 1818, William Lovely's widow was the only white settler legally allowed to stay on the Purchase lands.<ref name="Ark.net'' />}} Another treaty between Osage and Cherokee was signed in 1818 at St. Louis, one that finally formalized the earlier Lovely's Purchase, and was this time endorsed by the U.S. federal government.<ref name="B-Vill">[https://www.vintagebentonville.com/lovelys-purchase.html ''1818 Treaty at St. Louis'']; bookscan and transliteration via website; Vintage Bentonville; (2018); accessed January 2023</ref>
The treaty, however, still did not stop the violence between members of the two groups.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Due to the buffer area not living up to expectations, in 1817 the U.S. Army built [[Fort Smith National Historic Site |Fort Smith]],{{efn|Historic Ft. Smith was in [[Sebastian County, Arkansas]].}} and the U.S. government made it clear that Lovely's Purchase would only house Native Americans from that time on.{{efn|With a presidential proviso that "...[Persis Lovely] is to remain where she lives during life...” According to the Treaty of 1818, William Lovely's widow was the only white settler legally allowed to stay on the Purchase lands.<ref name="Ark.net'' />}} Another treaty between Osage and Cherokee was signed in 1818 at St. Louis, one that finally formalized the earlier Lovely's Purchase, and was this time endorsed by the U.S.<ref name="B-Vill">[https://www.vintagebentonville.com/lovelys-purchase.html ''1818 Treaty at St. Louis'']; bookscan and transliteration via website; Vintage Bentonville; (2018); accessed January 2023</ref>


In 1819 Arkansas was separated from the [[Missouri Territory]], and became an official [[organized territory]] of the United States.<ref name="Ark.net'' /><ref name="passed">{{Cite web | title=Osage territory passed to Cherokees through Lovely's Purchase| url=https://www.muskogeephoenix.com/archives/osage-territory-passed-to-cherokees-through-lovely-s-purchase/article_3312a6b5-9f17-537a-b416-a5bf999d4252.html| access-date=January 23, 2023| website=Muskogee Phoenix| language=en}}</ref> Lovely's Purchase was made part of [[Crawford County, Arkansas|Crawford County]] at that time.<ref name="Encyk">{{cite encyclopedia |last = Everett |first = Dianna |encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture |title = Indian Territory |publisher = [[Oklahoma Historical Society]] |url = https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=IN018 |access-date = 2023-01-23}}</ref><ref name="jStor1">{{Cite journal | last=Gabler| first=Ina| date=1960| title=Lovely's Purchase and Lovely County| url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40038035| journal=The Arkansas Historical Quarterly| volume=19|issue=1| pages=31–39| doi=10.2307/40038035| jstor=40038035 |issn=0004-1823}}</ref> In 1822, due to requests by Territorial Governor [[James Miller (general)|James Miller]], the U.S. government authorized another outpost and established [[Fort Gibson]]{{efn|Ft. Gibson was in modern [[Muskogee County, Oklahoma]].}} (finished in 1824). Fort Gibson was manned by the U.S. Seventh Infantry. The large area these forts oversaw was dubbed "Lovely's Donations" by later legislators. The area still remained contentious, with complaints to the legislators from both White settlers—who were continually being moved out of the ever expanding Lovely Purchase—and the Cherokee—who were being pressured to abandon the rich farmlands and salt mine tracts to the American frontiersmen.<ref name="Ark.net'' /><ref name= "jStor2">{{Cite journal | last=Agnew| first=Brad| date=1975| title=The Cherokee Struggle for Lovely's Purchase| url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1183609| journal= American Indian Quarterly| volume=2| issue=4| pages=347–361| doi=10.2307/1183609| jstor=1183609 |issn=0095-182X}}</ref>
In 1819, Arkansas was separated from the [[Missouri Territory]], and became an official [[organized territory]] of the United States.<ref name="Ark.net'' /><ref name="passed">{{Cite web | title=Osage territory passed to Cherokees through Lovely's Purchase| url=https://www.muskogeephoenix.com/archives/osage-territory-passed-to-cherokees-through-lovely-s-purchase/article_3312a6b5-9f17-537a-b416-a5bf999d4252.html| access-date=January 23, 2023| website=Muskogee Phoenix| language=en}}</ref> Lovely's Purchase was made part of [[Crawford County, Arkansas|Crawford County]] at that time.<ref name="Encyk">{{cite encyclopedia |last = Everett |first = Dianna |encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture |title = Indian Territory |publisher = [[Oklahoma Historical Society]] |url = https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=IN018 |access-date = 2023-01-23}}</ref><ref name="jStor1">{{Cite journal | last=Gabler| first=Ina| date=1960| title=Lovely's Purchase and Lovely County| url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40038035| journal=The Arkansas Historical Quarterly| volume=19|issue=1| pages=31–39| doi=10.2307/40038035| jstor=40038035 |issn=0004-1823}}</ref> In 1822, due to requests by territorial governor [[James Miller (general)|James Miller]], the U.S. authorized another outpost and established [[Fort Gibson]]{{efn|Ft. Gibson was in modern [[Muskogee County, Oklahoma]].}} (finished in 1824). Fort Gibson was manned by the U.S. Seventh Infantry. The large area these forts oversaw was dubbed "Lovely's Donations" by later legislators. The area still remained contentious, with complaints to the legislators from both White settlers—who were continually being moved out of the ever expanding Lovely Purchase—and the Cherokee—who were being pressured to abandon the rich farmlands and salt mine tracts to the White Americans.<ref name="Ark.net'' /><ref name= "jStor2">{{Cite journal | last=Agnew| first=Brad| date=1975| title=The Cherokee Struggle for Lovely's Purchase| url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1183609| journal= American Indian Quarterly| volume=2| issue=4| pages=347–361| doi=10.2307/1183609| jstor=1183609 |issn=0095-182X}}</ref>


===Lovely County===
===Lovely County===
Line 31: Line 31:
A [[sutler]] by the name of John Nicks accompanied the Seventh Infantry to Fort Gibson, and eventually settled in the area of the fort. In 1828, he founded Nicksville, the future capital of [[Lovely County]].{{efn|Nicksville was located in what became [[Sequoyah County, Oklahoma]]}}<ref name="passed" /> More than a decade after Lovely's 1817 death, the area—along with additional tracts of purchased and donated land—was incorporated by the Territory of Arkansas as the short-lived Lovely County.<ref name="AHD" />
A [[sutler]] by the name of John Nicks accompanied the Seventh Infantry to Fort Gibson, and eventually settled in the area of the fort. In 1828, he founded Nicksville, the future capital of [[Lovely County]].{{efn|Nicksville was located in what became [[Sequoyah County, Oklahoma]]}}<ref name="passed" /> More than a decade after Lovely's 1817 death, the area—along with additional tracts of purchased and donated land—was incorporated by the Territory of Arkansas as the short-lived Lovely County.<ref name="AHD" />


Lovely's Purchase was, without federal authorization,<ref name="B-Vill" /><ref name="jStor1" /> created a [[county]] by the Arkansas legislature in 1827 in an effort to keep the area part of the planned [[State of Arkansas]], and American frontiersmen immediately started settling there.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Lovely County only existed from October 31, 1827, to May 6, 1828, when the federal government signed the 1828 U.S.–Cherokee [[Treaty of Washington 1828|Treaty of Washington]]. Lovely County had included all or part of present-day [[Benton County, Arkansas|Benton]], [[Washington County, Arkansas|Washington]], [[Crawford County, Arkansas|Crawford]] counties in Arkansas; plus all or part of present-day [[Delaware County, Oklahoma|Delaware]], [[Sequoyah County, Oklahoma|Sequoyah]], [[Adair County, Oklahoma|Adair]], [[Cherokee County, Oklahoma|Cherokee]], [[Wagoner County, Oklahoma|Wagoner]], [[Muskogee County, Oklahoma|Muskogee]], and [[Mayes County, Oklahoma|Mayes]] counties in Oklahoma.<ref name="Ark.net'' /><ref name="B-Vill" />
Lovely's Purchase was, without federal authorization,<ref name="B-Vill" /><ref name="jStor1" /> created a [[county]] by the Arkansas legislature in 1827 in an effort to keep the area part of the planned [[State of Arkansas]], and White Americans immediately started settling there.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> Lovely County only existed from October 31, 1827, to May 6, 1828, when the U.S. government signed the Cherokee Treaty of 1828. Lovely County had included all or part of present-day [[Benton County, Arkansas|Benton]], [[Washington County, Arkansas|Washington]], [[Crawford County, Arkansas|Crawford]] counties in Arkansas; plus all or part of present-day [[Delaware County, Oklahoma|Delaware]], [[Sequoyah County, Oklahoma|Sequoyah]], [[Adair County, Oklahoma|Adair]], [[Cherokee County, Oklahoma|Cherokee]], [[Wagoner County, Oklahoma|Wagoner]], [[Muskogee County, Oklahoma|Muskogee]], and [[Mayes County, Oklahoma|Mayes]] counties in present-day Oklahoma.<ref name="Ark.net'' /><ref name="B-Vill" />


==Division of the Purchase lands==
==Division of the purchase lands==
The new treaty authorized the western half of the land donations, accumulations, and homestead purchases that had created the 'Lovely Purchase' to become part of Indian Territory. The land was given entirely to the [[Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)|Cherokee Nation—West of the Mississippi]],<ref name="passed" /><ref name="AHD">[https://history.cosl.org/lovely.htm ''Lovely Donation and Spanish Claims : Historical Documents, Maps & More'']; re-released (copyrighted) 2012; article webpage; Arkansas Commissioner of State Lands Report; retrieved August 2022</ref> while the Osage were moved to the [[Unorganized territory of the United States|unorganized territory]] of [[Kansas Territory|Kansas]]—to finally put an end to the hostilities.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> The eastern part of the Purchase remained with Arkansas and the American frontiersmen. To expedite completion of the compromise, any displaced Indian was given: "...a good rifle, a blanket, a kettle, and 5 lbs. of tobacco when he agreed to move..." while any displaced frontier settler was awarded with: "...upto 320 acres of public domain land in Arkansas Territory for every head of household over the age of 21 years."<ref name="B-Vill" /><ref name="passed" /><ref name="AHD" /><ref name= "mapp" />
The new treaty authorized the western half of the land donations, accumulations, and homestead purchases that had created the 'Lovely Purchase' to become part of Indian Territory. The land was given entirely to the [[Cherokee Nation (1794–1907)|Cherokee Nation—West of the Mississippi]],<ref name="passed" /><ref name="AHD">[https://history.cosl.org/lovely.htm ''Lovely Donation and Spanish Claims : Historical Documents, Maps & More'']; re-released (copyrighted) 2012; article webpage; Arkansas Commissioner of State Lands Report; retrieved August 2022</ref> while the Osage were moved to the [[Unorganized territory of the United States|unorganized territory]] of [[Kansas Territory|Kansas]]—to finally put an end to the hostilities.<ref name="Ark.net'' /> The eastern part of the purchase remained with Arkansas and the White Americans occupying the territory. To expedite completion of the compromise, any displaced Indian was given: "...a good rifle, a blanket, a kettle, and 5 lbs. of tobacco when he agreed to move..." while any displaced frontier settler was awarded with: "...up to 320 acres of public domain land in Arkansas Territory for every head of household over the age of 21 years."<ref name="B-Vill" /><ref name="passed" /><ref name="AHD" /><ref name= "mapp" />


==Notes==
==Notes==
Line 54: Line 54:
[[Category:Colonization history of the United States]]
[[Category:Colonization history of the United States]]
[[Category:Missouri Territory]]
[[Category:Missouri Territory]]
[[Category:1817 in Missouri Territory]]
[[Category:Arkansas Territory]]
[[Category:Arkansas Territory]]
[[Category:Presidency of James Monroe]]
[[Category:Presidency of James Monroe]]

Latest revision as of 13:14, 11 August 2024

On this map, the: Indian Territory is in teal and Arkansas is in dark green. The western portion of Lovely's Purchase, assigned to Indian Territory in 1828, is in light green. Together with an almost equal amount of lands to the east of the 1828 demarcation line with Indian Territory, was the area that made up the short lived Lovely County, Arkansas Territory.

Lovely's Purchase, also called Lovely's Donation, was part of the Missouri Territory and the Arkansas Territory of the early nineteenth century. It was created in 1817, to give a haven to the Cherokee and other Native Americans who were being forced to leave the southeastern United States and moving west to Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma) through territory then inhabited by sometimes hostile White settlers and several other Indigenous nations, especially citizens of the Osage Nation. Following years of political maneuvering and sometimes conflicting treaties, the purchase was finally split between the Cherokee and White American settlers, with the larger section going solely to the Cherokee Nation.

Background

[edit]

President James Monroe had promised an exclusive "gateway to the setting sun"—an area devoted to settlement for the members of the Cherokee Nation where they were not "...surrounded by the White man."[1][2] Starting in 1809, members of the Cherokee Nation living west of the Appalachians in Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas, had started migrating west to the lands set aside by the United States government for those citizens willing to exchange their eastern property for homesteads in the recently set-aside Indian Territory.[a][4] A route was planned by the U.S. government with the purpose to insulate newly arriving Cherokee to the area from interference and harassment by hostile American settlers and warriors from other Indigenous nations. These others lived, hunted, and had (in many instances) squatted on the promised tracts of land. They viewed the Cherokee as rivals.[4]

The Osage Nation had given-up exclusive hunting rights to the area that would become a large part of Lovely's Purchase in the Treaty of Fort Clark (1808). The Osage still owned the land outright, however, and maintained several settlements on it.[4] The new Cherokee emigrants came into almost immediate conflict with Indigenous and White settlers who had preemptively occupied lands along the route. This included citizens of the Quapaw and the Osage Nation, as well as other Indigenous nations, who held a special animosity towards what they viewed as Cherokee usurpers of their lands and way of life.[4] Violent incidents continued to plague both groups, however, and peaked in 1817 following Lovely's death. The next year saw the arrival from the east of a strong Cherokee leader, John Jolly, and these incidents grew less frequent, although they still occasionally occurred.[4]

Purchase history

[edit]

Major Lovely

[edit]

Major William Lovely, an assistant Indian agent to the Tennessee Cherokee, was promoted to Indian agent of the Missouri Territory (Arkansas Region), and sent to quell these frontier disturbances in the Missouri Territory.[4] He held the position from 1813 to 1817.[3] His wife, Persis,[b] accompanied him to "...an abandoned Osage village far from what [is] considered civilization..."[c][4] Lovely, a veteran of the Revolutionary War,[5] made several failed diplomatic attempts to make peace between the Cherokee emigrants to Indian Territory and the Osage. His ultimate solution was to create a large strip of land to act as a buffer between the people of the two nations.[4][6]

Lovely's Purchase, set in the early Arkansaw District of the Missouri Territory, was created as a buffer zone to separate the adversarial Cherokee Nation and Osage Nation.[7][6] In the summer of 1813, Lovely was sent to administer the first section of acreage that would eventually belong to the purchase. This land comprised approximately four million acres (1,600,000 ha) that had been ceded to the U.S. government in 1808 by the Osage Nation. At Lovely's behest, another treaty summit took place on July 9, 1816, at the mouth of the Verdigris River.[2][1][5][8] At this time, and on his own authority, Lovely agreed to buy an additional three million hunting acres of Osage land that was located between the Verdigris and White River on behalf of the Cherokee. All together, the treaty lands ceded by, and bought from, the Osage totaled over seven million acres (2,800,000 ha). The area began to be referred to as Lovely's Purchase thereafter.[5][8] The entire northwest corner of the Arkansas Territory now belonged to the Cherokee.[4] Both the Osage and the Cherokee pledged to honor the 1816 treaty, although the U.S. government had not authorized nor endorsed it, and therefore did not officially recognize its terms.[4]

Expandable map of the settlements and land allotments

Military intervention

[edit]

The treaty, however, still did not stop the violence between members of the two groups.[4] Due to the buffer area not living up to expectations, in 1817 the U.S. Army built Fort Smith,[d] and the U.S. government made it clear that Lovely's Purchase would only house Native Americans from that time on.[e] Another treaty between Osage and Cherokee was signed in 1818 at St. Louis, one that finally formalized the earlier Lovely's Purchase, and was this time endorsed by the U.S.[1]

In 1819, Arkansas was separated from the Missouri Territory, and became an official organized territory of the United States.[4][7] Lovely's Purchase was made part of Crawford County at that time.[9][2] In 1822, due to requests by territorial governor James Miller, the U.S. authorized another outpost and established Fort Gibson[f] (finished in 1824). Fort Gibson was manned by the U.S. Seventh Infantry. The large area these forts oversaw was dubbed "Lovely's Donations" by later legislators. The area still remained contentious, with complaints to the legislators from both White settlers—who were continually being moved out of the ever expanding Lovely Purchase—and the Cherokee—who were being pressured to abandon the rich farmlands and salt mine tracts to the White Americans.[4][5]

Lovely County

[edit]
Main article: Lovely County, Arkansas

A sutler by the name of John Nicks accompanied the Seventh Infantry to Fort Gibson, and eventually settled in the area of the fort. In 1828, he founded Nicksville, the future capital of Lovely County.[g][7] More than a decade after Lovely's 1817 death, the area—along with additional tracts of purchased and donated land—was incorporated by the Territory of Arkansas as the short-lived Lovely County.[3]

Lovely's Purchase was, without federal authorization,[1][2] created a county by the Arkansas legislature in 1827 in an effort to keep the area part of the planned State of Arkansas, and White Americans immediately started settling there.[4] Lovely County only existed from October 31, 1827, to May 6, 1828, when the U.S. government signed the Cherokee Treaty of 1828. Lovely County had included all or part of present-day Benton, Washington, Crawford counties in Arkansas; plus all or part of present-day Delaware, Sequoyah, Adair, Cherokee, Wagoner, Muskogee, and Mayes counties in present-day Oklahoma.[4][1]

Division of the purchase lands

[edit]

The new treaty authorized the western half of the land donations, accumulations, and homestead purchases that had created the 'Lovely Purchase' to become part of Indian Territory. The land was given entirely to the Cherokee Nation—West of the Mississippi,[7][3] while the Osage were moved to the unorganized territory of Kansas—to finally put an end to the hostilities.[4] The eastern part of the purchase remained with Arkansas and the White Americans occupying the territory. To expedite completion of the compromise, any displaced Indian was given: "...a good rifle, a blanket, a kettle, and 5 lbs. of tobacco when he agreed to move..." while any displaced frontier settler was awarded with: "...up to 320 acres of public domain land in Arkansas Territory for every head of household over the age of 21 years."[1][7][3][6]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ These early Cherokee migrants came to be known as the "Old Settlers". They had voluntarily uprooted themselves and moved west to lands promised to them by the United States federal government in exchange for giving up their traditional lands back east.[3]
  2. ^ Persis Lovely died 1841.
  3. ^ In a September 1815 letter addressed to President James Madison, Lovely described the isolation and his neighbors as Indians and “...the worst of White settlers.”[4]
  4. ^ Historic Ft. Smith was in Sebastian County, Arkansas.
  5. ^ With a presidential proviso that "...[Persis Lovely] is to remain where she lives during life...” According to the Treaty of 1818, William Lovely's widow was the only white settler legally allowed to stay on the Purchase lands.[4]
  6. ^ Ft. Gibson was in modern Muskogee County, Oklahoma.
  7. ^ Nicksville was located in what became Sequoyah County, Oklahoma

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f 1818 Treaty at St. Louis; bookscan and transliteration via website; Vintage Bentonville; (2018); accessed January 2023
  2. ^ a b c d Gabler, Ina (1960). "Lovely's Purchase and Lovely County". The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 19 (1): 31–39. doi:10.2307/40038035. ISSN 0004-1823. JSTOR 40038035.
  3. ^ a b c d e Lovely Donation and Spanish Claims : Historical Documents, Maps & More; re-released (copyrighted) 2012; article webpage; Arkansas Commissioner of State Lands Report; retrieved August 2022
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Miller, C.J. "Lovely County". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Central Arkansas Library System. Retrieved August 25, 2022.
  5. ^ a b c d Agnew, Brad (1975). "The Cherokee Struggle for Lovely's Purchase". American Indian Quarterly. 2 (4): 347–361. doi:10.2307/1183609. ISSN 0095-182X. JSTOR 1183609.
  6. ^ a b c Lovely Donations (1828); Map description; Arkansas Historical Documents & Index; retrieved February 2023
  7. ^ a b c d e "Osage territory passed to Cherokees through Lovely's Purchase". Muskogee Phoenix. Retrieved January 23, 2023.
  8. ^ a b Foreman, Grant; Indians and Pioneers : The story of the American Southwest before 1830; New Haven; (1930); pp. 38, 46, 47, notes 35 & 59
  9. ^ Everett, Dianna. "Indian Territory". The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Oklahoma Historical Society. Retrieved January 23, 2023.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Bolton, S. Charles; Territorial Ambition : Land and Society in Arkansas 1800–1840; Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press; (1993)
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lovely%27s_Purchase&oldid=1239774600"