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{{Short description|Species of single-celled organism}}
{{no footnotes|date=March 2013}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=March 2013}}
{{Taxobox
{{Speciesbox
| classification_status = [[incertae sedis]] within [[Eukaryota]]
| domain = [[Eukaryota]]
| genus = Prymnesium
⚫
| species = parvum
| unranked_phylum = [[Haptophyta]]
⚫
| authority = N. Carter
| classis = [[Prymnesiophyceae]]
| ordo = [[Prymnesiales]]
| familia = [[Prymnesiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Prymnesium]]''
⚫
| species = '''''P. parvum'''''
| binomial = ''Prymnesium parvum''
⚫
| binomial_authority = N. Carter
}}
}}


'''''Prymnesium parvum''''' is a [[haptophyte]], belonging to [[Haptophyta]] (=Prymnesiophyta). The species is of concern because of its ability to produce a toxin, [[prymnesin]]. It is a flagellated alga that is normally found suspended in the water column. It was first identified in [[North America]] in 1985 and it is not known if it was introduced artificially (e.g., an invasive species or missed in previous surveys). Toxin production mainly kills fish and appears to have little effect on cattle or humans. This distinguishes it from [[red tide]], which are algal bloom whose toxins lead to harmful effects in people. Although no harmful effects are known, it is recommended not to consume dead or dying fish exposed to a ''P. parvum'' bloom. Prymnesium parvum of Haptophyta is sometimes termed a golden alga or a golden brown algae as is Chrysophyceae of Heterokontophyta but the taxonomy of algae is under complex revision leading to contradictions in terms especially in non scholarly texts such as those from state wildlife departments.
'''''Prymnesium parvum''''' is a species of [[haptophyte]] (also collectively called Prymnesiophyta). The species is of concern because of its ability to produce the [[phycotoxin]] [[prymnesin]]. It is a [[flagellate]]d [[alga]] that is normally found suspended in the [[water column]]. It was first identified in [[North America]] in 1985, but it is not known if it was [[introduced species|introduced]] artificially (e.g., an [[invasive species]]) or missed in previous surveys. Toxin production mainly [[fish kill|kills fish]] and appears to have little effect on cattle or humans. This distinguishes it from a [[red tide]], which is an [[algal bloom]] whose toxins lead to harmful effects in people. Although no harmful effects are known, it is recommended not to consume dead or dying fish exposed to a ''P. parvum'' bloom.
''Prymnesium parvum'' of Haptophyta is sometimes colloquially misnamed "golden alga" causing confusion with [[golden alga]] or Chrysophyceae of [[Heterokont]]ophyta, leading to contradictions in terms, especially in non-scholarly texts (such as those from state wildlife departments).


== Biology ==
== Biology ==
''P. parvum'' grows in a [[salinity]] range of 0.1%–10% with an optimum at 0.3%–6% although strains collected in different places appear to have different salinity tolerances. The alga produces [[dimethylsulfoniopropionate]] (DMSP) and other unknown [[polyol]]s, likely as an adaptation to [[osmoregulation]]. The environment must be between {{convert|2|C|F}} and {{convert|30|C|F}} for ''P. parvum'' to live. Growth at a [[pH]] of as low as 5.8 has been observed, but cells typically prefer higher pH ranges. The organism prefers highly light environments, but growth can be inhibited by excessive light ([[photoinhibition]]). The organism is capable of [[heterotrophic]] growth in the dark in the presence of [[glycerol]] and grazes on bacteria, especially when phosphate is limited. It has therefore been hypothesized that ''P. parvum'' satisfies its phosphate needs by consuming bacteria. ''P. parvum'' can use a wide range of [[nitrogen]] sources, including [[ammonium]], [[nitrate]], [[amino acid]]s (which ones apparently depends of pH), [[creatine]], but is unable to use [[urea]].
[[File:41598 2017 Article BFsrep39892 Fig1b HTML.png|thumb|right|''P. parvum'']]''P. parvum'' grows in a [[salinity]] range of 0.5 - 30 psu (Practical Salinity Unit) with an optimum at 15 psu although strains collected in different places appear to have different salinity tolerances. A strain called LB 2797 (isolated from Colorado River in Texas) shows a biphasic growth pattern namely, maximum cell densities increased as salinity increased from 5 to 15 psu but decreased at higher levels in laboratory culture.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.hal.2017.05.010 |pmid=28602258 |title=Influence of genetic background, salinity, and inoculum size on growth of the ichthyotoxic golden alga (''Prymnesium parvum'') |journal=Harmful Algae |volume=66 |pages=97–104 |year=2017 |last1=Rashel |first1=Rakib H |last2=Patiño |first2=Reynaldo }}</ref> The alga produces [[dimethylsulfoniopropionate]] (DMSP) and other unknown [[polyol]]s, likely as an adaptation to [[osmoregulation]]. The environment must be between {{convert|2|C|F}} and {{convert|30|C|F}} for ''P. parvum'' to live. Growth at a [[pH]] of as low as 5.8 has been observed, but cells typically prefer higher pH ranges. The organism prefers highly light environments, but growth can be inhibited by excessive light ([[photoinhibition]]). The organism is capable of [[heterotrophic]] growth in the dark in the presence of [[glycerol]] and grazes on bacteria, especially when [[phosphate]] is limited. It has therefore been hypothesized that ''P. parvum'' satisfies its phosphate needs by consuming bacteria. ''P. parvum'' can use a wide range of [[nitrogen]] sources, including [[ammonium]], [[nitrate]], [[amino acid]]s (which ones apparently depends on pH), [[creatine]], but is unable to use [[urea]].


New evidence has shown that the toxins produced by this alga are induced by physiological stresses, such as nitrogen and phosphorus depletion due to competition with the environment.
New evidence has shown that the toxins produced by this alga are induced by physiological stresses, such as nitrogen and phosphorus depletion due to competition with the environment.

== Notable ''Prymnesium'' harmful algal blooms ==
A [[harmful algal bloom]] of ''Prymnesium parvum'' producing their [[prymnesin]] toxins was reportedly responsible for the death of approximately 360 tonnes of fish in the [[Oder river]] during the [[2022 Oder environmental disaster]].<ref name="EU_report">{{cite book | title=An EU analysis of the ecological disaster in the Oder River of 2022: lessons learned and research based recommendations to avoid future ecological damage in EU rivers, a joint analysis from DG ENV, JRC and the EEA. | publisher=Publications Office of the European Union | doi=10.2760/067386 | date=2023-02-01 | url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/067386 | access-date=2023-06-21 | page= | author1=European Commission. Joint Research Centre. | isbn=9789276993148 }}</ref> The pre-prymnesin precursors have been named as [[PKZILLA-1]] and PKZILLA-2 with the first consisting of 45,212 amino acids making it the largest known protein.


== See also ==
== See also ==
{{Scholia}}
*[[Algaculture]]
*[[Algaculture]]
*[[Prymnesin-1]]
*[[Prymnesin-2]]
*[[Prymnesin-B1]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.bom.hik.se/ngred/Artiklar/Hagstrom_etal.pdf Removal of ''Prymnesium parvum'' (Haptophyceae) cells under different nutrient conditions by clay]
*{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.hal.2004.03.004 |title=Removal of ''Prymnesium parvum'' (Haptophyceae) cells under different nutrient conditions by clay |journal=Harmful Algae |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=249–60 |year=2005 |last1=Hagström |first1=Johannes A |last2=Granéli |first2=Edna }}
*[http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/landwater/water/environconcerns/hab/ga/literature/toxins.phtml Literature review of the microalga ''Prymnesium parvum'' and its associated toxicity]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070310184617/http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/landwater/water/environconcerns/hab/ga/literature/toxins.phtml Literature review of the microalga ''Prymnesium parvum'' and its associated toxicity]
*[http://www.bom.hik.se/ngred/Artiklar/65_Johansson_etal.pdf Influence of different nutrient conditions on cell density, chemical composition and toxicity of ''Prymnesium parvum'' (Haptophyta) in semi-continuous cultures]
*{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0022-0981(99)00048-9 |title=Influence of different nutrient conditions on cell density, chemical composition and toxicity of ''Prymnesium parvum'' (Haptophyta) in semi-continuous cultures |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology |volume=239 |issue=2 |pages=243–58 |year=1999 |last1=Johansson |first1=Niclas |last2=Granéli |first2=Edna }}
*{{AlgaeBase species|id=32781|name=''Prymnesium parvum''}}
*{{AlgaeBase species|id=32781|name=Prymnesium parvum}}

{{taxonbar}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q7253251}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Haptophytes]]
[[Category:Haptophyte species]]
[[Category:High lipid content microalgae]]
[[Category:High lipid content microalgae]]

Latest revision as of 16:34, 17 August 2024

Prymnesium parvum
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Phylum: Haptista
Subphylum: Haptophytina
Class: Prymnesiophyceae
Order: Prymnesiales
Family: Prymnesiaceae
Genus: Prymnesium
Species:
P. parvum
Binomial name
Prymnesium parvum
N. Carter

Prymnesium parvum is a species of haptophyte (also collectively called Prymnesiophyta). The species is of concern because of its ability to produce the phycotoxin prymnesin. It is a flagellated alga that is normally found suspended in the water column. It was first identified in North America in 1985, but it is not known if it was introduced artificially (e.g., an invasive species) or missed in previous surveys. Toxin production mainly kills fish and appears to have little effect on cattle or humans. This distinguishes it from a red tide, which is an algal bloom whose toxins lead to harmful effects in people. Although no harmful effects are known, it is recommended not to consume dead or dying fish exposed to a P. parvum bloom.

Prymnesium parvum of Haptophyta is sometimes colloquially misnamed "golden alga" causing confusion with golden alga or Chrysophyceae of Heterokontophyta, leading to contradictions in terms, especially in non-scholarly texts (such as those from state wildlife departments).

Biology

[edit]
P. parvum

P. parvum grows in a salinity range of 0.5 - 30 psu (Practical Salinity Unit) with an optimum at 15 psu although strains collected in different places appear to have different salinity tolerances. A strain called LB 2797 (isolated from Colorado River in Texas) shows a biphasic growth pattern namely, maximum cell densities increased as salinity increased from 5 to 15 psu but decreased at higher levels in laboratory culture.[1] The alga produces dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) and other unknown polyols, likely as an adaptation to osmoregulation. The environment must be between 2 °C (36 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F) for P. parvum to live. Growth at a pH of as low as 5.8 has been observed, but cells typically prefer higher pH ranges. The organism prefers highly light environments, but growth can be inhibited by excessive light (photoinhibition). The organism is capable of heterotrophic growth in the dark in the presence of glycerol and grazes on bacteria, especially when phosphate is limited. It has therefore been hypothesized that P. parvum satisfies its phosphate needs by consuming bacteria. P. parvum can use a wide range of nitrogen sources, including ammonium, nitrate, amino acids (which ones apparently depends on pH), creatine, but is unable to use urea.

New evidence has shown that the toxins produced by this alga are induced by physiological stresses, such as nitrogen and phosphorus depletion due to competition with the environment.

Notable Prymnesium harmful algal blooms

[edit]

A harmful algal bloom of Prymnesium parvum producing their prymnesin toxins was reportedly responsible for the death of approximately 360 tonnes of fish in the Oder river during the 2022 Oder environmental disaster.[2] The pre-prymnesin precursors have been named as PKZILLA-1 and PKZILLA-2 with the first consisting of 45,212 amino acids making it the largest known protein.

See also

[edit]
Scholia has a profile for Prymnesium parvum (Q7253251).

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Rashel, Rakib H; Patiño, Reynaldo (2017). "Influence of genetic background, salinity, and inoculum size on growth of the ichthyotoxic golden alga (Prymnesium parvum)". Harmful Algae. 66: 97–104. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2017.05.010. PMID 28602258.
  2. ^ European Commission. Joint Research Centre. (2023-02-01). An EU analysis of the ecological disaster in the Oder River of 2022: lessons learned and research based recommendations to avoid future ecological damage in EU rivers, a joint analysis from DG ENV, JRC and the EEA. Publications Office of the European Union. doi:10.2760/067386. ISBN 9789276993148. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
[edit]
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