Hualālai: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands}} |
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{{Infobox mountain |
{{Infobox mountain |
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| name = Hualālai |
| name = Hualālai |
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| photo = Hualālai 1996.jpg |
| photo = Hualālai 1996.jpg |
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| photo_caption = |
| photo_caption = View of Hualālai over 1800 lava flow |
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| photo_size = |
| photo_size = 300px |
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| elevation_ft = 8,271 |
| elevation_ft = 8,271 |
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| elevation_ref = <ref name="usgs"/> |
| elevation_ref = <ref name="usgs"/> |
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| prominence_ref = <ref name="peakbagger"/> |
| prominence_ref = <ref name="peakbagger"/> |
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| language = [[Hawaiian language]] |
| language = [[Hawaiian language]] |
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| pronunciation = {{IPA |
| pronunciation = {{IPA|haw|huəˈlaːlei|Hawaiian:}} |
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| location = [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[United States|U.S.]] |
| location = [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[United States|U.S.]] |
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| range = [[Hawaiian Islands]] |
| range = [[Hawaiian Islands]] |
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| last_eruption = 1800 to 1801<ref name="usgs"/> |
| last_eruption = 1800 to 1801<ref name="usgs"/> |
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| first_ascent = |
| first_ascent = |
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| easiest_route = Multiple trails exist.<ref>{{cite web|title= |
| easiest_route = Multiple trails exist.<ref name="puuwaawaa.org 2009">{{cite web |title=About the Pu'u Wa'awa'a Trail System |website=puuwaawaa.org |url=https://puuwaawaa.org/blank.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206202036/https://puuwaawaa.org/blank.html |archive-date=2009-02-06 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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}} |
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'''Hualālai''' (pronounced {{IPA |
'''Hualālai''' (pronounced {{IPA|haw|huwəˈlaːlɐi|}} in [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]) is an active [[volcano]] on the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawai{{okina}}i]] in the [[Hawaiian Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/hualalai/main.html|title=Hualālai Volcano, Hawaiʻi|author=HVO, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|work=usgs.gov|access-date=7 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918082404/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/hualalai/main.html|archive-date=18 September 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is the westernmost, third-youngest and the third-most active of the [[Hawaii (island)#Volcanism|five volcanoes]] that form the island of Hawai{{okina}}i, following [[Kīlauea]] and the much larger [[Mauna Loa]]. Its peak stands {{convert|8271|ft}} above sea level. Hualālai is estimated to have risen above sea level about 300,000 years ago. Despite maintaining a very low level of activity since its last eruption in 1801, and being unusually inactive for the last 2,000 years, Hualālai is still considered active, and is expected to erupt again sometime in the next 100 years. The relative unpreparedness of the residents in the area caused by the lull in activity would worsen an eruption's consequences. |
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The area near |
The area near Hualālai has been inhabited for centuries by [[Ancient Hawaii|Hawaiian natives]], dating back to before recorded history. The coast to its west in particular had several royal complexes. The volcano is also important ecologically, is home to many rare species and several [[nature reserve]]s near the summit, and is a popular hiking attraction. Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts, some built on historic flows, and a [[National Historic Site (United States)|National Historical Park]]. |
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== Geology == |
== Geology == |
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=== Structural features === |
=== Structural features === |
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[[File:Puhia pelee.jpg|thumb|150px|left|An expedition down a lava conduit in Hualālai volcano]] |
[[File:Puhia pelee.jpg|thumb|150px|left|An expedition down a lava conduit in Hualālai volcano]] |
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Hualālai stands at {{convert|8271|ft|0|abbr=on}} with a [[Topographic prominence|prominence]] of {{convert|3071|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="peakbagger">{{cite web|title=Hualalai, Hawaii|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11910|work=Summits of the World|publisher=peakbagger.com| |
Hualālai stands at {{convert|8271|ft|0|abbr=on}} with a [[Topographic prominence|prominence]] of {{convert|3071|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="peakbagger">{{cite web|title=Hualalai, Hawaii|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=11910|work=Summits of the World|publisher=peakbagger.com|access-date=21 February 2013}}</ref> It is the westernmost of the five major volcanoes that form the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawai{{okina}}i]].<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/hualalai/main.html|title=Hualālai, Hawaiʻi's Third Active Volcano|publisher=[[USGS]]|date=18 June 2001|access-date=9 June 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918082404/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/hualalai/main.html|archive-date=18 September 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Being in the post-shield stage of development, Hualālai is overall much rougher in shape and structure than the more youthful [[Mauna Loa]] and [[Kīlauea]].<ref name="volcwatch478">{{cite web|title=Hualalai Volcano: Kailua-Kona's intriguing neighbor|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2004/04_07_08.html|publisher=[[USGS]]|access-date=18 July 2010|date=July 8, 2004}}</ref> Hualālai's structure is denoted by three [[rift zone]]s: a well-developed one approximately 50° to the northwest, a moderately developed one to the southeast, and a poorly developed one trending northward about {{convert|3|mi|0|abbr=on}} east of the summit.<ref name="hcv-hual-2004">{{cite web|last=Rubin|first=Ken|title=Hualalai Volcano|url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/HCV/hualalai.html|publisher=Hawaiian Center for Volcanology|access-date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="Macdonald">{{cite book |author-link=Gordon A. Macdonald |last1=Macdonald |first1=G.A. |first2= Agatin Townsend |last2= Abbott |year=1970 |title=Volcanoes in the Sea |url=https://archive.org/details/volcanoesinseage00macd |url-access=registration |publisher=Univ. of Hawaiʻi Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/volcanoesinseage00macd/page/441 441]|isbn=978-0-87022-495-9 }}</ref> Over 100 [[cinder cone|cinder]] and [[volcanic cone|spatter cones]] are arranged along these rift zones. Hualālai has no [[caldera|summit caldera]], although there is a [[Volcanic crater|collapse crater]] about {{convert|0.3|mi|abbr=on}} across atop a small [[lava shield]]. Much of the southern slope (above the modern town of [[Kailua-Kona]]) consists of lava flows covered by a layer of [[volcanic ash]] from {{convert|10|to|100|cm|0|abbr=on}} thick.<ref name="Macdonald"/><ref name="volc hazards prog-usgs">{{cite web|title=Volcano Information: Hualalai|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/about/volcanoes/hawaii/hualalai.php|publisher=[[USGS]]|access-date=16 June 2010|date=2 June 2008|archive-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602214631/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/about/volcanoes/hawaii/hualalai.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> Of the volcanoes on the island, it is the third-tallest, third-youngest, third-most active, and second-smallest, making up just 7% of the island.<ref name="volcwatch478"/> |
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A major subfeature of Hualālai is ''Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}awa{{okina}}a'', Hawaiian for "many-furrowed hill", a volcanic cone standing {{convert|372|m|0|abbr=on}} tall and measuring over {{convert|1.6|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} in diameter. It extends for {{convert|9|km|0|abbr=on}}, and has a [[Topographic prominence|prominence]] of {{convert|275|m|0|abbr=on}}, north of the summit at {{coord| 19|46|15|N| 155|49|56|W| display=inline |type:landmark_region:US-HI |name= Puu Waa Waa }}. The cone is constructed of [[trachyte]], a type of volcanic lava |
A major subfeature of Hualālai is ''Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}awa{{okina}}a'', Hawaiian for "many-furrowed hill", a volcanic cone standing {{convert|372|m|0|abbr=on}} tall and measuring over {{convert|1.6|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} in diameter. It extends for {{convert|9|km|0|abbr=on}}, and has a [[Topographic prominence|prominence]] of {{convert|275|m|0|abbr=on}}, north of the summit at {{coord| 19|46|15|N| 155|49|56|W| display=inline |type:landmark_region:US-HI |name= Puu Waa Waa }}. The cone is constructed of [[trachyte]], a type of volcanic lava not found on other volcanoes on the island. Trachyte flows move more slowly than the typically "runny" Hawaiian lavas due to its high (over 62%) [[Silicon dioxide|silica]] composition (typical basalt is only 50% silica). Geologists hypothesize that Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}awa{{okina}}a originally formed during a [[pumice]] eruption a little over 100,000 years ago, and has continued to build since then, with at least three distinct trachyte flows recognized. The eruptions, although partially covered by flows from Hualālai and Mauna Loa, have built a distinctive structure known as the Pu{{okina}}u Anahulu ridge.<ref name="usgs feature-2004" /> |
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Hualālai's westward-facing flank forms a large underwater [[Slump (geology)|slump]] known as the North Kona slump. An area of about {{convert|1000|km2|abbr=on}}, the slump consists of an intricate formation of beaches and scarps {{convert|2000|to|4500|m|-2|abbr=on}} below the waterline. This area was explored more closely in a 2001 joint Japan-United States project to explore the volcano's flanks, utilizing the [[remotely operated vehicle]] [[Kaikō ROV|ROV ''Kaikō'']]. Data collected showed that the lava flows there originated in shallow water {{convert|500|to|1000|m|-2|abbr=on}} deep, and that unlike similar slumps at other volcanoes, the slump at Hualālai formed gradually.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=P.W. Lipmana |author2=M.L. Coombs |title=North Kona slump: Submarine flank failure during the early(?) tholeiitic shield stage of Hualalai Volcano |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=151|issue=1–3|pages=189–216|doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.07.029|date=2006|bibcode = 2006JVGR..151..189L }}</ref> |
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Hualālai is a known source for [[xenolith]]s, rock from the [[Mantle (geology)|Earth's mantle]] that have been brought up in lava flows. Many prehistoric deposits, as well as those from the [[# |
Hualālai is a known source for [[xenolith]]s, rock from the [[Mantle (geology)|Earth's mantle]] that have been brought up in lava flows. Many prehistoric deposits, as well as those from the [[#1800–1801 eruption|1801 event]], contain xenoliths of large size and abundant quantity.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> |
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=== History === |
=== History === |
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</imagemap> |
</imagemap> |
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Lava attributed to a [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Shield stages|shield-stage]] Hualālai has been found just offshore of |
Lava attributed to a [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Shield stages|shield-stage]] Hualālai has been found just offshore of its northwest rift zone. [[Tholeiitic magma series|Tholeiitic basalt]], indicative of the submarine subphase of the volcano's construction, has been found in wells driven into the volcano at a depth of {{convert|75|ft|0|abbr=on}}. These lavas persisted until an estimated 130,000 years ago.<ref name="USGS-2007">{{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1089/Hawaii_expl_pamphlet.pdf|title=Geological Map of the State of Hawaii|author=David R. Sherrod|author2=John M. Sinton|author3=Sarah E. Watkins|author4=Kelly M. Brunt|year=2007|publisher=[[USGS]]|access-date=2009-04-12|pages=48–50}}</ref> Hualālai entered the [[Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Postshield stage|post-shield stage]], the stage it is now in, about 100,000 years ago. Pumice and trachyte eruptions at Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}awa{{okina}}a may be a sign of this change.<ref name="usgs feature-2004">{{cite web|title=When Hualalai Turned Viscous|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2004/04_08_12.html|work=Volcano Watch|publisher=[[USGS]]|access-date=16 June 2010|date=August 12, 2004}}</ref> |
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Geological mapping of |
Geological mapping of Hualālai indicates that as much as 80% of its surface has been topped by lava flows during the last 5,000 years,<ref name="usgs"/> entirely composed of shield [[Alkaline earth metal|alkalic]] [[basalt]].<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> More than half of this is under 3,000 years old, and about 12% is less than 1,000 years old.<ref name="volc hazards prog-usgs"/> Between 1700 and 2016, eruptions originated from six vents; four of these lava flows poured into the sea to the west coast.<ref name="volc hazards prog-usgs"/> |
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== |
== Eruption history == |
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Hualālai is the third most active volcano |
Hualālai is the third most active volcano on the island of Hawai{{okina}}i, behind Kīlauea and Mauna Loa. Although the two larger volcanos have each erupted over 150 times in the last 1,000 years, Hualālai has done so only thrice. Activity seems to recur at the volcano every 200 to 300 years.<ref name="wht-2010">{{closed access}}{{cite web |last=Lucas |first=Carolyn |title=Hualalai – Kona's sleeping giant |url=http://www.westhawaiitoday.com/articles/2010/01/17/local/local01.txt |publisher=[[West Hawaii Today]] |location=Kailua-Kona, HI, USA |access-date=16 June 2010 |url-access=subscription}}{{dead link|date=July 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} [http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=WHTK&p_theme=whtk&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=Hualalai%20--%20Kona%27s%20sleeping%20giant%20AND%20date(all)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Hualalai%20--%20Kona%27s%20sleeping%20giant)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no Alt URL]</ref> |
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A recent calm period, with almost no earthquake or magmatic activity at Hualālai, has seen the growth of homes, businesses, and resorts on |
A recent calm period, with almost no earthquake or magmatic activity at Hualālai, has seen the growth of homes, businesses, and resorts on its flanks. The most recent major activity at the volcano was in 1929, when an intense [[earthquake swarm]] rocked it, most likely caused by magmatic action near its peak. Although it has been relatively placid in the recent past, Hualālai is still potentially active, and is expected to erupt again in the next 100 years.<ref name="usgs"/> |
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=== Lava stratigraphy === |
=== Lava stratigraphy === |
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The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) has divided the exposed lava flows and [[tephra]] erupted by Hualālai volcano during the last 112,000 |
The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) has divided the exposed lava flows and [[tephra]] erupted by Hualālai volcano during the last 112,000 years into 419 rock units of eight [[chronostratigraphy|chronostratigraphic]] age groups. These are summarized in the table below: |
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{{ |
{{Clear}} |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
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|3 |
|3 |
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|northwest flank |
|northwest flank |
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|[[Volcanic vents|Vent]] [[cinder]] deposits with black [[pahoehoe]] basalt [[lava]] flows formed during AD 1800–1801 eruption. Five vents along NW [[rift zone]]. Abundant [[xenolith]]s of [[ultramafic]] [[pluton]]ic rocks. |
|[[Volcanic vents|Vent]] [[Scoria|cinder]] deposits with black [[pahoehoe]] basalt [[lava]] flows formed during AD [[#1800–1801 eruption|1800–1801 eruption]]. Five vents along NW [[rift zone]]. Abundant [[xenolith]]s of [[ultramafic]] [[pluton]]ic rocks. |
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|- |
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|7 |
|7 |
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|3 |
|3 |
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|northeastern flank |
|northeastern flank |
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|Trachyte cone of Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}awa{{okina}}a (current [[prominence]] approximately 430 meters). Block and ʻaʻā trachyte lava flow of Pu{{okina}}u Anahulu and trachyte [[pyroclastic]] deposits. 5.5 km<sup>3</sup> in volume, the largest-volume single eruption on [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]] (Big island). [[Potassium-argon dating|K-Ar age]] is 106,000 ± 6,000 years [[before present]]. |
|Trachyte cone of Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}awa{{okina}}a (current [[prominence]] approximately 430 meters). Block and ʻaʻā trachyte lava flow of Pu{{okina}}u Anahulu and trachyte [[Pyroclastic rock|pyroclastic]] deposits. 5.5 km<sup>3</sup> in volume, the largest-volume single eruption on [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]] (Big island). [[Potassium-argon dating|K-Ar age]] is 106,000 ± 6,000 years [[before present]]. |
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Hualālai last erupted in 1800–1801. This eruption produced very fluid alkalic basalt lava flows that entered the ocean off the western tip of Hawai{{okina}}i island. Although five vents were active at the time, only two produced flows that eventually reached the ocean. The total output volume of the flow is estimated at over {{convert|300,000,000|m3|cumi|abbr=on}}. One volcanic vent, situated high on the slope, produced a large [[Lava|ʻaʻā]] flow, dubbed the ''Kaʻūpūlehu flow'', that reached the ocean as two distinct lobes.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> On its way down, it overran a village and a valuable {{convert|3|mi|0|abbr=on}} fishing pond. There is a local [[legend]] that after the failure of several offerings of animals and other items to the gods, the flow was finally stopped when [[Kamehameha I]] threw a lock of his own hair into the fire.<ref name=wht-2010 /> The Ka'ūpūlehu flow is also known for the particularly large quantity of [[mafic]] and [[Ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] [[xenolith]]s that came up with it.<ref name="volc hazards prog-usgs"/> |
Hualālai last erupted in 1800–1801. This eruption produced very fluid alkalic basalt lava flows that entered the ocean off the western tip of Hawai{{okina}}i island. Although five vents were active at the time, only two produced flows that eventually reached the ocean. The total output volume of the flow is estimated at over {{convert|300,000,000|m3|cumi|abbr=on}}. One volcanic vent, situated high on the slope, produced a large [[Lava|ʻaʻā]] flow, dubbed the ''Kaʻūpūlehu flow'', that reached the ocean as two distinct lobes.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> On its way down, it overran a village and a valuable {{convert|3|mi|0|abbr=on}} fishing pond. There is a local [[legend]] that after the failure of several offerings of animals and other items to the gods, the flow was finally stopped when [[Kamehameha I]] threw a lock of his own hair into the fire.<ref name=wht-2010 /> The Ka'ūpūlehu flow is also known for the particularly large quantity of [[mafic]] and [[Ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] [[xenolith]]s that came up with it.<ref name="volc hazards prog-usgs"/> |
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The other major outflow from the event reached the sea south of [[Kiholo Bay]], destroying the village of [[Kaupulehu, Hawaii|Kaʻūpūlehu]].<ref name="usgs-hazard zone">{{cite web|last=Watson|first=John|title=Lava Flow Hazard Zone Maps:Hualalai|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/hazards/hualalai.html|publisher=[[USGS]]| |
The other major outflow from the event reached the sea south of [[Kiholo Bay]], destroying the village of [[Kaupulehu, Hawaii|Kaʻūpūlehu]].<ref name="usgs-hazard zone">{{cite web|last=Watson|first=John|title=Lava Flow Hazard Zone Maps:Hualalai|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/hazards/hualalai.html|publisher=[[USGS]]|access-date=16 June 2010|date=July 18, 1997|archive-date=28 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028120612/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/hazards/hualalai.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This 1801 flow, known as the Hu{{okina}}ehu{{okina}}e flow, formed [[Keahole Point]] where [[Kona International Airport]] is now located, {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of Kailua-Kona.<ref name="usgs"/><ref name="floyd">{{cite book|last=McCoy|first=Floyd|author2=Grant Heiken|title=Volcanic hazards and disasters in human antiquity |publisher=The Geological Society of America|year=2000}}</ref> The eruption at Hualālai is believed to have been concurrent with an eruption at the nearby [[Mauna Loa]]. It is theorized that in the near past, Hualālai has been active around the same time as both Mauna Loa and Kilauea, although precise dating is impossible.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> |
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=== Recent activity === |
=== Recent activity === |
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[[File:Hualālai Threat Mapping.gif|thumb|right|Hualālai is indicated as threat level 4 by the USGS in this [[Lava Flow Hazard Zones|mapping]]. The two gray areas are the two major outflows from the 1800–1801 event.]] |
[[File:Hualālai Threat Mapping.gif|thumb|right|Hualālai is indicated as threat level 4 by the USGS in this [[Lava Flow Hazard Zones|mapping]]. The two gray areas are the two major outflows from the 1800–1801 event.]] |
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A severe [[earthquake swarm]] shook the volcano in 1929, lasting about a month. This caused $100,000 worth of damage to the [[Kona District, Hawaii|Kona district]] ($1.2 million as of 2010), and two earthquakes with magnitudes of 5.5 and 6.5 were felt as far away as [[Honolulu]]. This was probably caused by magma movement near the surface, but there was no surface activity or eruption.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /><ref name="wht-2010"/> |
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The [[2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake]], with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near [[Māhukona]], caused much damage in the area.<ref>{{cite web |title= M6.7 – Island of Hawaii, Hawaii |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/dyfi/events/us/2006twbh/us/index.html | |
The [[2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake]], with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near [[Māhukona]], caused much damage in the area.<ref>{{cite web |title= M6.7 – Island of Hawaii, Hawaii |publisher= [[USGS]] |url= https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/dyfi/events/us/2006twbh/us/index.html |access-date= July 26, 2010 }}</ref> |
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=== Future monitoring === |
=== Future monitoring === |
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Hualālai is expected to erupt again in the near future, as a 200- to 300-year estimated pause in activity is coming to an end.<ref name="wht-2010"/> This presents a distinct hazard to the communities around it |
Hualālai is expected to erupt again in the near future, as a 200- to 300-year estimated pause in activity is coming to an end.<ref name="wht-2010"/> This presents a distinct hazard to the communities around it; for example, in the event of an eruption similar to the 1801 event, Kailua-Kona, which is {{convert|15|mi|abbr=on}} from the volcano's summit, could be covered completely in a matter of hours.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> According to the USGS [[lava-flow hazard zones]], on a scale of 1 to 9, all of Hualālai is listed as threat level 4. For comparison, almost all of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa is listed as threat levels 1 through 3.<ref name="usgs-hazard-map">{{cite web|last=Watson|first=John|title=Lava Flow Hazard Zone Maps|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/hazards/maps.html|publisher=[[USGS]]|access-date=16 June 2010|date=December 18, 1997|archive-date=2 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602073847/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/hazards/maps.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The volcano's flanks do not pose a lower threat to the population than the area near the rift zones because the distance is short and the slopes are steep; lava poses as much of a threat as it does near its source.<ref name="usgs-hazard zone"/> The 2018 [[U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment]] classified Hualālai as a high threat volcano, with an overall threat score of 109, and ranked it 23rd among United States volcanoes most likely to threaten lives and infrastructure.<ref>{{cite report|last1=Ewert |first1=John W. |last2=Diefenbach |first2=Angela K. |last3=Ramsey |first3=David W. |title=Scientific Investigations Report |chapter=2018 update to the U.S. Geological Survey national volcanic threat assessment |series= Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140 |date=2018 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |page=8 |issn=2328-0328| doi=10.3133/sir20185140 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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Since |
Since 1971, the [[Hawaiian Volcano Observatory]] has maintained a seismic recording station {{convert|3|km|abbr=on}} east of Hualālai's summit to monitor the volcano. During this time, not a single [[earthquake swarm]] or [[harmonic tremor]], indicative of activity at the volcano, has occurred.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> Hualālai is also monitored by several other instruments, including one continuous GPS instrument and several instruments on the flanks of adjacent volcanoes. In addition, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory uses [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] to measure slight changes in tilt and slope of Hualālai, indicative of magmatic movement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Monthly Update - Hualalai Volcano |url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hans2/index/notice/DOI-USGS-HVO-2021-06-03T16:45:05-07:00 |website=US Geological Survey |date=June 3, 2021 |access-date=2021-06-19 |archive-date=2021-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604225631/https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hans2/index/notice/DOI-USGS-HVO-2021-06-03T16:45:05-07:00 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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Although Hualālai does experience several magnitude-4 earthquakes per year, these are attributed to a deep source off the coast of the north-western rift zone and are not related to the movement of magma.<ref name=hcv-hual-2004 /> |
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== Human history == |
== Human history == |
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[[File:Kaloko Fish Pond.jpg|thumb|left|The [[ |
[[File:Kaloko Fish Pond.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park#Kaloko|Kaloko fishpond]]]] |
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Hualālai has been a home to native people since ancient times. Centuries ago, the [[Ahu A Umi Heiau]] was built on the dry plateau east of the mountain.<ref>{{cite web|title= Historic Sites Review of a Proposed Mauna Loa Trail System |author= Thomas S. Dye |date= March 25, 2005 |work= Nature Conservancy web site | |
Hualālai has been a home to native people since ancient times. Centuries ago, the [[Ahu A Umi Heiau]] was built on the dry plateau east of the mountain.<ref>{{cite web|title= Historic Sites Review of a Proposed Mauna Loa Trail System |author= Thomas S. Dye |date= March 25, 2005 |work= Nature Conservancy web site |access-date= July 26, 2010 |url = http://www.nature.org/media/hawaii/dye_cultural_report.pdf}}</ref> The [[Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park]] lies on the shore west of Hualālai, over the site of an [[ancient Hawaii]]an settlement. Although it is called ''kekaha ʻaʻole wai'' (lands without water), the rugged volcanic terrain attracted much sea life, making it an appealing place to settle. There are two main attractions within the park: the Kaloko fishpond, an area of ''loko kuapa'' (rockwall fishponds) constructed of interlocking rocks across a natural embayment on the coast, and Honokōhau, a former extensive settlement on the south side of the park.<ref name="nps-overview">{{cite web|title=Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)|url=http://www.nps.gov/kaho/|publisher=[[National Park Service]]|access-date=27 June 2010|date=April 25, 2010}}</ref> |
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{{quote box2 |width=30em |align=right |halign=left | quote="Outside the (royal) enclosure, by the edge of the sea, was a spring called Ki'ope ... It was a gathering place for those who went swimming and a place where the surf rolled in and dashed on land when it was rough. It was deep enough there for boats to land when the tide was high". |source= — [[John Papa Īī|John Papa Ī{{okina}}ī]], court attendant of [[Kamehameha II]].<ref name="coffeetimes-97"/>}} |
{{quote box2 |width=30em |align=right |halign=left | quote="Outside the (royal) enclosure, by the edge of the sea, was a spring called Ki'ope ... It was a gathering place for those who went swimming and a place where the surf rolled in and dashed on land when it was rough. It was deep enough there for boats to land when the tide was high". |source= — [[John Papa Īī|John Papa Ī{{okina}}ī]], court attendant of [[Kamehameha II]].<ref name="coffeetimes-97"/>}} |
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[[Kamakahonu]], [[Holualoa Bay]], and [[Keauhou Bay]] were favored retreats of Hawaiian royalty long before the [[westernization]] of Hawaii. It was here that [[Kamehameha I]] rested after his eight-year campaign to unite the Hawaiian isles. His death in 1819 triggered social chaos. [[Mokuaikaua Church]], built for missionaries in 1837 of lava rock and crushed coral, still stands today. [[Huliheʻe Palace|Hulihe{{okina}}e Palace]], where many of Hawaii's last kings spent their time, has been maintained as a museum since 1927.<ref name="coffeetimes-97">{{cite web|last=Fullard-Leo|first=Betty|title=Kailua-Kona: A Royal Retreat|url=http://www.coffeetimes.com/dec97.htm|publisher=Coffee Times| |
[[Kamakahonu]], [[Holualoa Bay]], and [[Keauhou Bay]] were favored retreats of Hawaiian royalty long before the [[westernization]] of Hawaii. It was here that [[Kamehameha I]] rested after his eight-year campaign to unite the Hawaiian isles. His death in 1819 triggered social chaos. [[Mokuaikaua Church]], built for missionaries in 1837 of lava rock and crushed coral, still stands today. [[Huliheʻe Palace|Hulihe{{okina}}e Palace]], where many of Hawaii's last kings spent their time, has been maintained as a museum since 1927.<ref name="coffeetimes-97">{{cite web|last=Fullard-Leo|first=Betty|title=Kailua-Kona: A Royal Retreat|url=http://www.coffeetimes.com/dec97.htm|publisher=Coffee Times|access-date=18 July 2010|date=December 1997|archive-date=25 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925154318/http://coffeetimes.com/dec97.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Today, the coast west of Hualālai is a popular location for vacation resorts, since the [[rain shadow]] of the mountain causes many sunny days. The first, [[Kaupulehu, Hawaii#Kona village|Kona Village resort]], was built in 1961. Since then the [[Kaupulehu, Hawaii#Four Seasons Resort Hualalai|Four Seasons Resort]]<ref>{{citation |title= Four Seasons Resort Hualalai at Historic Ka'upulehu |work= [[Travel + Leisure]] |url= http://www.travelandleisure.com/hotels/four-seasons-resort-hualalai-kaupulehu-kona | |
Today, the coast west of Hualālai is a popular location for vacation resorts, since the [[rain shadow]] of the mountain causes many sunny days. The first, [[Kaupulehu, Hawaii#Kona village|Kona Village resort]], was built in 1961. Since then the [[Kaupulehu, Hawaii#Four Seasons Resort Hualalai|Four Seasons Resort]]<ref>{{citation |title= Four Seasons Resort Hualalai at Historic Ka'upulehu |work= [[Travel + Leisure]] |url= http://www.travelandleisure.com/hotels/four-seasons-resort-hualalai-kaupulehu-kona |access-date= June 23, 2010 }}</ref> and the [[Kaupulehu, Hawaii#Kūkiʻo|Kūki{{okina}}o]] golf course and vacation home complex have also been built on the 1800 flow.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kū kiʻo |url=http://www.kukio.com/propertymap.html |year=2009 |access-date=June 23, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628051451/http://www.kukio.com/propertymap.html |archive-date=June 28, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Both the Kona Village Resort and the Four Seasons Resort were damaged by the tsunami generated by the [[2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami|2011 Sendai earthquake]].<ref name=2011tsunami>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/travel/la-xpm-2011-mar-27-la-tr-0327-hawaiijapan-20110327-story.html|title=2 Big Island resorts still closed because of tsunami damage|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|first=Jane|last=Engle|date=March 28, 2011}}</ref> The [[Hawaii Belt Road]] traverses the western slopes with an upper route called the Mamalahoa Highway and lower route named for [[Kaahumanu|Queen Ka{{Okina}}ahumanu]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Hawaii Highways|url=http://www.hawaiihighways.com/big_island.htm|access-date=7 August 2010|author=Oscar Voss|author2=C.C. Slater|date=January 2007}}</ref> |
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Much of the [[Kona coffee]] crop grows on Hualālai's western slope near the town of [[Holualoa]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kona Coffee – What Makes It So Unique?|url=http://www.kona-coffee-council.com/Default.aspx?pageId=692163|publisher=Kona Coffee Council| |
Much of the [[Kona coffee]] crop grows on Hualālai's western slope near the town of [[Holualoa]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kona Coffee – What Makes It So Unique?|url=http://www.kona-coffee-council.com/Default.aspx?pageId=692163|publisher=Kona Coffee Council|access-date=18 July 2010|year=2007|archive-date=3 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101103010910/http://www.kona-coffee-council.com/Default.aspx?pageId=692163|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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The family of early coffee merchant [[Henry Nicholas Greenwell]] owned a large ranch on the western side of the volcano.<ref name="Kinro2003">{{cite book |author=Gerald Kinro |title=A cup of aloha: the Kona coffee epic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyw0JEuokwsC&pg=RA1-PR1-IA4 |date=June 2003 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2678-9 |page=14| |
The family of early coffee merchant [[Henry Nicholas Greenwell]] owned a large ranch on the western side of the volcano.<ref name="Kinro2003">{{cite book |author=Gerald Kinro |title=A cup of aloha: the Kona coffee epic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyw0JEuokwsC&pg=RA1-PR1-IA4 |date=June 2003 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2678-9 |page=14|access-date=26 July 2010}}</ref> The road from Kailua-Kona up the slopes of Hualālai is named for Frank "Palani" Greenwell.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ulukau.org/cgi-bin/hpn?e=p&a=q&l=en&q=Palani&d=HASH01c6226630087deae1b1fd60 |title=lookup of Palani |work= on Hawaiian place names |author= Lloyd J. Soehren |year=2004 |publisher= Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library |access-date= July 26, 2010 }}</ref> |
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[[Hawaii Route 200]] known as the Saddle Road, crosses the plateau north of Hualālai, where the [[Pohakuloa Training Area]] provides a remote training ground for the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Marine Corps]].<ref name="MCBH">{{cite web|url=http://www.mcbh.usmc.mil/g3/g3oppta.htm|title=Marine Corps Base Hawaii G-3 Training Areas - Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA) |
[[Hawaii Route 200]] known as the Saddle Road, crosses the plateau north of Hualālai, where the [[Pohakuloa Training Area]] provides a remote training ground for the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Marine Corps]].<ref name="MCBH">{{cite web|url=http://www.mcbh.usmc.mil/g3/g3oppta.htm|title=Marine Corps Base Hawaii G-3 Training Areas - Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA)|date=February 22, 2002|publisher=[[Marine Corps Base Hawaii]]|location=MCBH Kaneohe Bay, HI, USA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629121220/http://www.mcbh.usmc.mil/g3/g3oppta.htm|archive-date=June 29, 2011|access-date=September 22, 2012}}</ref> |
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== Ecology and environment == |
== Ecology and environment == |
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[[File:Hualalai from Honokohau.jpg|thumb|left|Hualālai seen from [[Honokohau Settlement and Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park|Honokōhau]]]] |
[[File:Hualalai from Honokohau.jpg|thumb|left|Hualālai seen from [[Honokohau Settlement and Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park|Honokōhau]]]] |
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Although some of Hualālai is bare volcanic rock, most of it is covered by some form of vegetation. Bushes, ferns, and grass are common, and even a few [[Metrosideros polymorpha|ōhi{{okina}}a lehua]] trees (''Metrosideros polymorpha'') grow along the summit. Many of the collapse craters in particular have vegetation, and a few even have respectably-sized "vertical forests" inside, including several [[eucalyptus]] tree groves.<ref name="summitpost-2009">{{cite web|title=SummitPost – Hualalai – Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering |url=http://www.summitpost.org/hualalai/262991|publisher=SummitPost.org| |
Although some of Hualālai is bare volcanic rock, most of it is covered by some form of vegetation. Bushes, ferns, and grass are common, and even a few [[Metrosideros polymorpha|ōhi{{okina}}a lehua]] trees (''Metrosideros polymorpha'') grow along the summit. Many of the collapse craters in particular have vegetation, and a few even have respectably-sized "vertical forests" inside, including several [[eucalyptus]] tree groves.<ref name="summitpost-2009">{{cite web|title=SummitPost – Hualalai – Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering |url=http://www.summitpost.org/hualalai/262991|publisher=SummitPost.org|access-date=17 June 2010|date=April 8, 2009}}</ref> The volcano is populated by many birds and animals;<ref name="huehue-2006">{{cite web|last=Catalano|first=Hadley|title=Huehue Hualalai Trail|url=http://hawaii.kulshan.com/Hawaii/Hawaii%20County/The%20Big%20Island/Kalaoa/Outdoors/Huehue%20Hualalai%20Trail.htm|access-date=27 June 2010|date=September 19, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713173405/http://hawaii.kulshan.com/Hawaii/Hawaii%20County/The%20Big%20Island/Kalaoa/Outdoors/Huehue%20Hualalai%20Trail.htm|archive-date=13 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> the coast in particular attracts many fish and sea-dependent animals, such as the [[green sea turtle]] (''Chelonia mydas'') and the [[black-winged stilt]] (''Himantopus himantopus'').<ref name="nps-overview"/> Hualālai averages {{convert|18.27|in|cm|0|abbr=on}} of rainfall per year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hualalai 72, Hawaii (512151): Period of Record Monthly Climate Summary|url=http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?hi2151|publisher=Western Regional Climate Center|access-date=2011-02-06}}</ref> The summit gets more rain than the coast<ref name="exptrop"/> and is typically obscured in heavy [[cloud cover]] and [[vog]].<ref name=volcwatch478 /> |
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Several ecological reserves lie on the flanks of Hualālai. The Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}a Wa{{okina}}a forest sanctuary was established in 1992 (along with the Laupahoehoe sister reserve on Mauna Kea) as a testbed for long term ecological research about Hawaiian [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests|moist forest]] and [[Hawaiian tropical dry forests|dry forest]] [[biome]]s, and lies within a mile of the volcano's summit on its northwestern flank. Elevation differs from [[sea level]] near the coastal edge to {{convert|6300|ft|0|abbr=on}} near the summit. Median annual rainfall is about {{convert|46.7|in|0|abbr=on}}. Plentiful lava flows from the 19th century provide unique niches for vegetative and soil growth in the region. The southern section of the reserve, closest to the summit, has been split into a [[bird sanctuary]].<ref name="exptrop">{{cite web|last=Kauffman|first=Boone|title=Hawaii Experimental Tropical Forest|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/ef/hawaii/| |
Several ecological reserves lie on the flanks of Hualālai. The Pu{{okina}}u Wa{{okina}}a Wa{{okina}}a forest sanctuary was established in 1992 (along with the Laupahoehoe sister reserve on Mauna Kea) as a testbed for long term ecological research about Hawaiian [[Hawaiian tropical rainforests|moist forest]] and [[Hawaiian tropical dry forests|dry forest]] [[biome]]s, and lies within a mile of the volcano's summit on its northwestern flank. Elevation differs from [[sea level]] near the coastal edge to {{convert|6300|ft|0|abbr=on}} near the summit. Median annual rainfall is about {{convert|46.7|in|0|abbr=on}}. Plentiful lava flows from the 19th century provide unique niches for vegetative and soil growth in the region. The southern section of the reserve, closest to the summit, has been split into a [[bird sanctuary]].<ref name="exptrop">{{cite web|last=Kauffman|first=Boone|title=Hawaii Experimental Tropical Forest|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/ef/hawaii/|access-date=18 July 2010}}</ref> |
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The Honuaula forest reserve on the southwestern flank of the volcano at {{coord| 19|30|25|N| 155|54|41|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:US-HI|name= Honuaula State Forest }}, preserves an extensive [[Acacia koa|koa]] (''Acacia koa'') forest stand, with smaller [[Myoporum sandwicense|Naio]] (''Myoporum sandwicense'') and [[Sophora chrysophylla|Māmane]] (''Sophora chrysophylla'') trees and an undergrowth of [[Rubus hawaiensis|{{okina}}Ākala]] (''Rubus hawaiensis'') and various [[fern]]s. The reserve measures {{convert|655|acre|4=0}} and protects an ecosystem that has since been largely deforested in the surrounding area.<ref name="reserve-1921">{{cite book|title=The Hawaiian forester and agriculturist: quarterly magazine of forestry, entomology, plant inspection and animal industry|year=1921|publisher=Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BlnlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA203 | |
The Honuaula forest reserve on the southwestern flank of the volcano at {{coord| 19|30|25|N| 155|54|41|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:US-HI|name= Honuaula State Forest }}, preserves an extensive [[Acacia koa|koa]] (''Acacia koa'') forest stand, with smaller [[Myoporum sandwicense|Naio]] (''Myoporum sandwicense'') and [[Sophora chrysophylla|Māmane]] (''Sophora chrysophylla'') trees and an undergrowth of [[Rubus hawaiensis|{{okina}}Ākala]] (''Rubus hawaiensis'') and various [[fern]]s. The reserve measures {{convert|655|acre|4=0}} and protects an ecosystem that has since been largely [[deforestation|deforested]] in the surrounding area.<ref name="reserve-1921">{{cite book|title=The Hawaiian forester and agriculturist: quarterly magazine of forestry, entomology, plant inspection and animal industry|year=1921|publisher=Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BlnlAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA203 |access-date=18 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Big Island Forest Reserves |work= Hawai‛i Forest Reserve System web site |url= http://www.state.hi.us/dlnr/dofaw/frs/page10.htm |access-date= August 21, 2010 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100206154532/http://www.state.hi.us/dlnr/dofaw/frs/page10.htm |archive-date= February 6, 2010 }}</ref> The Wai Aha spring reserve on the lower slopes of the mountain is somewhat swampy and is home to the flowering evergreen [[Metrosideros polymorpha|ōhi{{okina}}a]] (''Metrosideros polymorpha''), the [[woody plant|woody]] [[vine|climber]] [[Freycinetia arborea|{{okina}}Ie{{okina}}ie]] (''Freycinetia arborea''), and a dense undergrowth of [[Sadleria cyatheoides|{{okina}}Ama{{okina}}u]] (''Sadleria cyatheoides'').<ref name="reserve-1921"/> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{ |
{{Portal|Oceania|United States|Hawaii|Mountains|Volcanoes}} |
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*[[List of mountain peaks of the United States]] |
*[[List of mountain peaks of the United States]] |
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**[[List of volcanoes in the United States]] |
**[[List of volcanoes in the United States]] |
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*[[Hawaii hotspot]] |
*[[Hawaii hotspot]] |
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*[[Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain]] |
*[[Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain]] |
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{{Clear}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{sister project links}} |
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* {{cite gnis|id=359445|title=Hualālai}} |
* {{cite gnis|id=359445|title=Hualālai}} |
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* {{cite gvp|name=Hualalai|vn=332040}} |
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* [ |
* [https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/hualalai USGS page about Hualalai] |
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* [http://satftp.soest.hawaii.edu/space/hawaii/nav/ap.hualalai.html Aerial photos of Hualalai] |
* [http://satftp.soest.hawaii.edu/space/hawaii/nav/ap.hualalai.html Aerial photos of Hualalai] |
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{{Hawaii}} |
{{Hawaii highest}} |
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{{Hawaiian volcanism}} |
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[[Category:Shield volcanoes of the United States]] |
[[Category:Shield volcanoes of the United States]] |
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[[Category:Polygenetic shield volcanoes]] |
[[Category:Polygenetic shield volcanoes]] |
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[[Category:Pleistocene volcanoes]] |
[[Category:Pleistocene shield volcanoes]] |
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[[Category:Holocene volcanoes]] |
[[Category:Holocene shield volcanoes]] |
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[[Category:Pleistocene Oceania]] |
[[Category:Pleistocene Oceania]] |
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[[Category:Quaternary Oceania]] |
[[Category:Quaternary Oceania]] |
Latest revision as of 03:45, 21 August 2024
Hualālai | |
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Highest point | |
Elevation | 8,271 ft (2,521 m)[1] |
Prominence | 3,071 ft (936 m)[2] |
Coordinates | 19°41′32″N 155°52′02″W / 19.69222°N 155.86722°W |
Naming | |
Language of name | Hawaiian language |
Pronunciation | Hawaiian pronunciation: [huəˈlaːlei] |
Geography | |
Location | Hawaiʻi, U.S. |
Parent range | Hawaiian Islands |
Topo map | USGS Hualālai |
Geology | |
Rock age(s) | Oldest-dated rock: 128,000 BP Estimated: over 300,000 years[1] |
Mountain type | Shield volcano |
Volcanic arc/belt | Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain |
Last eruption | 1800 to 1801[1] |
Climbing | |
Easiest route | Multiple trails exist.[3] |
Hualālai (pronounced [huwəˈlaːlɐi] in Hawaiian) is an active volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi in the Hawaiian Islands.[4] It is the westernmost, third-youngest and the third-most active of the five volcanoes that form the island of Hawaiʻi, following Kīlauea and the much larger Mauna Loa. Its peak stands 8,271 feet (2,521 m) above sea level. Hualālai is estimated to have risen above sea level about 300,000 years ago. Despite maintaining a very low level of activity since its last eruption in 1801, and being unusually inactive for the last 2,000 years, Hualālai is still considered active, and is expected to erupt again sometime in the next 100 years. The relative unpreparedness of the residents in the area caused by the lull in activity would worsen an eruption's consequences.
The area near Hualālai has been inhabited for centuries by Hawaiian natives, dating back to before recorded history. The coast to its west in particular had several royal complexes. The volcano is also important ecologically, is home to many rare species and several nature reserves near the summit, and is a popular hiking attraction. Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts, some built on historic flows, and a National Historical Park.
Geology
[edit]Structural features
[edit]Hualālai stands at 8,271 ft (2,521 m) with a prominence of 3,071 ft (936 m).[2] It is the westernmost of the five major volcanoes that form the island of Hawaiʻi.[1] Being in the post-shield stage of development, Hualālai is overall much rougher in shape and structure than the more youthful Mauna Loa and Kīlauea.[5] Hualālai's structure is denoted by three rift zones: a well-developed one approximately 50° to the northwest, a moderately developed one to the southeast, and a poorly developed one trending northward about 3 mi (5 km) east of the summit.[6][7] Over 100 cinder and spatter cones are arranged along these rift zones. Hualālai has no summit caldera, although there is a collapse crater about 0.3 mi (0.48 km) across atop a small lava shield. Much of the southern slope (above the modern town of Kailua-Kona) consists of lava flows covered by a layer of volcanic ash from 10 to 100 cm (4 to 39 in) thick.[7][8] Of the volcanoes on the island, it is the third-tallest, third-youngest, third-most active, and second-smallest, making up just 7% of the island.[5]
A major subfeature of Hualālai is Puʻu Waʻawaʻa, Hawaiian for "many-furrowed hill", a volcanic cone standing 372 m (1,220 ft) tall and measuring over 1.6 km (1 mi) in diameter. It extends for 9 km (6 mi), and has a prominence of 275 m (902 ft), north of the summit at 19°46′15″N 155°49′56″W / 19.77083°N 155.83222°W. The cone is constructed of trachyte, a type of volcanic lava not found on other volcanoes on the island. Trachyte flows move more slowly than the typically "runny" Hawaiian lavas due to its high (over 62%) silica composition (typical basalt is only 50% silica). Geologists hypothesize that Puʻu Waʻawaʻa originally formed during a pumice eruption a little over 100,000 years ago, and has continued to build since then, with at least three distinct trachyte flows recognized. The eruptions, although partially covered by flows from Hualālai and Mauna Loa, have built a distinctive structure known as the Puʻu Anahulu ridge.[9]
Hualālai's westward-facing flank forms a large underwater slump known as the North Kona slump. An area of about 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi), the slump consists of an intricate formation of beaches and scarps 2,000 to 4,500 m (6,600 to 14,800 ft) below the waterline. This area was explored more closely in a 2001 joint Japan-United States project to explore the volcano's flanks, utilizing the remotely operated vehicle ROV Kaikō. Data collected showed that the lava flows there originated in shallow water 500 to 1,000 m (1,600 to 3,300 ft) deep, and that unlike similar slumps at other volcanoes, the slump at Hualālai formed gradually.[10]
Hualālai is a known source for xenoliths, rock from the Earth's mantle that have been brought up in lava flows. Many prehistoric deposits, as well as those from the 1801 event, contain xenoliths of large size and abundant quantity.[6]
History
[edit]Lava attributed to a shield-stage Hualālai has been found just offshore of its northwest rift zone. Tholeiitic basalt, indicative of the submarine subphase of the volcano's construction, has been found in wells driven into the volcano at a depth of 75 ft (23 m). These lavas persisted until an estimated 130,000 years ago.[11] Hualālai entered the post-shield stage, the stage it is now in, about 100,000 years ago. Pumice and trachyte eruptions at Puʻu Waʻawaʻa may be a sign of this change.[9]
Geological mapping of Hualālai indicates that as much as 80% of its surface has been topped by lava flows during the last 5,000 years,[1] entirely composed of shield alkalic basalt.[6] More than half of this is under 3,000 years old, and about 12% is less than 1,000 years old.[8] Between 1700 and 2016, eruptions originated from six vents; four of these lava flows poured into the sea to the west coast.[8]
Eruption history
[edit]Hualālai is the third most active volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi, behind Kīlauea and Mauna Loa. Although the two larger volcanos have each erupted over 150 times in the last 1,000 years, Hualālai has done so only thrice. Activity seems to recur at the volcano every 200 to 300 years.[12]
A recent calm period, with almost no earthquake or magmatic activity at Hualālai, has seen the growth of homes, businesses, and resorts on its flanks. The most recent major activity at the volcano was in 1929, when an intense earthquake swarm rocked it, most likely caused by magmatic action near its peak. Although it has been relatively placid in the recent past, Hualālai is still potentially active, and is expected to erupt again in the next 100 years.[1]
Lava stratigraphy
[edit]The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has divided the exposed lava flows and tephra erupted by Hualālai volcano during the last 112,000 years into 419 rock units of eight chronostratigraphic age groups. These are summarized in the table below:
Age Group | Age (years before present) | Rock type | Surface area (percent) | Number of rock units | Location of exposures | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
8 | less than 225 | alkali basalt | 6 | 3 | northwest flank | Vent cinder deposits with black pahoehoe basalt lava flows formed during AD 1800–1801 eruption. Five vents along NW rift zone. Abundant xenoliths of ultramafic plutonic rocks. |
7 | 200–700 | alkali basalt | 3 | 4 | southern flank | Vent lava spatter and lava flows, cinders and tuff at Waha Pele. Spatter cone erupted pahoehoe and ʻaʻā basalt lava flows. Cone collapsed causing violent phreatic eruptions of tuff. Lava flow eruption resumed building larger cone, with eruption of long ʻaʻā lava flows. |
6 | 750-1,500 | alkali basalt | 8 | 14 | mostly central summit area and southeast flank | Dark grey to black vent lava spatter (including a 650-meter-long spatter rampart), cinders, ʻaʻā and pahoehoe basalt lava flows, including Hualalai's longest lava flow (22 km). Collapse of vents produced pit craters. Hawaiian, Strombolian, and sub-Plinian activity. |
5 | 1,500–3,000 | alkali basalt | 38 | 49 | mostly northern flank | Spatter deposits, ʻaʻā and pahoehoe basalt lava flows. Very active 2,400–1,900 years before present. |
4 | 3,000–5,000 | alkali basalt | 25 | 98 | mostly northern flank and summit | Spatter deposits, ʻaʻā and pahoehoe basalt lava flows. |
3 | 5,000–10,000 | alkali basalt with minor amounts of picritic basalt, hawaiite and ankaramite | 15 | 185 | mostly southern flank and summit | Spatter deposits, extensively weathered ʻaʻā and pahoehoe lava flows. |
2 | 10,000–25,000 | alkali basalt with minor amounts of picritic basalt, hawaiite and ankaramite | 5 | 63 | northeastern and southwestern flanks | Lava spatter, cinders, extensively weathered ʻaʻā and pahoehoe lava flows and palagonite tuff. Spatter and cinders contain abundant xenoliths of mafic and ultramafic plutonic rocks. |
1 | more than 100,000 | trachyte | less than 1 | 3 | northeastern flank | Trachyte cone of Puʻu Waʻawaʻa (current prominence approximately 430 meters). Block and ʻaʻā trachyte lava flow of Puʻu Anahulu and trachyte pyroclastic deposits. 5.5 km3 in volume, the largest-volume single eruption on Hawaiʻi (Big island). K-Ar age is 106,000 ± 6,000 years before present. |
1800–1801 eruption
[edit]Hualālai last erupted in 1800–1801. This eruption produced very fluid alkalic basalt lava flows that entered the ocean off the western tip of Hawaiʻi island. Although five vents were active at the time, only two produced flows that eventually reached the ocean. The total output volume of the flow is estimated at over 300,000,000 m3 (0.072 cu mi). One volcanic vent, situated high on the slope, produced a large ʻaʻā flow, dubbed the Kaʻūpūlehu flow, that reached the ocean as two distinct lobes.[6] On its way down, it overran a village and a valuable 3 mi (5 km) fishing pond. There is a local legend that after the failure of several offerings of animals and other items to the gods, the flow was finally stopped when Kamehameha I threw a lock of his own hair into the fire.[12] The Ka'ūpūlehu flow is also known for the particularly large quantity of mafic and ultramafic xenoliths that came up with it.[8]
The other major outflow from the event reached the sea south of Kiholo Bay, destroying the village of Kaʻūpūlehu.[14] This 1801 flow, known as the Huʻehuʻe flow, formed Keahole Point where Kona International Airport is now located, 11 km (6.8 mi) north of Kailua-Kona.[1][15] The eruption at Hualālai is believed to have been concurrent with an eruption at the nearby Mauna Loa. It is theorized that in the near past, Hualālai has been active around the same time as both Mauna Loa and Kilauea, although precise dating is impossible.[6]
Recent activity
[edit]A severe earthquake swarm shook the volcano in 1929, lasting about a month. This caused $100,000 worth of damage to the Kona district ($1.2 million as of 2010), and two earthquakes with magnitudes of 5.5 and 6.5 were felt as far away as Honolulu. This was probably caused by magma movement near the surface, but there was no surface activity or eruption.[6][12]
The 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake, with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near Māhukona, caused much damage in the area.[16]
Future monitoring
[edit]Hualālai is expected to erupt again in the near future, as a 200- to 300-year estimated pause in activity is coming to an end.[12] This presents a distinct hazard to the communities around it; for example, in the event of an eruption similar to the 1801 event, Kailua-Kona, which is 15 mi (24 km) from the volcano's summit, could be covered completely in a matter of hours.[6] According to the USGS lava-flow hazard zones, on a scale of 1 to 9, all of Hualālai is listed as threat level 4. For comparison, almost all of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa is listed as threat levels 1 through 3.[17] The volcano's flanks do not pose a lower threat to the population than the area near the rift zones because the distance is short and the slopes are steep; lava poses as much of a threat as it does near its source.[14] The 2018 U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment classified Hualālai as a high threat volcano, with an overall threat score of 109, and ranked it 23rd among United States volcanoes most likely to threaten lives and infrastructure.[18]
Since 1971, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory has maintained a seismic recording station 3 km (1.9 mi) east of Hualālai's summit to monitor the volcano. During this time, not a single earthquake swarm or harmonic tremor, indicative of activity at the volcano, has occurred.[6] Hualālai is also monitored by several other instruments, including one continuous GPS instrument and several instruments on the flanks of adjacent volcanoes. In addition, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory uses GPS to measure slight changes in tilt and slope of Hualālai, indicative of magmatic movement.[19]
Although Hualālai does experience several magnitude-4 earthquakes per year, these are attributed to a deep source off the coast of the north-western rift zone and are not related to the movement of magma.[6]
Human history
[edit]Hualālai has been a home to native people since ancient times. Centuries ago, the Ahu A Umi Heiau was built on the dry plateau east of the mountain.[20] The Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park lies on the shore west of Hualālai, over the site of an ancient Hawaiian settlement. Although it is called kekaha ʻaʻole wai (lands without water), the rugged volcanic terrain attracted much sea life, making it an appealing place to settle. There are two main attractions within the park: the Kaloko fishpond, an area of loko kuapa (rockwall fishponds) constructed of interlocking rocks across a natural embayment on the coast, and Honokōhau, a former extensive settlement on the south side of the park.[21]
"Outside the (royal) enclosure, by the edge of the sea, was a spring called Ki'ope ... It was a gathering place for those who went swimming and a place where the surf rolled in and dashed on land when it was rough. It was deep enough there for boats to land when the tide was high".
Kamakahonu, Holualoa Bay, and Keauhou Bay were favored retreats of Hawaiian royalty long before the westernization of Hawaii. It was here that Kamehameha I rested after his eight-year campaign to unite the Hawaiian isles. His death in 1819 triggered social chaos. Mokuaikaua Church, built for missionaries in 1837 of lava rock and crushed coral, still stands today. Huliheʻe Palace, where many of Hawaii's last kings spent their time, has been maintained as a museum since 1927.[22]
Today, the coast west of Hualālai is a popular location for vacation resorts, since the rain shadow of the mountain causes many sunny days. The first, Kona Village resort, was built in 1961. Since then the Four Seasons Resort[23] and the Kūkiʻo golf course and vacation home complex have also been built on the 1800 flow.[24] Both the Kona Village Resort and the Four Seasons Resort were damaged by the tsunami generated by the 2011 Sendai earthquake.[25] The Hawaii Belt Road traverses the western slopes with an upper route called the Mamalahoa Highway and lower route named for Queen Kaʻahumanu.[26]
Much of the Kona coffee crop grows on Hualālai's western slope near the town of Holualoa.[27] The family of early coffee merchant Henry Nicholas Greenwell owned a large ranch on the western side of the volcano.[28] The road from Kailua-Kona up the slopes of Hualālai is named for Frank "Palani" Greenwell.[29] Hawaii Route 200 known as the Saddle Road, crosses the plateau north of Hualālai, where the Pohakuloa Training Area provides a remote training ground for the United States Army and United States Marine Corps.[30]
Ecology and environment
[edit]Although some of Hualālai is bare volcanic rock, most of it is covered by some form of vegetation. Bushes, ferns, and grass are common, and even a few ōhiʻa lehua trees (Metrosideros polymorpha) grow along the summit. Many of the collapse craters in particular have vegetation, and a few even have respectably-sized "vertical forests" inside, including several eucalyptus tree groves.[31] The volcano is populated by many birds and animals;[32] the coast in particular attracts many fish and sea-dependent animals, such as the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the black-winged stilt (Himantopus himantopus).[21] Hualālai averages 18.27 in (46 cm) of rainfall per year.[33] The summit gets more rain than the coast[34] and is typically obscured in heavy cloud cover and vog.[5]
Several ecological reserves lie on the flanks of Hualālai. The Puʻu Waʻa Waʻa forest sanctuary was established in 1992 (along with the Laupahoehoe sister reserve on Mauna Kea) as a testbed for long term ecological research about Hawaiian moist forest and dry forest biomes, and lies within a mile of the volcano's summit on its northwestern flank. Elevation differs from sea level near the coastal edge to 6,300 ft (1,920 m) near the summit. Median annual rainfall is about 46.7 in (1,186 mm). Plentiful lava flows from the 19th century provide unique niches for vegetative and soil growth in the region. The southern section of the reserve, closest to the summit, has been split into a bird sanctuary.[34]
The Honuaula forest reserve on the southwestern flank of the volcano at 19°30′25″N 155°54′41″W / 19.50694°N 155.91139°W, preserves an extensive koa (Acacia koa) forest stand, with smaller Naio (Myoporum sandwicense) and Māmane (Sophora chrysophylla) trees and an undergrowth of ʻĀkala (Rubus hawaiensis) and various ferns. The reserve measures 655 acres (265 ha) and protects an ecosystem that has since been largely deforested in the surrounding area.[35][36] The Wai Aha spring reserve on the lower slopes of the mountain is somewhat swampy and is home to the flowering evergreen ōhiʻa (Metrosideros polymorpha), the woody climber ʻIeʻie (Freycinetia arborea), and a dense undergrowth of ʻAmaʻu (Sadleria cyatheoides).[35]
See also
[edit]- List of mountain peaks of the United States
- Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes
- Hawaii hotspot
- Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g "Hualālai, Hawaiʻi's Third Active Volcano". USGS. 18 June 2001. Archived from the original on 18 September 2007. Retrieved 9 June 2004.
- ^ a b "Hualalai, Hawaii". Summits of the World. peakbagger.com. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
- ^ "About the Pu'u Wa'awa'a Trail System". puuwaawaa.org. Archived from the original on 2009-02-06.
- ^ HVO, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. "Hualālai Volcano, Hawaiʻi". usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 18 September 2007. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
- ^ a b c "Hualalai Volcano: Kailua-Kona's intriguing neighbor". USGS. July 8, 2004. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Rubin, Ken. "Hualalai Volcano". Hawaiian Center for Volcanology. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
- ^ a b Macdonald, G.A.; Abbott, Agatin Townsend (1970). Volcanoes in the Sea. Univ. of Hawaiʻi Press. pp. 441. ISBN 978-0-87022-495-9.
- ^ a b c d "Volcano Information: Hualalai". USGS. 2 June 2008. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
- ^ a b "When Hualalai Turned Viscous". Volcano Watch. USGS. August 12, 2004. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
- ^ P.W. Lipmana; M.L. Coombs (2006). "North Kona slump: Submarine flank failure during the early(?) tholeiitic shield stage of Hualalai Volcano". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 151 (1–3): 189–216. Bibcode:2006JVGR..151..189L. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.07.029.
- ^ David R. Sherrod; John M. Sinton; Sarah E. Watkins; Kelly M. Brunt (2007). "Geological Map of the State of Hawaii" (PDF). USGS. pp. 48–50. Retrieved 2009-04-12.
- ^ a b c d Lucas, Carolyn. "Hualalai – Kona's sleeping giant". Kailua-Kona, HI, USA: West Hawaii Today. Retrieved 16 June 2010.[dead link ] Alt URL
- ^ Moore. R. B. and Clague, D.A. (1991) Geologic Map of Hualalai Volcano, Hawaii; USGS Miscellaneous Investigations Series, Map I-2213, 1:50,000
- ^ a b Watson, John (July 18, 1997). "Lava Flow Hazard Zone Maps:Hualalai". USGS. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
- ^ McCoy, Floyd; Grant Heiken (2000). Volcanic hazards and disasters in human antiquity. The Geological Society of America.
- ^ "M6.7 – Island of Hawaii, Hawaii". USGS. Retrieved July 26, 2010.
- ^ Watson, John (December 18, 1997). "Lava Flow Hazard Zone Maps". USGS. Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
- ^ Ewert, John W.; Diefenbach, Angela K.; Ramsey, David W. (2018). "2018 update to the U.S. Geological Survey national volcanic threat assessment". Scientific Investigations Report (Report). Scientific Investigations Report 2018–5140. U.S. Geological Survey. p. 8. doi:10.3133/sir20185140. ISSN 2328-0328.
- ^ "Hawaiian Volcano Observatory Monthly Update - Hualalai Volcano". US Geological Survey. June 3, 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-06-04. Retrieved 2021-06-19.
- ^ Thomas S. Dye (March 25, 2005). "Historic Sites Review of a Proposed Mauna Loa Trail System" (PDF). Nature Conservancy web site. Retrieved July 26, 2010.
- ^ a b "Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)". National Park Service. April 25, 2010. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ a b Fullard-Leo, Betty (December 1997). "Kailua-Kona: A Royal Retreat". Coffee Times. Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
- ^ "Four Seasons Resort Hualalai at Historic Ka'upulehu", Travel + Leisure, retrieved June 23, 2010
- ^ "Kū kiʻo". 2009. Archived from the original on June 28, 2010. Retrieved June 23, 2010.
- ^ Engle, Jane (March 28, 2011). "2 Big Island resorts still closed because of tsunami damage". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ Oscar Voss; C.C. Slater (January 2007). "Hawaii Highways". Retrieved 7 August 2010.
- ^ "Kona Coffee – What Makes It So Unique?". Kona Coffee Council. 2007. Archived from the original on 3 November 2010. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
- ^ Gerald Kinro (June 2003). A cup of aloha: the Kona coffee epic. University of Hawaii Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8248-2678-9. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
- ^ Lloyd J. Soehren (2004). "lookup of Palani". on Hawaiian place names. Ulukau, the Hawaiian Electronic Library. Retrieved July 26, 2010.
- ^ "Marine Corps Base Hawaii G-3 Training Areas - Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA)". MCBH Kaneohe Bay, HI, USA: Marine Corps Base Hawaii. February 22, 2002. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2012.
- ^ "SummitPost – Hualalai – Climbing, Hiking & Mountaineering". SummitPost.org. April 8, 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2010.
- ^ Catalano, Hadley (September 19, 2006). "Huehue Hualalai Trail". Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
- ^ "Hualalai 72, Hawaii (512151): Period of Record Monthly Climate Summary". Western Regional Climate Center. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
- ^ a b Kauffman, Boone. "Hawaii Experimental Tropical Forest". Retrieved 18 July 2010.
- ^ a b The Hawaiian forester and agriculturist: quarterly magazine of forestry, entomology, plant inspection and animal industry. Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry. 1921. p. 203. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
- ^ "Big Island Forest Reserves". Hawai‛i Forest Reserve System web site. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010. Retrieved August 21, 2010.
External links
[edit]- "Hualālai". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
- "Hualalai". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
- USGS page about Hualalai
- Aerial photos of Hualalai