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{{Short description|Archaeological site in Syria}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Infobox ancient site
{{Infobox ancient site
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|alt =
|alt =
|caption =
|caption =
|map_type = Syria
|map_type = Near East#Syria
|map_alt =
|map_alt =
|map_size = 200
|map_size = 270
|relief=yes
|location ={{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Damascus]], [[Syria]]
|location ={{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Damascus]], [[Syria]]
|region = Damascus basin
|region = Damascus basin
|coordinates = {{coord|33.40|36.55|display=inline}}
|coordinates = {{coord|33.40|36.55|display=inline, title}}
|type = [[Tell (archaeology)|Tell]]
|type = [[Tell (archaeology)|Tell]]
|part_of = Village
|part_of = Village
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|builder =
|builder =
|material = Clay, Limestone
|material = Clay, Limestone
|built = c. 9300 BC
|built = c. 8700 BC
|abandoned = c. 7500 BC
|abandoned = c. 7500 BC
|epochs = [[PPNB]], [[Neolithic]]
|epochs = [[PPNB]], [[Neolithic]]
|cultures = [[Natufian]]
|cultures =
|dependency_of =
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|occupants =
|event =
|event =
|excavations = 1971-1976<br>2001-2006
|excavations = 1971-1976<br />2001-2006
|archaeologists = [[Henri de Contenson]]<br>[[Danielle Stordeur]]<br>[[Bassam Jamous]]
|archaeologists = [[Henri de Contenson]]<br />[[Danielle Stordeur]]<br />[[Bassam Jamous]]
|condition = Ruins
|condition = Ruins
|ownership =
|ownership =
Line 37: Line 39:
|notes =
|notes =
}}
}}
'''Tell Aswad''' ({{lang-ar|تل أسود}}, "Black hill"), '''Su-uk-su''' or '''Shuksa''', is a large [[prehistoric]], [[neolithic]] [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]], about {{convert|5|ha|ft2}} in size, located around {{convert|48|km|mi}} from [[Damascus]] in [[Syria]], on a tributary of the [[Barada]] River at the eastern end of the village of [[Jdeidet el Khass]].<ref>[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=15958 The Megalithic Portal entry about Tell Aswad]</ref>
'''Tell Aswad''' ({{langx|ar|تل أسود}}, "Hill Black"), '''Su-uk-su''' or '''Shuksa''', is a large [[prehistoric]], [[neolithic]] [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]], about {{convert|5|ha|ft2}} in size, located around {{convert|48|km|mi}} from [[Damascus]] in [[Syria]], on a tributary of the [[Barada]] River at the eastern end of the village of [[Jdeidet el Khass]].<ref>[http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=15958 The Megalithic Portal entry about Tell Aswad]</ref>


==Excavation==
==Excavation==


It was discovered in 1967 by [[Henri de Contenson]] who led excavations in 1971–1972.<ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad. Fouilles de 1971, Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes XXII, 1972, p. 75–84., 1972.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Chronologie absolue de Tell Aswad, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 70, 1973, p. 253–255., 1973.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad, site néolithique précéramique près de Damas (Syria), Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 71, 1974, p. 5–6., 1974.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Précisions sur la stratigraphie de Tell Aswad (Syria), Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 73, 1976, p. 198–199., 1976.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad, Archiv für Orientforschung XXVI, 1978/79, p. 151–152., 1978.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad. Fouilles de 1972, Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes XXVII-XXVIII, 1977–1978, p. 207–215., 1977.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad (Damascène), Paléorient 5, 1979, p. 153–156., 1979.</ref> The [[Aswadian]] culture found by de Contenson was far too advanced for its calibrated dating than anything else found in the region, and the only example ever found of this culture.<ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., L'Aswadien, un nouveau faciès du Néolithique syrien, Paléorient 15/1, 1989, p. 259–261., 1989.</ref> Further technical investigation of the lithic series by [[Frédéric Abbès]] revealed inconsistencies so it was recently decided to re-excavate in six seasons by the French Permanent Archaeological Mission [[El Kowm]]-[[Mureybet]] under the co-direction of [[Danielle Stordeur]] and Bassam Jamous between 2001–2006. Investigations into the materials found are ongoing at the [[National Museum of Damascus]].<ref>Helmer D. ; Gourichon L., Premières données sur les modalités de subsistance dans les niveaux récents de Tell Aswad (Damascène, Syrie) – fouilles 2001–2005., 2008.</ref><ref>In Vila E., Gourichon L., Buitenhuis H. & Choyke A. (éd.), Archaeozoology of the Southwest Asia and Adjacent Areas VIII. Actes du 8e colloque de l'ASWA (Lyon, 28 June – 1 July 2006). Lyon, Travaux de la Maison de l'Orient 49, volume 1, pp. 119–151. 2008.</ref><ref>Helmer D. et Gourichon L., Premières données sur les modalités de subsistances dans les niveaux récents (PPNB moyen à Néolithique à Poterie) de Tell Aswad en Damascène (Syrie), Fouilles 2001–2005, in Vila E. et Gourichon L. (eds), ASWA Lyon June 2006., 2007.</ref><ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, Danielle]]., Tell Aswad. Résultats préliminaires des campagnes 2001 et 2002. Neo Lithics 1/03, 7–15, 2003.</ref>
Tell Aswad was discovered in 1967 by [[Henri de Contenson]] who led excavations in 1971–1972.<ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad. Fouilles de 1971, Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes XXII, 1972, p. 75–84., 1972.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Chronologie absolue de Tell Aswad, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 70, 1973, p. 253–255., 1973.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad, site néolithique précéramique près de Damas (Syria), Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 71, 1974, p. 5–6., 1974.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Précisions sur la stratigraphie de Tell Aswad (Syria), Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 73, 1976, p. 198–199., 1976.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad, Archiv für Orientforschung XXVI, 1978/79, p. 151–152., 1978.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad. Fouilles de 1972, Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes XXVII-XXVIII, 1977–1978, p. 207–215., 1977.</ref><ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Tell Aswad (Damascène), Paléorient 5, 1979, p. 153–156., 1979.</ref> The [[Aswadian]] culture found by de Contenson was far too advanced for its calibrated dating than anything else found in the region, and the only example ever found of this culture.<ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., L'Aswadien, un nouveau faciès du Néolithique syrien, Paléorient 15/1, 1989, p. 259–261., 1989.</ref> Further technical investigation of the lithic series by [[Frédéric Abbès]] revealed inconsistencies so it was recently decided to re-excavate in six seasons by the French Permanent Archaeological Mission [[El Kowm]]-[[Mureybet]] under the co-direction of [[Danielle Stordeur]] and [[Bassam Jamous]] between 2001–2006. Investigations into the materials found are ongoing at the [[National Museum of Damascus]].<ref>Helmer D. ; Gourichon L., Premières données sur les modalités de subsistance dans les niveaux récents de Tell Aswad (Damascène, Syrie) – fouilles 2001–2005., 2008.</ref><ref>In Vila E., Gourichon L., Buitenhuis H. & Choyke A. (éd.), Archaeozoology of the Southwest Asia and Adjacent Areas VIII. Actes du 8e colloque de l'ASWA (Lyon, 28 June – 1 July 2006). Lyon, Travaux de la Maison de l'Orient 49, volume 1, pp. 119–151. 2008.</ref><ref>Helmer D. et Gourichon L., Premières données sur les modalités de subsistances dans les niveaux récents (PPNB moyen à Néolithique à Poterie) de Tell Aswad en Damascène (Syrie), Fouilles 2001–2005, in Vila E. et Gourichon L. (eds), ASWA Lyon June 2006., 2007.</ref><ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, Danielle]]., Tell Aswad. Résultats préliminaires des campagnes 2001 et 2002. Neo Lithics 1/03, 7–15, 2003.</ref>


The fieldwork at Tell Aswad has changed the dating system at this site, abolishing the '''Aswadian''' period in the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] (PPNA) period (9500–8700 [[Before Present#Radiocarbon calibration|cal BC]]). The latest research has split the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] (PPNB) period into 3; '''PPNB Ancien''' from 8700 to 8200 cal BC and the '''PPNB Moyen''' from 8200 to 7500 BC. '''PPNB Récent''' has been equated with Dunand's "Néolithique ancien de Byblos".<ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Nouvelles données sur Tell Aswad et l'Aswadien (Damascène), Syria 84, p. 307–308., 2007.</ref>
The most recent fieldwork at Tell Aswad has led to a reevaluation of its dating, with the '''Aswadian''' or [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] (PPNA) period (9500–8700 [[Before Present#Radiocarbon calibration|cal BC]]) now considered to be absent.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Helmer|first=Daniel|last2=Stordeur|first2=D.|last3=molist|first3=miquel|last4=Khawam|first4=Rima|title=Le PPNB de Syrie du Sud à travers les découvertes récentes à Tell Aswad|url=https://www.academia.edu/22129429|language=en}}</ref> Instead, radiocarbon dating of the new excavations, and of seeds from the 1970s excavations, documents occupation in the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] (PPNB) period, split into three parts; '''PPNB Ancien''' (Early PPNB) from 8700 to 8200 cal BC and the '''PPNB Moyen''' (Middle PPNB) from 8200 to 7500 BC.<ref name=":0" /> The '''PPNB Récent''' (Late PPNB) has been equated with Dunand's "Néolithique ancien de Byblos".<ref>[[Henri de Contenson|de Contenson, Henri]]., Nouvelles données sur Tell Aswad et l'Aswadien (Damascène), Syria 84, p. 307–308., 2007.</ref>


==Construction==
==Construction==
The first PPNB period involved construction of massive [[earth architecture]], layering soil with reeds to construct walls. The inhabitants of Tell Aswad invented the brick on site by modelling earth clods with beds of reeds, which they then formed into raw bricks and eventually dried in later stages. Houses were round from beginning to the end of the settlement, elliptical or polygonal and were partly buried or laid. The orientation of the openings is most often to the East. This conforms with sites in the Southern [[Levant]], whereas Northern [[Euphrates]] Valley sites generally display rectangular houses.<ref>[http://wikis.ifporient.org/archeologie/index.php/Tell_Aswad IFP Orient - Tell Aswad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171607/http://wikis.ifporient.org/archeologie/index.php/Tell_Aswad |date=26 July 2011 }}</ref>
The first PPNB period involved construction of massive [[earth architecture]], layering soil with reeds to construct walls. The inhabitants of Tell Aswad invented the brick on site by modelling earth clods with beds of reeds, which they then formed into raw bricks and eventually dried in later stages. Houses were round from beginning to the end of the settlement, elliptical or polygonal and were partly buried or laid. The orientation of the openings is most often to the east. This conforms with sites in the Southern [[Levant]], whereas Northern [[Euphrates]] Valley sites generally display rectangular houses.<ref>[http://wikis.ifporient.org/archeologie/index.php/Tell_Aswad IFP Orient - Tell Aswad] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171607/http://wikis.ifporient.org/archeologie/index.php/Tell_Aswad |date=26 July 2011 }}</ref>


==Culture==
==Culture==
[[Tools]] and weapons were made of [[flint]] including Aswadian and [[Jericho]] point arrowheads. Other finds included grinding equipment, stone and mud containers, and ornaments made of various materials. [[Obsidian]] was imported from [[Anatolia]]. [[Basketry]] and [[weaving]] were commonplace with the imprint of embroidered fabric recorded on a fragment of plaster. Modelling clay and stone figurines of people, animals and geometric shapes such as spheres, cones, discs took place since the beginning of the settlement, these were sometimes mixed with vegetables.
[[Tools]] and weapons were made of [[flint]] including Aswadian and [[Jericho]] point arrowheads. Other finds included grinding equipment, stone and mud containers, and ornaments made of various materials. [[Obsidian]] was imported from [[Anatolia]]. [[Basketry]] and [[weaving]] were commonplace with the imprint of embroidered fabric recorded on a fragment of plaster. Modeling clay and stone figurines of people, animals and geometric shapes such as spheres, cones, discs took place since the beginning of the settlement; these were sometimes mixed with vegetables.{{Cn|date=June 2021}}
[[File:PPNB Plastered Skulls from the Levant.jpg|thumb|280x280px|PPNB plastered skulls, 7th Millenium BC]]
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The graves of more than one hundred well-preserved individuals were found. In the first half of occupation these were found in or around the homes, in later stages cemeteries are isolated outside the village.<ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, D.]], Khawam R. Une place pour les morts dans les maisons de Tell Aswad (Syrie). (Horizon PPNB ancien et PPNB moyen). Workshop Houses for the living and a place for the dead, Hommage à J. Cauvin. Madrid, 5ICAANE., 2008.</ref> A collection of nine technically and stylistically similar, [[overmodelled skull]]s were retrieved from two areas. Detailed study of the skulls is currently underway to provide insight into the traditions and social ties of the villagers. The residents of Tell Aswad reserved a very sophisticated treatment for the dead: skulls were removed and cleaned, with a face modelled directly onto the bone with lime plaster and then painted.<ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, Danielle]]., Des crânes surmodelés à Tell Aswad de Damascène. (PPNB - Syrie). Paléorient, CNRS Editions, 29/2, 109-116., 2003.</ref><ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, D.]], Jammous B., Khawam R., Morero E., L'aire funéraire de Tell Aswad (PPNB). In HUOT J.-L. et STORDEUR D. (Eds) Hommage à H. de Contenson. Syria, n° spécial, 83, 39-62., 2006.</ref><ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, D.]], Khawam R. Les crânes surmodelés de Tell Aswad (PPNB, Syrie). Premier regard sur l’ensemble, premières réflexions. Syria, 84, 5-32., 2007.</ref>


Tell Aswad has been cited as being of importance for the evolution of organised cities due to the appearance of building materials, organized plans and collective work. It has provided insight into the "explosion of knowledge" in the northern Levant during the PPNB Neolithic stage following dam construction.{{Cn|date=June 2021}}
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The graves of more than one hundred well-preserved individuals were found. In the first half of occupation these were found in or around the homes, in later stages cemeteries are isolated outside the village.<ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, D.]], Khawam R. Une place pour les morts dans les maisons de Tell Aswad (Syrie). (Horizon PPNB ancien et PPNB moyen). Workshop Houses for the living and a place for the dead, Hommage à J. Cauvin. Madrid, 5ICAANE., 2008.</ref> A collection of nine technically and stylistically similar, over-modelled, skulls were retrieved from two areas. Detailed study of the skulls is currently underway to provide insight into the traditions and social ties of the villagers. The residents of Tell Aswad reserved a very sophisticated treatment for the dead: skulls were removed and cleaned, with a face modelled directly onto the bone with lime plaster and then painted.<ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, Danielle]]., Des crânes surmodelés à Tell Aswad de Damascène. (PPNB - Syrie). Paléorient, CNRS Editions, 29/2, 109-116., 2003.</ref><ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, D.]], Jammous B., Khawam R., Morero E., L'aire funéraire de Tell Aswad (PPNB). In HUOT J.-L. et STORDEUR D. (Eds) Hommage à H. de Contenson. Syria, n° spécial, 83, 39-62., 2006.</ref><ref>[[Danielle Stordeur|Stordeur, D.]], Khawam R. Les crânes surmodelés de Tell Aswad (PPNB, Syrie). Premier regard sur l’ensemble, premières réflexions. Syria, 84, 5-32., 2007.</ref>


==Agriculture & animal domestication==
==Plant & animal domestication ==
[[File:Fertile crescent Neolithic B circa 7500 BC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Area of the [[fertile crescent]], circa 7500 BC, with main sites. Tell Aswad is one of the important sites of the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic]] period. The area of [[Mesopotamia]] proper was not yet settled by humans.]]
Tell Aswad occupies a special location in the central Levant as a connecting region between northern and southern expansions of agriculture. Apparently a stronger trade relation is present to the southern cultures, although they had many things in common with the cultures that existed in the northern Levant. It is an example of one of the oldest sites of agriculture with domesticated [[emmer]] [[wheat]] dated by [[Willem van Zeist]] and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BC.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1797 | pmid = 12270906 | volume=19 | issue=10 | title=AFLP analysis of a collection of tetraploid wheats indicates the origin of emmer and hard wheat domestication in southeast Turkey |date=October 2002 | pages=1797–801 | last1 = Ozkan | first1 = H | last2 = Brandolini | first2 = A | last3 = Schäfer-Pregl | first3 = R | last4 = Salamini | first4 = F | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004002}}</ref><ref>van Zeist, W. Bakker-Heeres, J.A.H., Archaeobotanical Studies in the Levant 1. Neolithic Sites in the Damascus Basin: Aswad, Ghoraifé, Ramad., Palaeohistoria, 24, 165-256, 1982.</ref> Peter Akkermans and Glenn Schwatrz suggested on this evidence that Tell Aswad shows ''"the earliest systematic exploitation of domesticated cereals (emmer wheat) c. 9000-8500 BC"''. They suggest that the arrival of domesticated grain came from somewhere in the vicinity of ''"the basaltic highlands of the Jawlan ([[Golan]]) and [[Mount Hermon|Hawran]]"''.<ref name="AkkermansSchwartz2003">{{cite book|author1=Peter M. M. G. Akkermans|author2=Glenn M. Schwartz|title=The archaeology of Syria: from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies (c. 16,000-300 BC)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA72|accessdate=27 June 2011|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79666-8|pages=72–}}</ref> The claim is based on the discovery of enlarged grains, absences of wild grains and on the presumption that the site was beyond the usual habitat of the wild variety of emmer wheat. The earliest postulated evidence for einkorn wheat at Jericho was not dated until at least five hundred years later than Aswad's emmer.<ref name="Harris1996">{{cite book|author=David R. Harris|title=The origins and spread of agriculture and pastoralism in Eurasia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zkteuesBwpQC&pg=PA207|accessdate=27 June 2011|year=1996|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-85728-538-3|pages=207–}}</ref> [[Flax]] seeds were also present. [[Fruit]], [[Common fig|fig]]s and [[pistachio]]s, were apparently very popular because they were found in large quantities. Stationary containers of mud and stone were found with carbonized grain found on the interior of one designating them as [[silo]]s. Finally, [[Reed (plant)|reeds]] were widely used, especially as reinforcement in the architecture, but also for [[mat]]s and baskets and perhaps as [[bedding]] or [[fodder]].
Understanding of the role of Tell Aswad in the beginnings of farming has been complicated by changes in dating. Originally it was thought to be an example of one of the oldest sites of agriculture with domesticated [[emmer]] [[wheat]] dated by [[Willem van Zeist]] and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to the PPNA at 7600-7300 uncal BC (about 9000 cal BC).<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1797 | pmid = 12270906 | volume=19 | issue=10 | title=AFLP analysis of a collection of tetraploid wheats indicates the origin of emmer and hard wheat domestication in southeast Turkey |date=October 2002 | pages=1797–801 | last1 = Ozkan | first1 = H | last2 = Brandolini | first2 = A | last3 = Schäfer-Pregl | first3 = R | last4 = Salamini | first4 = F | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004002| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>van Zeist, W. Bakker-Heeres, J.A.H., Archaeobotanical Studies in the Levant 1. Neolithic Sites in the Damascus Basin: Aswad, Ghoraifé, Ramad., Palaeohistoria, 24, 165-256, 1982.</ref> The claim is based on the discovery of enlarged grains, absences of wild grains and on the presumption that the site was beyond the usual habitat of the wild variety of emmer wheat. [[Flax]] seeds were present, and [[fruit]], [[Common fig|fig]]s, and [[pistachio]]s were found in large quantities. Stationary containers of mud and stone were found with carbonized grain on the interior of one, designating them as [[silo]]s. Finally, [[Reed (plant)|reeds]] were widely used, especially as reinforcement in the architecture, but also for [[mat]]s and baskets and perhaps as [[bedding]] or [[fodder]]. Despite the (apparently) early date of domesticated plants, Jacques Cauvin considered that Aswad was not the center for the origin of agriculture, stating that its first inhabitants "arrived, perhaps from the neighboring Anti-Lebanon, already equipped with the seeds for planting, for their practice of agriculture from the inception of the settlement is not in doubt. Thus it was not in the oasis itself that they carried out their first experiments in farming."


Studies of lithics and radiocarbon dating of the 2001–2006 excavations showed that Tell Aswad was not occupied during the PPNA period. Instead the domesticated plants are present from the Early PPNB 8700 to 8200 cal BC onwards. Analysis of c. 400 samples collected from the most recent excavations generally confirms van Zeist & Bakker-Heeres's identifications from the earlier excavations.<ref name=":0" /> Domesticated barley is present; the domestication status of emmer wheat is uncertain.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Willcox|first=George|chapter=Near East (Including Anatolia): Origins and Development of Agriculture|date=2014|pages=5208–5222|publisher=Springer New York|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2272|isbn=9781441904263|title=Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weide|first=Alexander|date=2015-12-07|title=On the Identification of Domesticated Emmer Wheat, Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum (Poaceae), in the Aceramic Neolithic of the Fertile Crescent|journal=Archäologische Informationen|language=en|volume=38|issue=1|pages=381–424|doi=10.11588/ai.2015.1.26205|issn=2197-7429}}</ref> It has been speculated that irrigation or some form of water management would have been used in order to allow cultivation of cereals and figs in an area with under 200mm rainfall.<ref name=":0" /> The redating of the earliest levels of Tell Aswad to the early PPNB place it alongside other sites with domesticated cereals such as Cafer Hüyük and Aşıklı Höyük (Turkey), Ganj Dareh and Chogah Golan (Iran), and Wadi el-Jilat 7 and Ain Ghazal (Jordan).<ref name=":1" /> Tell Aswad can now be seen as part of a pattern of multi-regional, dispersed local development in at least five areas of the Near East, rather than as uniquely early evidence pointing to agricultural origins in the southern Levant.<ref name=":1" /> The preceding PPNA period is now widely accepted as encompassing pre-domestic cultivation of wild cereals, rather than full agriculture with domesticated crops.<ref name=":1" />
⚫
A large number of [[goat]]s were evident in the early stages indicating they were either hunted or herded. This is an important issue because the period when [[animal domestication]] first took place is still an open question. From the middle PPNB, the presence of corralled animals is evident. There are [[pigs]], [[sheep]], [[goats]] and [[cattle]]. For the latter two, production of [[meat]] and [[milk]] has been noted. In addition, cattle often show diseases resulting from their use for labour. The image that results from the study of the [[zooarchaeology|archaeozoological]] evidence is a village of [[farmer]]s and herders in full possession of food production techniques. Hunting is well represented with two species of [[horse]]s, two [[gazelle]]s (mountain gazelle and Persian gazelle), [[wild boar]]s, many water birds and some birds of the steppes. Finally, [[fishing]] is practiced throughout the occupation of the site. The presence of [[flora]] such as water reeds, [[Juncaceae|rushes]] and [[tamarisk]] shows that the site was close to a very humid environment. The presence of [[bone]]s of [[fish]] and aquatic birds like [[duck]]s, [[Crane (bird)|cranes]] and [[geese]], indicated that the site was located near a lake and the inhabitants of Neolithic Aswad fully exploited its resources.


⚫
A large number of [[goat]]s were evident in the early stages indicating they were either hunted or herded. This is an important issue because the period when [[animal domestication]] first took place is still an open question. From the middle PPNB, the presence of corralled animals is evident. There are [[pigs]], [[sheep]], [[goats]] and [[cattle]]. For the latter two, production of [[meat]] and [[milk]] has been noted. In addition, cattle often show diseases resulting from their use for labour. The image that results from the study of the [[zooarchaeology|archaeozoological]] evidence is a village of [[farmer]]s and herders in full possession of food production techniques. Hunting is well represented with two species of [[horse]]s, two [[gazelle]]s (mountain gazelle and Persian gazelle), [[wild boar]]s, many water birds and some birds of the steppes. Finally, [[fishing]] is practiced throughout the occupation of the site. The presence of [[flora]] such as water reeds, [[Juncaceae|rushes]] and [[tamarisk]] shows that the site was close to a very humid environment. The presence of [[bone]]s of [[fish]] and aquatic birds like [[duck]]s, [[Crane (bird)|cranes]] and [[geese]], indicated that the site was located near a lake and the inhabitants of Neolithic Aswad fully exploited its resources.{{Cn|date=June 2021}}
Tell Aswad has been cited as being of importance for the evolution of organised [[cities]] due to the appearance of building materials, organized plans and collective work. It has provided insight into the "explosion of knowledge" in the northern Levant during the PPNB Neolithic stage following [[dam]] construction.<ref>[http://www.archeorient.mom.fr/FICHES/fiches_actuelles/STORDEUR.html Daneille Stordeur, Directeur de recherche (DR1) émérite , CNRS Directrice de la mission permanente El Kowm-Mureybet (Syrie) du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères - Recherches sur le Levant central/sud : Premiers résultats] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721012137/http://www.archeorient.mom.fr/FICHES/fiches_actuelles/STORDEUR.html |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> Aswad has been suggested to be amongst the ten probable centers for the [[origin of agriculture]].<ref>[http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030410 Pinhasi R, Fort J, Ammerman AJ., Tracing the Origin and Spread of Agriculture in Europe.] ''PLoS Biol'' 3(12): e410. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pbio.0030410}} (2005)</ref>


==Relative chronology==
Sue Colledge gives dates for the earliest domesticated cereal use at Tell Aswad from approximately 9150 to 8950 BC. This is preceded by an earlier and smaller cave site called [[Iraq ed-Dubb]] in Jordan showing evidence of domestic cereals possibly as far back as 9600 BC.<ref>[https://www.scribd.com/doc/39412176/Archaeobotanical-Evidence-for-the-Spread-of-Farming-in-the-Eastern-Mediterranean-Conolly-and-Shennan-2004?query=iraq Colledge, Sue, Conolly, James & Shennan, Stephen., Archaeobotanical Evidence for the Spread of Farming in the Eastern Mediterranean, Current Anthropology, The Werner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Volume 45, Supplement, August - October 2004.]</ref>
{{Near East Neolithic}}

{{Syria topics}}
[[Jacques Cauvin]] clarifies that Aswad was not the center for the origin of agriculture, stating that its first inhabitants ''"arrived, perhaps from the neighboring [[Anti-Lebanon]], already equipped with the seeds for planting, for their practice of agriculture from the inception of the settlement is not in doubt. Thus it was not in the oasis itself that they carried out their first experiments in farming."''<ref name="CauvinWatkins2000">{{cite book|author1=Jacques Cauvin|author2=Trevor Watkins|title=The birth of the Gods and the origins of agriculture, pp. 55-56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4epGQpNyucC|accessdate=16 November 2011|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-65135-6}}</ref>


== Literature ==
== Literature ==
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==References==
==References==
{{Portal|Archaeology|Ancient Near East}}
{{Portal|History|Asia}}
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


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{{Wheat}}
{{Wheat}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1967 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Neolithic settlements]]
[[Category:Neolithic settlements]]
[[Category:Neolithic sites in Syria]]
[[Category:Neolithic sites in Syria]]
[[Category:Natufian sites]]
[[Category:Archaeological type sites]]
[[Category:Archaeological type sites]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Rif Dimashq Governorate]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Rif Dimashq Governorate]]
[[Category:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]

Latest revision as of 19:57, 21 October 2024

Tell Aswad
تل أسود
Tell Aswad is located in Near East
Tell Aswad
Shown within Near East
Tell Aswad is located in Syria
Tell Aswad
Tell Aswad (Syria)
Location30 km (19 mi) from Damascus, Syria
RegionDamascus basin
Coordinates33°24′N 36°33′E / 33.40°N 36.55°E / 33.40; 36.55
TypeTell
Part ofVillage
Length250 metres (820 ft)
Width250 metres (820 ft)
Area5 hectares (540,000 sq ft)
History
MaterialClay, Limestone
Foundedc. 8700 BC
Abandonedc. 7500 BC
PeriodsPPNB, Neolithic
Site notes
Excavation dates1971-1976
2001-2006
ArchaeologistsHenri de Contenson
Danielle Stordeur
Bassam Jamous
ConditionRuins
ManagementDirectorate-General of Antiquities and Museums
Public accessYes

Tell Aswad (Arabic: تل أسود, "Hill Black"), Su-uk-su or Shuksa, is a large prehistoric, neolithic tell, about 5 hectares (540,000 sq ft) in size, located around 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Damascus in Syria, on a tributary of the Barada River at the eastern end of the village of Jdeidet el Khass.[1]

Excavation

[edit]

Tell Aswad was discovered in 1967 by Henri de Contenson who led excavations in 1971–1972.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8] The Aswadian culture found by de Contenson was far too advanced for its calibrated dating than anything else found in the region, and the only example ever found of this culture.[9] Further technical investigation of the lithic series by Frédéric Abbès revealed inconsistencies so it was recently decided to re-excavate in six seasons by the French Permanent Archaeological Mission El Kowm-Mureybet under the co-direction of Danielle Stordeur and Bassam Jamous between 2001–2006. Investigations into the materials found are ongoing at the National Museum of Damascus.[10][11][12][13]

The most recent fieldwork at Tell Aswad has led to a reevaluation of its dating, with the Aswadian or Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) period (9500–8700 cal BC) now considered to be absent.[14] Instead, radiocarbon dating of the new excavations, and of seeds from the 1970s excavations, documents occupation in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) period, split into three parts; PPNB Ancien (Early PPNB) from 8700 to 8200 cal BC and the PPNB Moyen (Middle PPNB) from 8200 to 7500 BC.[14] The PPNB Récent (Late PPNB) has been equated with Dunand's "Néolithique ancien de Byblos".[15]

Construction

[edit]

The first PPNB period involved construction of massive earth architecture, layering soil with reeds to construct walls. The inhabitants of Tell Aswad invented the brick on site by modelling earth clods with beds of reeds, which they then formed into raw bricks and eventually dried in later stages. Houses were round from beginning to the end of the settlement, elliptical or polygonal and were partly buried or laid. The orientation of the openings is most often to the east. This conforms with sites in the Southern Levant, whereas Northern Euphrates Valley sites generally display rectangular houses.[16]

Culture

[edit]

Tools and weapons were made of flint including Aswadian and Jericho point arrowheads. Other finds included grinding equipment, stone and mud containers, and ornaments made of various materials. Obsidian was imported from Anatolia. Basketry and weaving were commonplace with the imprint of embroidered fabric recorded on a fragment of plaster. Modeling clay and stone figurines of people, animals and geometric shapes such as spheres, cones, discs took place since the beginning of the settlement; these were sometimes mixed with vegetables.[citation needed]

PPNB plastered skulls, 7th Millenium BC

The graves of more than one hundred well-preserved individuals were found. In the first half of occupation these were found in or around the homes, in later stages cemeteries are isolated outside the village.[17] A collection of nine technically and stylistically similar, overmodelled skulls were retrieved from two areas. Detailed study of the skulls is currently underway to provide insight into the traditions and social ties of the villagers. The residents of Tell Aswad reserved a very sophisticated treatment for the dead: skulls were removed and cleaned, with a face modelled directly onto the bone with lime plaster and then painted.[18][19][20]

Tell Aswad has been cited as being of importance for the evolution of organised cities due to the appearance of building materials, organized plans and collective work. It has provided insight into the "explosion of knowledge" in the northern Levant during the PPNB Neolithic stage following dam construction.[citation needed]

Plant & animal domestication

[edit]
Area of the fertile crescent, circa 7500 BC, with main sites. Tell Aswad is one of the important sites of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period. The area of Mesopotamia proper was not yet settled by humans.

Understanding of the role of Tell Aswad in the beginnings of farming has been complicated by changes in dating. Originally it was thought to be an example of one of the oldest sites of agriculture with domesticated emmer wheat dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to the PPNA at 7600-7300 uncal BC (about 9000 cal BC).[21][22] The claim is based on the discovery of enlarged grains, absences of wild grains and on the presumption that the site was beyond the usual habitat of the wild variety of emmer wheat. Flax seeds were present, and fruit, figs, and pistachios were found in large quantities. Stationary containers of mud and stone were found with carbonized grain on the interior of one, designating them as silos. Finally, reeds were widely used, especially as reinforcement in the architecture, but also for mats and baskets and perhaps as bedding or fodder. Despite the (apparently) early date of domesticated plants, Jacques Cauvin considered that Aswad was not the center for the origin of agriculture, stating that its first inhabitants "arrived, perhaps from the neighboring Anti-Lebanon, already equipped with the seeds for planting, for their practice of agriculture from the inception of the settlement is not in doubt. Thus it was not in the oasis itself that they carried out their first experiments in farming."

Studies of lithics and radiocarbon dating of the 2001–2006 excavations showed that Tell Aswad was not occupied during the PPNA period. Instead the domesticated plants are present from the Early PPNB 8700 to 8200 cal BC onwards. Analysis of c. 400 samples collected from the most recent excavations generally confirms van Zeist & Bakker-Heeres's identifications from the earlier excavations.[14] Domesticated barley is present; the domestication status of emmer wheat is uncertain.[23][24] It has been speculated that irrigation or some form of water management would have been used in order to allow cultivation of cereals and figs in an area with under 200mm rainfall.[14] The redating of the earliest levels of Tell Aswad to the early PPNB place it alongside other sites with domesticated cereals such as Cafer Hüyük and Aşıklı Höyük (Turkey), Ganj Dareh and Chogah Golan (Iran), and Wadi el-Jilat 7 and Ain Ghazal (Jordan).[23] Tell Aswad can now be seen as part of a pattern of multi-regional, dispersed local development in at least five areas of the Near East, rather than as uniquely early evidence pointing to agricultural origins in the southern Levant.[23] The preceding PPNA period is now widely accepted as encompassing pre-domestic cultivation of wild cereals, rather than full agriculture with domesticated crops.[23]

A large number of goats were evident in the early stages indicating they were either hunted or herded. This is an important issue because the period when animal domestication first took place is still an open question. From the middle PPNB, the presence of corralled animals is evident. There are pigs, sheep, goats and cattle. For the latter two, production of meat and milk has been noted. In addition, cattle often show diseases resulting from their use for labour. The image that results from the study of the archaeozoological evidence is a village of farmers and herders in full possession of food production techniques. Hunting is well represented with two species of horses, two gazelles (mountain gazelle and Persian gazelle), wild boars, many water birds and some birds of the steppes. Finally, fishing is practiced throughout the occupation of the site. The presence of flora such as water reeds, rushes and tamarisk shows that the site was close to a very humid environment. The presence of bones of fish and aquatic birds like ducks, cranes and geese, indicated that the site was located near a lake and the inhabitants of Neolithic Aswad fully exploited its resources.[citation needed]

Relative chronology

[edit]

Literature

[edit]
  • Cauvin, Jacques, The Birth of the Gods and the origins of agriculture, Cambridge, 2000.
  • Kuijt, Ian and Goring-Morris, Nigel., Foraging, Farming, and Social Complexity in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the Southern Levant: A Review and Synthesis, Journal of World Prehistory, Volume 16, Number 4.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ The Megalithic Portal entry about Tell Aswad
  2. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Tell Aswad. Fouilles de 1971, Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes XXII, 1972, p. 75–84., 1972.
  3. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Chronologie absolue de Tell Aswad, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 70, 1973, p. 253–255., 1973.
  4. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Tell Aswad, site néolithique précéramique près de Damas (Syria), Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 71, 1974, p. 5–6., 1974.
  5. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Précisions sur la stratigraphie de Tell Aswad (Syria), Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 73, 1976, p. 198–199., 1976.
  6. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Tell Aswad, Archiv für Orientforschung XXVI, 1978/79, p. 151–152., 1978.
  7. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Tell Aswad. Fouilles de 1972, Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes XXVII-XXVIII, 1977–1978, p. 207–215., 1977.
  8. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Tell Aswad (Damascène), Paléorient 5, 1979, p. 153–156., 1979.
  9. ^ de Contenson, Henri., L'Aswadien, un nouveau faciès du Néolithique syrien, Paléorient 15/1, 1989, p. 259–261., 1989.
  10. ^ Helmer D. ; Gourichon L., Premières données sur les modalités de subsistance dans les niveaux récents de Tell Aswad (Damascène, Syrie) – fouilles 2001–2005., 2008.
  11. ^ In Vila E., Gourichon L., Buitenhuis H. & Choyke A. (éd.), Archaeozoology of the Southwest Asia and Adjacent Areas VIII. Actes du 8e colloque de l'ASWA (Lyon, 28 June – 1 July 2006). Lyon, Travaux de la Maison de l'Orient 49, volume 1, pp. 119–151. 2008.
  12. ^ Helmer D. et Gourichon L., Premières données sur les modalités de subsistances dans les niveaux récents (PPNB moyen à Néolithique à Poterie) de Tell Aswad en Damascène (Syrie), Fouilles 2001–2005, in Vila E. et Gourichon L. (eds), ASWA Lyon June 2006., 2007.
  13. ^ Stordeur, Danielle., Tell Aswad. Résultats préliminaires des campagnes 2001 et 2002. Neo Lithics 1/03, 7–15, 2003.
  14. ^ a b c d Helmer, Daniel; Stordeur, D.; molist, miquel; Khawam, Rima. "Le PPNB de Syrie du Sud à travers les découvertes récentes à Tell Aswad". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ^ de Contenson, Henri., Nouvelles données sur Tell Aswad et l'Aswadien (Damascène), Syria 84, p. 307–308., 2007.
  16. ^ IFP Orient - Tell Aswad Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ Stordeur, D., Khawam R. Une place pour les morts dans les maisons de Tell Aswad (Syrie). (Horizon PPNB ancien et PPNB moyen). Workshop Houses for the living and a place for the dead, Hommage à J. Cauvin. Madrid, 5ICAANE., 2008.
  18. ^ Stordeur, Danielle., Des crânes surmodelés à Tell Aswad de Damascène. (PPNB - Syrie). Paléorient, CNRS Editions, 29/2, 109-116., 2003.
  19. ^ Stordeur, D., Jammous B., Khawam R., Morero E., L'aire funéraire de Tell Aswad (PPNB). In HUOT J.-L. et STORDEUR D. (Eds) Hommage à H. de Contenson. Syria, n° spécial, 83, 39-62., 2006.
  20. ^ Stordeur, D., Khawam R. Les crânes surmodelés de Tell Aswad (PPNB, Syrie). Premier regard sur l’ensemble, premières réflexions. Syria, 84, 5-32., 2007.
  21. ^ Ozkan, H; Brandolini, A; Schäfer-Pregl, R; Salamini, F (October 2002). "AFLP analysis of a collection of tetraploid wheats indicates the origin of emmer and hard wheat domestication in southeast Turkey". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 19 (10): 1797–801. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004002. PMID 12270906.
  22. ^ van Zeist, W. Bakker-Heeres, J.A.H., Archaeobotanical Studies in the Levant 1. Neolithic Sites in the Damascus Basin: Aswad, Ghoraifé, Ramad., Palaeohistoria, 24, 165-256, 1982.
  23. ^ a b c d Willcox, George (2014), "Near East (Including Anatolia): Origins and Development of Agriculture", Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, Springer New York, pp. 5208–5222, doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2272, ISBN 9781441904263
  24. ^ Weide, Alexander (7 December 2015). "On the Identification of Domesticated Emmer Wheat, Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum (Poaceae), in the Aceramic Neolithic of the Fertile Crescent". Archäologische Informationen. 38 (1): 381–424. doi:10.11588/ai.2015.1.26205. ISSN 2197-7429.
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