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Oko (Old Russian: Око, lit. 'Eye')^[a] is a Russian (previously Soviet) missile defence early warning programme consisting of satellites in Molniya and geosynchronous orbits. Oko satellites are used to identify launches of ballistic missiles by detection of their engines' exhaust plume in infrared light, and complement other early warning facilities such as Voronezh, Daryal and Dnepr radars. The information provided by these sensors can be used for the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system which defends Moscow. The satellites are run by the Russian Aerospace Forces, and previously the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces and Russian Space Forces. Since November 2015, it is being replaced by the new EKS system.^[1]

History

Development of the Oko system began in the early 1970s under the design bureau headed by AI Savin, which became TsNII Kometa. The spacecraft element was designed by NPO Lavochkin.^[2] The first satellite was launched in 1972 ^[3] but it was not until 1978 that the overall system became operational and 1982 before it was placed on combat duty.^[2] The system had a major malfunction in 1983 when it mistakenly identified sunlight on high altitude clouds as a missile attack. Stanislav Petrov, on duty at the new control centre in Serpukhov-15, Moscow Oblast, discounted the warning due to the newness of the system and the lack of corroboration from ground-based radar.^[4]

The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 ^[5]) have been the first generation US-K satellites which operate in molniya orbits. Seven first generation satellites were launched into geosynchronous orbits, called US-KS, starting in 1975.^[6] A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites US-KMO which had their first launch in 1991.^[2] In total, 101 satellites have been launched.

The US-K satellites, were launched by Molniya-M launch vehicles with Blok 2BL upper stages from Plesetsk Cosmodrome. The US-KS and US-KMO operate in geosynchronous orbits and were launched by Proton with DM-2 upper stages from Baikonur.^[5]^[7]

The last US-KMO satellite (Kosmos 2479) was launched on 30 March 2012 ^[8] and the last US-K satellite (Kosmos 2469) on 30 September 2010.^[9] They are due to be replaced by a new system called EKS.

Debris

The first generation Molniya-type orbit Oko satellites launched between 1976 and 1983 were prone to disintegration, resulting in extensive space debris. The reason they broke up was because they each carried an on-board explosive charge that would be used to destroy the satellite in the case of a malfunction. Unfortunately, control of the explosive charge was itself unreliable and it would often explode, rendering the satellite inoperative, while it was still under control. The design was eventually changed, and the explosive charge in Kosmos 1481 was the last to explode early.^[10]

Facilities

The system has two dedicated control centres. The western centre is at Serpukhov-15 (Russian: Серпухов-15) near Kurilovo outside Moscow ^[11] (55°04′06″N 37°02′29″E / 55.06833°N 37.04139°E / 55.06833; 37.04139) and the eastern centre is at Pivan-1 (Russian: Пивань-1) ^[12] (50°20′57″N 137°11′22″E / 50.34917°N 137.18944°E / 50.34917; 137.18944) in the Russian Far East. The centre at Serpukhov-15 burned down in 2001 ^[13]^[14] which caused the loss of contact with currently orbiting satellites.^[15]

Notes

^ Also known as SPRN (СПРН, from Russian: спутник для предупреждения о ракетном нападении, lit. 'satellite for warning on rocket attack') according to one source, but SPRN is more commonly used to describe the whole early warning system, система предупреждения о ракетном нападении (system of missile warning), which includes Oko but also includes early warning radar.

References

^ "Soyuz 2-1B launches EKS-1 to upgrade Russian Early Warning System". 17 November 2015. Archived from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c Podvig, Pavel (2002). "History and the Current Status of the Russian Early-Warning System" (PDF). Science and Global Security. 10 (1): 21–60. Bibcode:2002S&GS...10...21P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.6127. doi:10.1080/08929880212328. ISSN 0892-9882. S2CID 122901563. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 March 2012.
^ Zak, Anatoly. "Oko early-warning satellite". RussianSpaceWeb.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
^ Forden, Geoffrey; Podvig, Pavel; Postol, Theodore A. (2000). "False alarm, nuclear danger". IEEE Spectrum. 37 (3): 31–39. doi:10.1109/6.825657. ISSN 0018-9235. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b Krebs, Gunter. "US-K (73D6)". Gunter's Space Page. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
^ Krebs, Gunter. "US-KS (74Kh6)". Gunter's Space Page. Archived from the original on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
^ Krebs, Gunter. "US-KMO (71Kh6)". Gunter's Space Page. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
^ Pavel, Podvig (30 March 2012). "Kosmos 2479 - new geostationary early warning satellite". Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
^ Pavel, Podvig (30 September 2010). "Kosmos 2469 might be the last HEO early-warning satellite". Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
^ Clark, Phillip. "SPACE DEBRIS INCIDENTS INVOLVING SOVIET/RUSSIAN LAUNCHES". Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2023.
^ Holm, Michael (2011). "916th independent Radio-Technical Unit". Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
^ Holm, Michael (2011). "1127th independent Radio-Technical Unit". Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
^ Topol, Sergey; Safranov, Ivan (11 May 2001). "У России проблемы с ПРО: Она сгорела" [Russia has an ABM problem: it burnt down]. Kommersant. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
^ "Russia blaze hits satellite network". BBC News. 10 May 2001. Archived from the original on 28 July 2004. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
^ Paleologue, A. (2005). "Early Warning Satellites in Russia: What past, what state today, what future?". In Pejmun Motaghedi (ed.). Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 5799. Modeling, Simulation, and Verification of Space-based Systems II. SPIE. pp. 146–157. doi:10.1117/12.603478.

External links

Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: Kosmos 520 in the Lavochkin Museum

[1] Also known as SPRN (СПРН, from Russian: спутник для предупреждения о ракетном нападении, lit. 'satellite for warning on rocket attack') according to one source, but SPRN is more commonly used to describe the whole early warning system, система предупреждения о ракетном нападении (system of missile warning), which includes Oko but also includes early warning radar.

[eks-launch2-2] "Soyuz 2-1B launches EKS-1 to upgrade Russian Early Warning System". 17 November 2015. Archived from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015.

[Podvig-History-3] Podvig, Pavel (2002). "History and the Current Status of the Russian Early-Warning System" (PDF). Science and Global Security. 10 (1): 21–60. Bibcode:2002S&GS...10...21P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.6127. doi:10.1080/08929880212328. ISSN 0892-9882. S2CID 122901563. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 March 2012.

[RSW-4] Zak, Anatoly. "Oko early-warning satellite". RussianSpaceWeb.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.

[falsealarm-5] Forden, Geoffrey; Podvig, Pavel; Postol, Theodore A. (2000). "False alarm, nuclear danger". IEEE Spectrum. 37 (3): 31–39. doi:10.1109/6.825657. ISSN 0018-9235. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2012.

[gunther-usk-6] Krebs, Gunter. "US-K (73D6)". Gunter's Space Page. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2012.

[gunther-us-7] Krebs, Gunter. "US-KS (74Kh6)". Gunter's Space Page. Archived from the original on 17 January 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.

[gunther-kmo-8] Krebs, Gunter. "US-KMO (71Kh6)". Gunter's Space Page. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.

[k2479-9] Pavel, Podvig (30 March 2012). "Kosmos 2479 - new geostationary early warning satellite". Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2012.

[lastHEO-10] Pavel, Podvig (30 September 2010). "Kosmos 2469 might be the last HEO early-warning satellite". Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2012.

[soviet-11] Clark, Phillip. "SPACE DEBRIS INCIDENTS INVOLVING SOVIET/RUSSIAN LAUNCHES". Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2023.

[SovArmed-12] Holm, Michael (2011). "916th independent Radio-Technical Unit". Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2012.

[SovArmed2-13] Holm, Michael (2011). "1127th independent Radio-Technical Unit". Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2012.

[Kommersant-14] Topol, Sergey; Safranov, Ivan (11 May 2001). "У России проблемы с ПРО: Она сгорела" [Russia has an ABM problem: it burnt down]. Kommersant. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2012.

[BBC-15] "Russia blaze hits satellite network". BBC News. 10 May 2001. Archived from the original on 28 July 2004. Retrieved 23 April 2012.

[paleologue-16] Paleologue, A. (2005). "Early Warning Satellites in Russia: What past, what state today, what future?". In Pejmun Motaghedi (ed.). Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 5799. Modeling, Simulation, and Verification of Space-based Systems II. SPIE. pp. 146–157. doi:10.1117/12.603478.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Soviet (now Russian) satellite-based early warning system for ballistic missiles}}
 {{other uses}}
+{{Use British English|date=November 2021}}
-'''Oko''' ({{lang-ru|Око}} meaning ''Eye'' in old Russian),<ref group="note">also known as '''SPRN''' ({{lang-ru|СПРН}} from ''спутник для предупреждения о ракетном нападении'' meaning ''satellite for warning on rocket attack'') according to one source, but SPRN is more commonly used to describe the whole early warning system, ''система предупреждения о ракетном нападении'' (system of missile warning), which includes Oko but also includes early warning radar.</ref> is a [[Russia]]n (previously [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]) missile defence [[early warning]] programme consisting of [[satellite]]s in [[molniya orbit|Molniya]] and [[geosynchronous orbit]]s. Oko satellites are used to identify launches of [[ballistic missile]]s by detection of their engines' exhaust plume in [[infrared]] light, and complement other early warning facilities such as [[voronezh radar|Voronezh]], [[daryal radar|Daryal]] and [[Dnepr radar]]s. The information provided by these sensors can be used for the [[A-135 anti-ballistic missile system]] which defends Moscow. The satellites are run by the [[Russian Aerospace Forces]], and previously the [[Russian Aerospace Defence Forces]] and [[Russian Space Forces]]. As of December 2015, it is being replaced by the new [[EKS (satellite)|EKS]] system.<ref name="eks-launch2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/11/soyuz-2-1b-eks-1-russian-early-warning-system/|title=Soyuz 2-1B launches EKS-1 to upgrade Russian Early Warning System|accessdate=2015-12-17}}</ref>
+{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
+'''Oko''' (Old {{langx|ru|Око|lit=Eye}}){{efn|Also known as '''SPRN''' ({{lang|ru|СПРН}}, from {{langx|ru|спутник для предупреждения о ракетном нападении|lit=satellite for warning on rocket attack|links=no}}) according to one source, but SPRN is more commonly used to describe the whole early warning system, {{lang|ru|система предупреждения о ракетном нападении}} (system of missile warning), which includes Oko but also includes early warning radar.}} is a Russian (previously [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]) missile defence [[early warning]] programme consisting of [[satellite]]s in [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]] and [[geosynchronous orbit]]s. Oko satellites are used to identify launches of [[ballistic missile]]s by detection of their engines' exhaust plume in [[infrared]] light, and complement other early warning facilities such as [[voronezh radar|Voronezh]], [[daryal radar|Daryal]] and [[Dnepr radar]]s. The information provided by these sensors can be used for the [[A-135 anti-ballistic missile system]] which defends [[Moscow]]. The satellites are run by the [[Russian Aerospace Forces]], and previously the [[Russian Aerospace Defence Forces]] and [[Russian Space Forces]]. Since November 2015, it is being replaced by the new [[EKS (satellite)|EKS]] system.<ref name="eks-launch2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/11/soyuz-2-1b-eks-1-russian-early-warning-system/|title=Soyuz 2-1B launches EKS-1 to upgrade Russian Early Warning System|date=17 November 2015|access-date=2015-12-17|archive-date=2015-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151220074647/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/11/soyuz-2-1b-eks-1-russian-early-warning-system/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
-==History==
+== History ==
 Development of the Oko system began in the early 1970s under the design bureau headed by AI Savin, which became [[TsNII Kometa]]. The spacecraft element was designed by [[NPO Lavochkin]].<ref name="Podvig-History"/> The first satellite was launched in 1972 <ref name="RSW"/> but it was not until 1978 that the overall system became operational and 1982 before it was placed on combat duty.<ref name="Podvig-History"/> The system had a [[1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident|major malfunction in 1983]] when it mistakenly identified sunlight on high altitude clouds as a missile attack. [[Stanislav Petrov]], on duty at the new control centre in [[Serpukhov-15]], [[Moscow Oblast]], discounted the warning due to the newness of the system and the lack of corroboration from ground-based radar.<ref name="falsealarm"/>
-The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 <ref name="gunther-usk"/>) have been the first generation [[US-K]] satellites which operate in [[molniya orbit]]s. Seven first generation satellites were launched into [[geosynchronous orbit]]s, called [[US-KS]], starting in 1975.<ref name="gunther-us"/> A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites [[US-KMO]] which had their first launch in 1991.<ref name="Podvig-History"/> In total, [[List of Oko satellites|101 satellites have been launched]].
+The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 <ref name="gunther-usk"/>) have been the first generation [[US-K]] satellites which operate in [[molniya orbit]]s. Seven first generation satellites were launched into geosynchronous orbits, called [[US-KS]], starting in 1975.<ref name="gunther-us"/> A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites [[US-KMO]] which had their first launch in 1991.<ref name="Podvig-History"/> In total, [[List of Oko satellites|101 satellites have been launched]].
-The US-K satellites,  were launched by [[Molniya-M]] carrier rockets with [[Blok 2BL]] upper stages from [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome]]. The US-KS and US-KMO operate in geosynchronous orbits and were launched by [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]] rockets with [[Block D|DM-2]] upper stages from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]].<ref name="gunther-usk"/><ref name="gunther-kmo"/>
+The US-K satellites, were launched by [[Molniya-M]] [[launch vehicle]]s with [[Blok 2BL]] upper stages from [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome]]. The US-KS and US-KMO operate in geosynchronous orbits and were launched by [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]] with [[Block D|DM-2]] upper stages from [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]].<ref name="gunther-usk"/><ref name="gunther-kmo"/>
 The last US-KMO satellite ([[Kosmos 2479]]) was launched on 30 March 2012 <ref name="k2479"/> and the last US-K satellite ([[Kosmos 2469]]) on 30 September 2010.<ref name="lastHEO"/> They are due to be replaced by a new system called [[EKS (satellite)|EKS]].
-==Facilities==
+==Debris==
-The system has two dedicated control centres. The western centre is at [[Serpukhov-15]] ({{lang-rus|Серпухов-15}}) near Kurilovo outside Moscow <ref name="SovArmed"/> ({{coord|55|04|06|N|37|02|29|E|name=Serpukhov-15 Oko satellites control centre|display=inline}}) and the eastern centre is at [[Pivan-1]] ({{lang-rus|Пивань-1}}) <ref name="SovArmed2"/> ({{coord|50|20|57|N|137|11|22|E|name=Pivan-1 Oko satellites control centre|display=inline}}) in the Russian Far East. The centre at Serpukhov-15 burned down in 2001 <ref name="Kommersant"/><ref name="BBC"/> which caused the loss of contact with currently orbiting satellites.<ref name="paleologue"/>
+The first generation Molniya-type orbit Oko satellites launched between 1976 and 1983 were prone to disintegration, resulting in extensive [[space debris]].    The reason they broke up was because they each carried an on-board explosive charge that would be used to destroy the satellite in the case of a malfunction.   Unfortunately, control of the explosive charge was itself unreliable and it would often explode, rendering the satellite inoperative, while it was still under control. The design was eventually changed, and the explosive charge in [[Kosmos 1481]] was the last to explode early.<ref name="soviet">{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Phillip |title=SPACE DEBRIS INCIDENTS INVOLVING SOVIET/RUSSIAN LAUNCHES |url=http://www.friends-partners.org/oldfriends/jgreen/bispaper.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025015944/http://www.friends-partners.org/oldfriends/jgreen/bispaper.html |access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=25 October 2021 }}</ref>
-==See also==
+== Facilities ==
+The system has two dedicated control centres. The western centre is at [[Serpukhov-15]] ({{lang-rus|Серпухов-15}}) near [[Kurilovo, Kaluga Oblast|Kurilovo]] outside Moscow <ref name="SovArmed"/> ({{coord|55|04|06|N|37|02|29|E|name=Serpukhov-15 Oko satellites control centre|display=inline}}) and the eastern centre is at [[Pivan-1]] ({{lang-rus|Пивань-1}}) <ref name="SovArmed2"/> ({{coord|50|20|57|N|137|11|22|E|name=Pivan-1 Oko satellites control centre|display=inline}}) in the Russian Far East. The centre at Serpukhov-15 burned down in 2001 <ref name="Kommersant"/><ref name="BBC"/> which caused the loss of contact with currently orbiting satellites.<ref name="paleologue"/>
+== See also ==
+{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
 * [[Defense Support Program]]
 * [[Space-Based Infrared System]]
-* [[EKS (satellite system)|EKS]], the new system replacing the entire Oko programme.
+* [[EKS (satellite system)|EKS]], the new system replacing the entire Oko program.
+== Notes ==
+{{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
+== References ==
+{{Reflist|30em|refs=
+<ref name="RSW">{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/oko.html|title=Oko early-warning satellite|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com|access-date=5 March 2012|archive-date=1 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201031206/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/oko.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
+<ref name="gunther-usk">{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-k.htm|title=US-K (73D6)|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|work=Gunter's Space Page|access-date=5 March 2012|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511170555/http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-k.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
+<ref name="gunther-us">{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-ks.htm|title=US-KS (74Kh6)|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|work=Gunter's Space Page|access-date=5 March 2012|archive-date=17 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117160244/http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-ks.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
+<ref name="gunther-kmo">{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-kmo.htm|title=US-KMO (71Kh6)|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|work=Gunter's Space Page|access-date=5 March 2012|archive-date=12 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012001134/http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-kmo.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
+<ref name="Podvig-History">{{cite journal|first=Pavel|last=Podvig|year=2002|title=History and the Current Status of the Russian Early-Warning System|journal=Science and Global Security|volume=10|issue=1|pages=21–60 |issn=0892-9882|doi=10.1080/08929880212328|bibcode=2002S&GS...10...21P|url=http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/20734/Podvig-S&GS.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315024323/http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/20734/Podvig-S%26GS.pdf|archive-date=2012-03-15|citeseerx=10.1.1.692.6127|s2cid=122901563}}</ref>
+<ref name="k2479">{{cite journal|url=http://russianforces.org/blog/2012/03/cosmos-2479_-_the_last_geostat.shtml|title=Kosmos 2479 - new geostationary early warning satellite|journal=Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces|first=Podvig|last=Pavel|date=2012-03-30|access-date=2012-04-22|archive-date=2012-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503140922/http://russianforces.org/blog/2012/03/cosmos-2479_-_the_last_geostat.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
+<ref name="lastHEO">{{cite journal|url=http://russianforces.org/blog/2010/09/cosmos-2469_might_be_the_last.shtml|title=Kosmos 2469 might be the last HEO early-warning satellite|journal=Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces|first=Podvig|last=Pavel|date=2010-09-30|access-date=2012-04-22|archive-date=2012-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309043643/http://russianforces.org/blog/2010/09/cosmos-2469_might_be_the_last.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
-==Notes==
-{{Reflist|group=note}}
+<ref name="SovArmed">{{cite web|url=http://www.ww2.dk/new/pvo/radar/916ortu.htm|title=916th independent Radio-Technical Unit|access-date=2012-04-22|first=Michael|last=Holm|year=2011|publisher=Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991|archive-date=2015-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009123601/http://www.ww2.dk/new/pvo/radar/916ortu.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
-==References==
-<references>
-<ref name="RSW">{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/oko.html|title=Oko early-warning satellite|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|work=RussianSpaceWeb|accessdate=5 March 2012}}</ref>
-<ref name="gunther-usk">{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-k.htm|title=US-K (73D6)|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|work=Gunter's Space Page|accessdate=5 March 2012}}</ref>
-<ref name="gunther-us">{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-ks.htm|title=US-KS (74Kh6)|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|work=Gunter's Space Page|accessdate=5 March 2012}}</ref>
-<ref name="gunther-kmo">{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/us-kmo.htm|title=US-KMO (71Kh6)|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|work=Gunter's Space Page|accessdate=5 March 2012}}</ref>
-<ref name="Podvig-History">
-{{Cite journal
- |first       = Pavel
- |last        = Podvig
- |year        = 2002
- |title       = History and the Current Status of the Russian Early-Warning System
- |journal     = Science and Global Security
- |volume      = 10
- |pages       = 21–60
- |format      = pdf
- |issn        = 0892-9882
- |doi         = 10.1080/08929880212328
- |url         = http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/20734/Podvig-S&GS.pdf
- |deadurl     = yes
- |archiveurl  = https://web.archive.org/web/20120315024323/http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/20734/Podvig-S%26GS.pdf
- |archivedate = 2012-03-15
- |df          =
-}}</ref>
-<ref name="k2479">{{cite web|url=http://russianforces.org/blog/2012/03/cosmos-2479_-_the_last_geostat.shtml|title=Cosmos-2479 - new geostationary early warning satellite|publisher=Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces|first=Podvig|last=Pavel|date=2012-03-30|accessdate=2012-04-22}}</ref>
+<ref name="SovArmed2">{{cite web|url=http://www.ww2.dk/new/pvo/radar/1127ortu.htm|title=1127th independent Radio-Technical Unit|access-date=2012-04-22|first=Michael|last=Holm|year=2011|publisher=Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991|archive-date=2015-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009124141/http://www.ww2.dk/new/pvo/radar/1127ortu.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
-<ref name="lastHEO">{{cite web|url=http://russianforces.org/blog/2010/09/cosmos-2469_might_be_the_last.shtml|title=Cosmos-2469 might be the last HEO early-warning satellite|publisher=Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces|first=Podvig|last=Pavel|date=2010-09-30|accessdate=2012-04-22}}</ref>
+<ref name="Kommersant">{{cite web|url=http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/264323|title=У России проблемы с ПРО: Она сгорела|trans-title=Russia has an ABM problem: it burnt down|access-date=2012-04-23|date=11 May 2001
-<ref name="SovArmed">{{Cite web
+|first1=Sergey|last1=Topol|first2=Ivan|last2=Safranov|publisher=Kommersant|archive-date=2014-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020130918/http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/264323|url-status=live}}</ref>
-| url = http://www.ww2.dk/new/pvo/radar/916ortu.htm
-| title = 916th independent Radio-Technical Unit
-| accessdate = 2012-04-22
-| first = Michael
-| last = Holm
-| year = 2011
-| publisher = Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991
-}}</ref>
+<ref name="BBC">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1322700.stm|title=Russia blaze hits satellite network|access-date=2012-04-23|date=2001-05-10|publisher=BBC News|archive-date=2004-07-28
-<ref name="SovArmed2">{{Cite web
+|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040728202037/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1322700.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>
-| url = http://www.ww2.dk/new/pvo/radar/1127ortu.htm
-| title = 1127th independent Radio-Technical Unit
-| accessdate = 2012-04-22
-| first = Michael
-| last = Holm
-| year = 2011
-| publisher = Soviet Armed Forces 1945-1991
-}}</ref>
+<ref name="falsealarm">{{cite journal|first1=Geoffrey|last1=Forden|first2=Pavel|last2=Podvig|first3=Theodore A.|last3=Postol|year=2000|title=False alarm, nuclear danger|journal=IEEE Spectrum|volume=37
-<ref name="Kommersant">{{Cite web
+|issue=3|pages=31–39|issn=0018-9235|doi=10.1109/6.825657|url=http://russianforces.org/podvig/2000/03/false_alarm_nuclear_danger.shtml|access-date=2012-05-23|archive-date=2015-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527075353/http://russianforces.org/podvig/2000/03/false_alarm_nuclear_danger.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
-| url = http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/264323
-| title = У России проблемы с ПРО: Она сгорела
-|trans-title=Russia has an ABM problem: it burnt down
-| accessdate = 2012-04-23
-| date = 11 May 2001
-| first1 = Sergey
-| last1 = Topol
-|first2 =Ivan
-|last2 =Safranov
-| authorlink2 = Ivan Safranov
-| publisher = [[Kommersant]]
-}}</ref>
+<ref name="paleologue">{{cite conference|title=Early Warning Satellites in Russia: What past, what state today, what future?|first=A.|last=Paleologue|year=2005|conference=Modeling, Simulation, and Verification of Space-based Systems II|editor=Pejmun Motaghedi|publisher=SPIE|pages=146–157|book-title=Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 5799|doi=10.1117/12.603478}}</ref>
-<ref name="BBC">{{Cite web
+}}
-| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1322700.stm
-| title = Russia blaze hits satellite network
-| accessdate = 2012-04-23
-| date = 2001-05-10
-| publisher = BBC News
-}}</ref>
-<ref name="falsealarm">
-{{Cite journal
- | first = Geoffrey
- | last = Forden
- | first2=Pavel
- | last2=Podvig
- | first3=Theodore A
- | last3=Postol
- | year = 2000
- | title = False alarm, nuclear danger
- | journal = IEEE Spectrum
- | volume = 37
- | issue = 3
- | pages = 31-39
- | issn = 0018-9235
- | doi = 10.1109/6.825657
- | url = http://russianforces.org/podvig/2000/03/false_alarm_nuclear_danger.shtml
- }}</ref>
-<ref name="paleologue">{{cite conference |title=Early Warning Satellites in Russia: What past, what state today, what future?|first=A |last=Paleologue|year=2005 |conference=Modeling, Simulation, and Verification of Space-based Systems II | editor =Pejmun Motaghedi|publisher=[[SPIE]]|pages=146–157 |booktitle=Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 5799|isbn=  |doi=10.1117/12.603478 }}</ref>
-</references>
-==External links==
+== External links ==
-*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091423/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1301.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: Kosmos 520 in the Lavochkin Museum]
+* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091423/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1301.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: Kosmos 520 in the Lavochkin Museum]
-**[https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091543/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1310.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: telescopes]
+** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091543/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1310.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: telescopes]
-**[https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091548/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1312.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: infrared telescope]
+** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091548/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1312.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: infrared telescope]
-**[https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091456/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1303.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: antenna]
+** [https://web.archive.org/web/20110320091456/http://www.novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/content/photogallery/gallery_018/pages/IMG_1303.html Novosti Kosmonavtiki.ru: antenna]
 {{Oko}}
@@ Line 127: / Line 79: @@
 [[Category:Reconnaissance satellites of the Soviet Union]]
 [[Category:Early warning satellites]]
+[[Category:Military equipment introduced in the 1970s]]
+[[Category:Spacecraft that broke apart in space]]

v t e Oko programme
US-K	Kosmos 520 Kosmos 606 Kosmos 665 Kosmos 706 Kosmos 862 Kosmos 903 Kosmos 917 Kosmos 931 Kosmos 1024 Kosmos 1030 Kosmos 1109 Kosmos 1124 Kosmos 1164 Kosmos 1172 Kosmos 1188 Kosmos 1191 Kosmos 1217 Kosmos 1223 Kosmos 1247 Kosmos 1261 Kosmos 1278 Kosmos 1285 Kosmos 1317 Kosmos 1341 Kosmos 1348 Kosmos 1367 Kosmos 1382 Kosmos 1409 Kosmos 1456 Kosmos 1481 Kosmos 1518 Kosmos 1541 Kosmos 1547 Kosmos 1569 Kosmos 1581 Kosmos 1586 Kosmos 1596 Kosmos 1604 Kosmos 1658 Kosmos 1661 Kosmos 1675 Kosmos 1684 Kosmos 1687 Kosmos 1698 Kosmos 1701 Kosmos 1729 Kosmos 1761 Kosmos 1774 Kosmos 1783 Kosmos 1785 Kosmos 1793 Kosmos 1806 Kosmos 1849 Kosmos 1851 Kosmos 1903 Kosmos 1922 Kosmos 1966 Kosmos 1974 Kosmos 1977 Kosmos 2001 Kosmos 2050 Kosmos 2063 Kosmos 2076 Kosmos 2084 Kosmos 2087 Kosmos 2097 Kosmos 2105 Kosmos 2176 Kosmos 2196 Kosmos 2217 Kosmos 2222 Kosmos 2232 Kosmos 2241 Kosmos 2261 Kosmos 2286 Kosmos 2312 Kosmos 2340 Kosmos 2342 Kosmos 2351 Kosmos 2368 Kosmos 2388 Kosmos 2393 Kosmos 2422 Kosmos 2430 Kosmos 2446 Kosmos 2469
US-KS	Kosmos 775 Kosmos 1546 Kosmos 1629 Kosmos 1894 Kosmos 2155 Kosmos 2209 Kosmos 2345
US-KMO	Kosmos 2133 Kosmos 2224 Kosmos 2282 Kosmos 2350 Kosmos 2379 Kosmos 2397 Kosmos 2440 Kosmos 2479
List of satellites

Main Centre for Missile Attack Warning (2012)
Parent unit	Space Command
Components	Radar - RO-1 - Olenegorsk, Murmansk Radar - RO-7 - Gabala, Azerbaijan Radar - RO-30 - Pechora, Komi Radar - OS-1 - Mishelevka, Irkutsk Radar - OS-2 - Balkhash, Kazakhstan Radar - Hantsavichy, Belarus Radar - Lekhtussi, Leningrad Radar - Armavir, Russia Radar - Pionersky, Kaliningrad Oko satellites