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{{short description|Egyptian Islam scholar, judge and government minister}}
'''Ali Abdel Raziq''' ({{lang-ar|ﻋﻠﻲ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺯﻕ}})
[[File:Ali-1.jpg|thumb|Ali Abdel Raziq]]
(1888-1966) was an Egyptian scholar of Islam, religious judge and government minister.<ref name=dict2010>Marshall Cavendish Reference. Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World Muslim World. Marshall Cavendish, 2010 {{ISBN|9780761479291}} p.79.</ref> His writings, some then controversial, debated the role of religion and Islamic history in 20th-century politics and government.<ref name=dict2010 />
'''Ali Abdel Raziq''' ({{langx|ar|ﻋﻠﻲ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺯﻕ}}) (1888–1966) was an Egyptian scholar of Islam, judge and government minister.<ref name=dict2010>Marshall Cavendish Reference. Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World Muslim World. Marshall Cavendish, 2010 {{ISBN|9780761479291}} p.79.</ref> His writings, some controversial, debated the role of religion and Islamic history in 20th-century politics and government.<ref name=dict2010 />


While the implication of his arguments still remain a point of debate, his 1925 book ''Islam and the Foundations of Governance'' argued against a role for religion in politics or the political prescriptive value of religious texts.<ref name=dict2010 /><ref name = Souad2009>Souad T. Ali. A religion, not a state: Ali 'Abd al-Raziq's Islamic justification of political secularism. University of Utah Press, 2009. {{ISBN|9780874809510}}</ref><ref name=leonard2006>Thomas M. Leonard (ed). Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis, 2006. {{ISBN|9781579583880}}. p.878.</ref>
While the implication of his arguments still remain a point of debate, his 1925 book ''Islam and the Foundations of Governance'' argued against a role for religion in politics or the political prescriptive value of religious texts.<ref name=dict2010 /><ref name = Souad2009>Souad T. Ali. A religion, not a state: Ali 'Abd al-Raziq's Islamic justification of political secularism. University of Utah Press, 2009. {{ISBN|9780874809510}}</ref><ref name=leonard2006>Thomas M. Leonard (ed). Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis, 2006. {{ISBN|9781579583880}}. p.878.</ref>
Line 7: Line 8:


==Biography==
==Biography==
Ali Abdel Raziq was born in [[Minya Governorate]] in 1888<ref name=tahir>{{cite journal|author1=Tahir Khemiri
⚫
Raziq was born in 1888 to a well-off family. His father, Hassan Abdel Raziq, was a large farm-owner and was, in 1907, among the founders of the [[Umma Party (Egypt)|Umma Party]].<ref name = Souad2009 /> His brother, [[Mustafa Abdul Raziq]], a well known philosopher, studied at [[Al-Azhar University]] under the famous reformer [[Muhammad Abduh]].<ref name = Souad2009 />
|author2=G. Kampffmeyer|title=Leaders in contemporary Arabic literature. Ali Abd ar-Razi|journal=Die Welt des Islams
⚫
|date=1930|volume=9|page=9|issue=2-4|doi=10.2307/1569007|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/1569007}}</ref> to a well-off family. His father, Hassan Abdel Raziq, was of Arab origin.<ref name=tahir/> He was a large farm-owner and was, in 1907, among the founders of the [[Umma Party (Egypt)|Umma Party]].<ref name=Souad2009/> Ali Abdel Raziq's mother was of North African origin.<ref name=tahir/> His brother, [[Mustafa Abdel-Razek|Mustafa Abd al-Rizq]], a well known philosopher, studied at [[Al-Azhar University]] under the famous reformer [[Muhammad Abduh]].<ref name=Souad2009/>


Raziq later received his [['alim]] degree at Al-Azhar in 1911. In 1912, he traveled to Oxford University to study economics and political science, but he returned to Cairo at the outbreak of the [[First World War]].<ref name = Souad2009 />
He later received his [['alim]] degree from Al-Azhar in 1911. In 1912, he traveled to Oxford University to study economics and political science, but he returned to Cairo at the outbreak of the [[First World War]].<ref name = Souad2009/>


Back at Al-Azhar in 1915, he also became [[qadi]] (religious judge) at [[Mansoura]]. Ali became famous for his book ''Islam and the Foundations of Governance'' (''Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm''), published in 1925, and ''Consensus and Islamic Law'' (''Al-Ijma´ Fi Ash-Shari´ah Al-Islamiyyah''), in 1947.<ref name=dict2010 />
Back at Al-Azhar in 1915, he became a [[qadi]] (religious judge) in [[Mansoura]]. Ali became famous for his book ''Islam and the Foundations of Governance'' (''Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm''), published in 1925, and ''Consensus and Islamic Law'' (''Al-Ijma´ Fi Ash-Shari´ah Al-Islamiyyah''), published in 1947.<ref name=dict2010/>


Following the popular debate around his 1925 book, Al-Azhar stripped him of his office, but he got it back in the 1940s. Ali, his father and his brother remained close to the Liberal Constitutional Party.<ref>Panayiotis J. Vatikiotis. Egypt since the revolution. Issue 7 of Studies on modern Asia and Africa. Praeger, 1968. pp.151-152.</ref> He eventually became a government minister and lost his position as scholar and jurist at Al-Azhar.<ref name=sage2011 />
Following popular debate about his 1925 book, Al-Azhar stripped him of his office, but he got it back in the 1940s. Ali, his father and his brother remained close to the Liberal Constitutional Party.<ref>Panayiotis J. Vatikiotis. Egypt since the revolution. Issue 7 of Studies on modern Asia and Africa. Praeger, 1968. pp.151-152.</ref> He eventually became a government minister and lost his position as scholar and jurist at Al-Azhar.<ref name=sage2011 />


He twice served as Minister of Endowments, one of the three highest positions in religious administration, beside the Rector of Al-Azhar and the Grand Mufti. Raziq died in 1966.<ref name = Souad2009 />
He twice served as Minister of Endowments, one of the three highest positions in religious administration, beside the Rector of Al-Azhar and the Grand Mufti. He died in 1966.<ref name = Souad2009 />


==Work==
==Work==
The argument of his 1925 book has been summarized as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government".<ref>Elizabeth Suzanne Kassab. Contemporary Arab Thought: Cultural Critique in Comparative Perspective. Columbia University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|9780231144896}} p.40</ref> He focussed his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate.<ref name=sage2011>Bertrand Badie, Dirk Berg-Schlosser, Leonardo Morlino (eds). International Encyclopedia of Political Science, Volume 1. SAGE, 2011. {{ISBN|9781412959636}} p.1350.</ref>
The argument of his 1925 book has been summarized as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government".<ref>Elizabeth Suzanne Kassab. Contemporary Arab Thought: Cultural Critique in Comparative Perspective. Columbia University Press, 2010. {{ISBN|9780231144896}} p.40</ref> He focused his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate.<ref name=sage2011>Bertrand Badie, Dirk Berg-Schlosser, Leonardo Morlino (eds). International Encyclopedia of Political Science, Volume 1. SAGE, 2011. {{ISBN|9781412959636}} p.1350.</ref>


The focus of this debate was [[Mustafa Kemal]]'s abolition of the caliphate in 1924, and the response of some Arab Muslim scholars that it was incumbent upon Arabs, in particular, to reinstate the caliphate in Arab lands.<ref name = Souad2009 />
The focus of this debate was Turkish leader [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]]'s abolition of the [[caliphate]] in 1924, and the response of some Arab Muslim scholars that it was incumbent upon Arabs, in particular, to reinstate the caliphate in Arab lands.<ref name = Souad2009 />


Raziq wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as a shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels".<ref>Kemal H. Karpat. The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Studies in Middle Eastern History. Oxford University Press, 2001 {{ISBN|9780195136180}} pp.242-243.</ref>
He wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as a shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels".<ref>Kemal H. Karpat. The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Studies in Middle Eastern History. Oxford University Press, 2001 {{ISBN|9780195136180}} pp.242-243.</ref>


The journalistic and academic debate that Raziq's book set off projected him into fame. The thesis ''Islam and the Foundations of Governance'' (''Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm'') was published recently by Hamed, the grandson of Abdel Raziq, with a familial introduction.
The journalistic and academic debate that his book set off projected him into fame. The thesis ''Islam and the Foundations of Governance'' (''Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm'') was published recently by Hamed, the grandson of Abdel Raziq, with a familial introduction.


Raziq remains controversial, and his specific arguments are part of a longer tradition of jurisprudence and scripture.<ref name = Souad2009 /><ref>Jasser Auda. Maqasid Al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law: A Systems Approach. IIIT, 2007. {{ISBN|9781565644243}} p.173</ref> His work has since been both praised<ref>Fouad Ajami. The Arab Predicament: Arab Political Thought and Practice since 1967. Edition 2, revised, Cambridge University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|9780521438339}} p.232</ref> and condemned, as a precursor of secularist philosophy in Muslim societies,<ref name = Souad2009 /><ref>Kassab (2010) pp.29, 32-33, 173, 225.</ref>
He remains controversial, and his specific arguments are part of a longer tradition of [[jurisprudence]] and [[scripture]].<ref name = Souad2009 /><ref>Jasser Auda. Maqasid Al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law: A Systems Approach. IIIT, 2007. {{ISBN|9781565644243}} p.173</ref> His work has since been both praised<ref>Fouad Ajami. The Arab Predicament: Arab Political Thought and Practice since 1967. Edition 2, revised, Cambridge University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|9780521438339}} p.232</ref> and condemned, as a precursor of secularist philosophy in Muslim societies.<ref name = Souad2009 /><ref>Kassab (2010) pp.29, 32-33, 173, 225.</ref>


It has been criticized as having drawn on the works of [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] western writers.<ref>John L. Esposito. Islam and Secularism in the Middle East. NYU Press, 2000. {{ISBN|9780814782613}}</ref>
It has been criticized as having drawn on the works of [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] western writers.<ref>John L. Esposito. Islam and Secularism in the Middle East. NYU Press, 2000. {{ISBN|9780814782613}}</ref>
Line 43: Line 46:
* Experience shows that the caliphate was a series of disasters for the Muslim community, and there is no single rational argument for the re-establishment of the caliphate.
* Experience shows that the caliphate was a series of disasters for the Muslim community, and there is no single rational argument for the re-establishment of the caliphate.


As Raziq recounts the horrors of the caliphate, among other things, one can conclude that he advocated a humanist kind of governance, probably a democratic state.
As he recounts the horrors of the caliphate, among other things, one can conclude that he advocated a humanist kind of governance, probably a democratic state.


The word 'secular' entered the Arab lexicon at the turn of the 20th century, bringing with it a host of meanings and interpretations. It was first introduced into Arab discourse, as a reference to the separation between religion and state. That later evolved to become "la dini", irreligious.
The word 'secular' entered the Arab lexicon at the turn of the [[20th century]], bringing with it a host of meanings and interpretations. It was first introduced into Arab discourse, as a reference to the separation between religion and state. That later evolved to become "la dini", irreligious.


In current circles, secularism is often both understood as "almaniya" and associated with immorality or the lack of ethics.
In current circles, secularism is often both understood as "almaniya" and associated with immorality or the lack of ethics.

== Criticism ==
[[Syrians|Syrian]] Islamic theologian [[Rashid Rida|Muhammad Rashid Rida]] (d. 1935) was one of the most fierce critics of 'Ali Abd al-Raziq and his ideas. Rida described the reaction to his controversial work ''al-Islam wa 'usul al-hukm'' [Islam and the Foundations of Political Power] to the "sudden arrival of the [[Last Judgment|Day of Judgment]]". Through ''[[Al-Manār (magazine)|Al-Manar]]'', Rashid Rida charged 'Abd al-Raziq with [[Islam and blasphemy|blasphemy]] and ''[[Kufr]]'' (disbelief) that no ''[[Batiniyya|batini]]'', ''[[Muʿtazila|Mu'tazili]]'', or ''[[Jahmi]]'' have ever uttered before. [[Takfir|Excommunicating]] 'Ali Abd al-Raziq as an apostate (''[[murtad]]''), Rida praised the [[Al-Azhar University|Azhari]] court verdict stripping Abd al-Raziq of his scholarly titles as a "great manifest victory for the believers over the atheists".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meiloud|first=Ahmed|title=The Islamic Rational State: The Arab Islamists' New Politico-Legal Discourses of a Post-Caliphate Order|publisher=The University of Arizona|year=2017|location=Tucson, Arizona, USA|pages=72- 73 |chapter=I: From the Khilafa to the Nation: The Origins and Evolution of the Political Creed of the Rational State}}</ref> Rida condemned the work as <blockquote>“.. a destruction and uprooting of the [[Islamic state|Islamic regime]] and its legislation; a tearing apart of its [[Ummah|community]], and a complete endorsement of disobedience of Allah and His messenger and all religious rules pertaining to the secular order, whether personal, political, civil or criminal... it considers ignorant all generations of Muslims: The [[Companions of the Prophet|Companions]], [[Tabi'un|Successors]], ''[[Imam|Imams]]'', ''[[Mujahideen|Mujtahids]]'', [[Hadith scholars]], and theologians. All in all, it calls for taking a path other than that of the believers, one at a conflict with Islam as it is understood by Muslims from the first generations to the present.”<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meiloud|first=Ahmed|title=The Islamic Rational State: The Arab Islamists' New Politico-Legal Discourses of a Post-Caliphate Order|publisher=The University of Arizona|year=2017|location=Tucson, Arizona, USA|pages=72- 73, 75-76|chapter=I: From the Khilafa to the Nation: The Origins and Evolution of the Political Creed of the Rational State}}</ref></blockquote>
==See also==
* [[Muhammad Bakhit al-Muti'i]]
* [[Mustafa Sabri]]
* [[ Muhammad Rashid Rida]]


==Writings==
==Writings==
* Abdel Raziq, Ali: ''Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm: Bahth Fi-l Khilafa Wa-l Hukuma Fi-l Islam'' (Islam and the Foundations of Governance: Research on the Caliphate and Governance in Islam). Critique and commentary by Mamdooh Haqqi (Beirut, 1978).
* Abdel Raziq, Ali: ''Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm: Bahth Fi-l Khilafa Wa-l Hukuma Fi-l Islam'' (Islam and the Foundations of Governance: Research on the Caliphate and Governance in Islam). Critique and commentary by Mamdooh Haqqi (Beirut, 1978).
* Abdel Razek, A., trans. by Loutfi, M., ed. Filali-Ansary, A. ''[http://ecommons.aku.edu/uk_ismc_series_intranslation/1/ Islam and the Foundations of Political Power]''. In Translation: Modern Muslim Thinkers Vol. 2. Aga Khan University-Institute for the Study of Muslim Civilisations (AKU-ISMC) / Edinburgh University Press, 2013.


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


* Adams, Charles C.: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. Russell & Russell, New York, 1968 (2ndd Edition). Page: 259-68.
* Adams, Charles C.: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. Russell & Russell, New York, 1968 (2ndd Edition). Page: 259–68.
* Meier, Andreas: Der Politische Auftrag des Islam (The Political Mission of Islam). Wuppertal (GER), 1994. Page: 106-114.
* Meier, Andreas: Der Politische Auftrag des Islam (The Political Mission of Islam). Wuppertal (GER), 1994. Page: 106–114.

==External links==
* [http://ecommons.aku.edu/uk_ismc_series_intranslation/1/ Islam and the Foundations of Political Power] (full eBook) at Aga Khan University eCommons


{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Raziq, Ali Abdel}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abdel Raziq, Ali}}
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1888 births]]
[[Category:1966 deaths]]
[[Category:1966 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:20th-century Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:Sharia judges]]
[[Category:Sharia judges]]
[[Category:Egyptian judges]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Al-Azhar University alumni]]
[[Category:Al-Azhar University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Minya Governorate]]
[[Category:Endowments ministers of Egypt]]

Latest revision as of 08:52, 3 November 2024

Ali Abdel Raziq

Ali Abdel Raziq (Arabic: ﻋﻠﻲ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺯﻕ) (1888–1966) was an Egyptian scholar of Islam, judge and government minister.[1] His writings, some controversial, debated the role of religion and Islamic history in 20th-century politics and government.[1]

While the implication of his arguments still remain a point of debate, his 1925 book Islam and the Foundations of Governance argued against a role for religion in politics or the political prescriptive value of religious texts.[1][2][3]

He argued that Islamic texts were and should remain neutral in political debate and civil institution building.[3] He attended Oxford University,[3] and he was a scholar and jurist at Al-Azhar, Cairo.[3]

Biography

[edit]

Ali Abdel Raziq was born in Minya Governorate in 1888[4] to a well-off family. His father, Hassan Abdel Raziq, was of Arab origin.[4] He was a large farm-owner and was, in 1907, among the founders of the Umma Party.[2] Ali Abdel Raziq's mother was of North African origin.[4] His brother, Mustafa Abd al-Rizq, a well known philosopher, studied at Al-Azhar University under the famous reformer Muhammad Abduh.[2]

He later received his 'alim degree from Al-Azhar in 1911. In 1912, he traveled to Oxford University to study economics and political science, but he returned to Cairo at the outbreak of the First World War.[2]

Back at Al-Azhar in 1915, he became a qadi (religious judge) in Mansoura. Ali became famous for his book Islam and the Foundations of Governance (Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm), published in 1925, and Consensus and Islamic Law (Al-Ijma´ Fi Ash-Shari´ah Al-Islamiyyah), published in 1947.[1]

Following popular debate about his 1925 book, Al-Azhar stripped him of his office, but he got it back in the 1940s. Ali, his father and his brother remained close to the Liberal Constitutional Party.[5] He eventually became a government minister and lost his position as scholar and jurist at Al-Azhar.[6]

He twice served as Minister of Endowments, one of the three highest positions in religious administration, beside the Rector of Al-Azhar and the Grand Mufti. He died in 1966.[2]

Work

[edit]

The argument of his 1925 book has been summarized as "Islam does not advocate a specific form of government".[7] He focused his criticism both at those who use religious law as contemporary political proscription and at the history of rulers claiming legitimacy by the caliphate.[6]

The focus of this debate was Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal's abolition of the caliphate in 1924, and the response of some Arab Muslim scholars that it was incumbent upon Arabs, in particular, to reinstate the caliphate in Arab lands.[2]

He wrote that past rulers spread the notion of religious justification for the caliphate "so that they could use religion as a shield protecting their thrones against the attacks of rebels".[8]

The journalistic and academic debate that his book set off projected him into fame. The thesis Islam and the Foundations of Governance (Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm) was published recently by Hamed, the grandson of Abdel Raziq, with a familial introduction.

He remains controversial, and his specific arguments are part of a longer tradition of jurisprudence and scripture.[2][9] His work has since been both praised[10] and condemned, as a precursor of secularist philosophy in Muslim societies.[2][11]

It has been criticized as having drawn on the works of Orientalist western writers.[12]

Secularism

[edit]

He was regarded as the intellectual father of Islamic secularism (the separation of state and religion, not the secularization of society).

Its controversial standpoints regarding the necessity of the caliphate and religious government made the book trigger an intellectual and political battle in Egypt. In essence, it claims that the Muslims may agree on any kind of government, religious or worldly, as long as it serves the interest and common welfare of their society.

Arguments

[edit]
  • The two main sources of Islamic law (sharia), the Quran and the Sunnah (the tradition of Muhammad), neither demand nor reject the rule of a caliph or imam.
  • There is no real ijma (consensus) on the necessity of the caliphate.
  • Experience shows that the caliphate was a series of disasters for the Muslim community, and there is no single rational argument for the re-establishment of the caliphate.

As he recounts the horrors of the caliphate, among other things, one can conclude that he advocated a humanist kind of governance, probably a democratic state.

The word 'secular' entered the Arab lexicon at the turn of the 20th century, bringing with it a host of meanings and interpretations. It was first introduced into Arab discourse, as a reference to the separation between religion and state. That later evolved to become "la dini", irreligious.

In current circles, secularism is often both understood as "almaniya" and associated with immorality or the lack of ethics.

Criticism

[edit]

Syrian Islamic theologian Muhammad Rashid Rida (d. 1935) was one of the most fierce critics of 'Ali Abd al-Raziq and his ideas. Rida described the reaction to his controversial work al-Islam wa 'usul al-hukm [Islam and the Foundations of Political Power] to the "sudden arrival of the Day of Judgment". Through Al-Manar, Rashid Rida charged 'Abd al-Raziq with blasphemy and Kufr (disbelief) that no batini, Mu'tazili, or Jahmi have ever uttered before. Excommunicating 'Ali Abd al-Raziq as an apostate (murtad), Rida praised the Azhari court verdict stripping Abd al-Raziq of his scholarly titles as a "great manifest victory for the believers over the atheists".[13] Rida condemned the work as

“.. a destruction and uprooting of the Islamic regime and its legislation; a tearing apart of its community, and a complete endorsement of disobedience of Allah and His messenger and all religious rules pertaining to the secular order, whether personal, political, civil or criminal... it considers ignorant all generations of Muslims: The Companions, Successors, Imams, Mujtahids, Hadith scholars, and theologians. All in all, it calls for taking a path other than that of the believers, one at a conflict with Islam as it is understood by Muslims from the first generations to the present.”[14]

See also

[edit]

Writings

[edit]
  • Abdel Raziq, Ali: Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm: Bahth Fi-l Khilafa Wa-l Hukuma Fi-l Islam (Islam and the Foundations of Governance: Research on the Caliphate and Governance in Islam). Critique and commentary by Mamdooh Haqqi (Beirut, 1978).
  • Abdel Razek, A., trans. by Loutfi, M., ed. Filali-Ansary, A. Islam and the Foundations of Political Power. In Translation: Modern Muslim Thinkers Vol. 2. Aga Khan University-Institute for the Study of Muslim Civilisations (AKU-ISMC) / Edinburgh University Press, 2013.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Marshall Cavendish Reference. Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World Muslim World. Marshall Cavendish, 2010 ISBN 9780761479291 p.79.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Souad T. Ali. A religion, not a state: Ali 'Abd al-Raziq's Islamic justification of political secularism. University of Utah Press, 2009. ISBN 9780874809510
  3. ^ a b c d Thomas M. Leonard (ed). Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 2. Taylor & Francis, 2006. ISBN 9781579583880. p.878.
  4. ^ a b c Tahir Khemiri; G. Kampffmeyer (1930). "Leaders in contemporary Arabic literature. Ali Abd ar-Razi". Die Welt des Islams. 9 (2–4): 9. doi:10.2307/1569007.
  5. ^ Panayiotis J. Vatikiotis. Egypt since the revolution. Issue 7 of Studies on modern Asia and Africa. Praeger, 1968. pp.151-152.
  6. ^ a b Bertrand Badie, Dirk Berg-Schlosser, Leonardo Morlino (eds). International Encyclopedia of Political Science, Volume 1. SAGE, 2011. ISBN 9781412959636 p.1350.
  7. ^ Elizabeth Suzanne Kassab. Contemporary Arab Thought: Cultural Critique in Comparative Perspective. Columbia University Press, 2010. ISBN 9780231144896 p.40
  8. ^ Kemal H. Karpat. The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Studies in Middle Eastern History. Oxford University Press, 2001 ISBN 9780195136180 pp.242-243.
  9. ^ Jasser Auda. Maqasid Al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law: A Systems Approach. IIIT, 2007. ISBN 9781565644243 p.173
  10. ^ Fouad Ajami. The Arab Predicament: Arab Political Thought and Practice since 1967. Edition 2, revised, Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 9780521438339 p.232
  11. ^ Kassab (2010) pp.29, 32-33, 173, 225.
  12. ^ John L. Esposito. Islam and Secularism in the Middle East. NYU Press, 2000. ISBN 9780814782613
  13. ^ Meiloud, Ahmed (2017). "I: From the Khilafa to the Nation: The Origins and Evolution of the Political Creed of the Rational State". The Islamic Rational State: The Arab Islamists' New Politico-Legal Discourses of a Post-Caliphate Order. Tucson, Arizona, USA: The University of Arizona. pp. 72–73.
  14. ^ Meiloud, Ahmed (2017). "I: From the Khilafa to the Nation: The Origins and Evolution of the Political Creed of the Rational State". The Islamic Rational State: The Arab Islamists' New Politico-Legal Discourses of a Post-Caliphate Order. Tucson, Arizona, USA: The University of Arizona. pp. 72–73, 75–76.
  • Adams, Charles C.: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. Russell & Russell, New York, 1968 (2ndd Edition). Page: 259–68.
  • Meier, Andreas: Der Politische Auftrag des Islam (The Political Mission of Islam). Wuppertal (GER), 1994. Page: 106–114.
[edit]
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