Iran–Saudi Arabia relations: Difference between revisions

Iran–Saudi Arabia relations
Diplomatic mission
Iranian Embassy, Riyadh	Saudi Arabian Embassy, Tehran
Envoy
Ambassador Alireza Enayati	Ambassador Abdullah bin Saud al-Anzi

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Bilateral relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia have been strained over several geopolitical issues, such as aspirations for regional leadership, oil export policy and relations with the United States and other Western countries. Diplomatic relations were suspended from 1987 to 1990, and they were more recently suspended from 2016 to 2023 again following certain issues like the intervention in Yemen, Iran embassy bombing in Yemen, incidents during the 2015 Hajj, the execution of Nimr al-Nimr, and the attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran. However, in March 2023, after discussions brokered by China, Iran and Saudi Arabia agreed to reestablish relations. As of October 2024, Saudi Arabia and Iran have made efforts to improve their relations. In a meeting in Doha, Qatar, Iranian President Masoud Pezeshkian and Saudi Arabia’s Foreign Minister Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud discussed the promotion of bilateral ties, Israeli attacks on Gaza and Lebanon, and Iran’s recent “retaliatory attacks” on Israel. The two sides emphasized the need to set aside their differences and work towards the expansion of relations.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy established in 1932, with a post-World War II tradition of close ties to the United States and the United Kingdom. Iran's government alternated between absolute monarchy and increasing parliamentarianism, until the 1953 Iranian coup d'état increased Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's powers as monarch within a parliamentary system. The coup was supported by the army, the bazaar, the clerics^{[citation needed]}, the United States and the United Kingdom. Both states were aligned with the Western Bloc in the Cold War against the Soviet Union, until the end of formal Iran-United States relations in 1980 following the Iranian Revolution. Throughout both the Cold War and the war on terror, the United States has continued to pursue a strategic relationship with Saudi Arabia.

Both countries are major oil and gas exporters and have clashed over energy policy. Saudi Arabia, with its large oil reserves and smaller population, has a greater interest in taking a long-term view of the global oil market and incentive to moderate prices. In contrast, Iran is compelled to focus on high prices in the short term due to its low standard of living given recent sanctions after its decade-old war with Saddam Hussein's Iraq and its larger population.^[4]

In the Syrian civil war, Iran has supported the Syrian government militarily and with billions of dollars of aid, while Saudi Arabia was a major supplier of aid to rebel groups. Each has accused the other of support for terrorism.^[5]^[6] Iran and Saudi Arabia have competing interests in the battle for dominance over their region.^[7]

Tensions

After the Iranian Revolution, relations deteriorated considerably after Iran accused Saudi Arabia of aligning itself with the United States in the Persian Gulf region, representing U.S. interests rather than what it perceived to be those of the Muslim world. Saudi Arabia is concerned by Iran's consistent desire to export its revolution across the Persian Gulf region—notably in post-Saddam Iraq, the Levant, and further south. It is also opposed to Iran's controversial nuclear program.^[4]

Tensions between the two countries have waxed and waned. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran soured particularly after the Iranian Revolution, the commencement of the Iranian nuclear program, the 2011 alleged Iran assassination plot l and the 2016 execution of Nimr al-Nimr. There have also been numerous attempts to improve the relationship. After the 1991 Gulf war there was a noticeable thaw in relations.^[8] In March 2007, President Ahmadinejad of Iran visited Riyadh and was greeted at the airport by King Abdullah, and the two countries were referred to in the press as "brotherly nations".^[9]

Since March 2011, the Syrian Civil War has also been a source of tension. Iran has provided financial and military support for the Syrian government, led by Bashar al-Assad, while Saudi Arabia has supported Syrian rebels.^[10]

On 3 January 2016, Saudi Arabia's embassy in Tehran, Iran was ransacked following the execution of Saudi-born Shia Islam cleric Nimr al-Nimr. The execution prompted widespread condemnation within the Arab World and by other countries, the European Union, and the United Nations, with protests being carried out in cities in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Pakistan, and Turkey. Following the attack on its embassy in Iran, Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with Iran and the Saudi foreign minister said that all Iranian diplomats were to leave the country within 48 hours.^[11] For a long time now, Iran has wanted to be more involved in the affairs of the Middle East, including sharing benefits and responsibilities of being a dominant power in the region.^[12]

The difference in political ideologies and governing structures has also divided both countries. The Islamic Republic of Iran is based on the principle of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist, which holds that a faqīh (Islamic jurist) should have custodianship over all Muslim followers, including over traditional governors, such as monarchs, and regardless of nationality. Iran's Supreme Leader is a Shia faqīh. The leader of the 1979 Iranian revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini, was ideologically opposed to monarchy, which he believed to be un-Islamic. Saudi Arabia's monarchy, on the other hand, remains consistently conservative, and non-revolutionary. The king is politically tied to traditional religious leaders of the Arab tribes who support the monarchy and the king in his capacity as the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, and is thus given absolute obedience as long as he does not violate Islamic sharia law.^[13] However, Saudi Arabia has a Shia minority which has made bitter complaints of institutional discrimination against it.^[14] Sometimes, it has gone as far as to call for the abolition of the monarchy.^[15] Another source of disagreement is the U.S. sanctions on Iran which have destroyed Iran's oil industry.^[16]

History

1920s–1970s: during Pahlavi Era

Saudi Arabia and Iran established diplomatic relations in 1929 following the signing of a Saudi-Iranian Friendship Treaty.^[17] Relations continued until 1943 when an Iranian pilgrim, Abu Taleb Yazdi, was accused of attempting to throw his vomit on the Kaaba, and was executed by the Saudi government.^[18] Relations were severed as a result in 1944.^[18] In 1946 Ibn Saud sent a letter to the Shah to resume the relations which restarted the connections.^[18]

However, relations were not active until the 1960s mostly due to differences in religious practices and Iran's recognition of Israel.^[19] In 1966 King Faisal of Saudi Arabia visited Iran with the aim of further strengthening relationships between both neighboring countries. The Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi reciprocated by paying an official visit to Saudi Arabia which eventually led to a peaceful resolution of the lands. Mohammad Reza supported Faisal's efforts regarding Islamic solidarity and actively contributed to the establishment of multinational Islamic institutions, including the Organization of the Islamic World Congress, the Muslim World League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.^[17]

In 1968, Saudi Arabia and Iran signed a demarcation agreement.^[20] When the United Kingdom announced it would withdraw and vacate the Persian Gulf in the late 1960s,^[21] Iran and Saudi Arabia took the primary responsibility for peace and security in the region. In the late 1960s, the Shah sent a series of letters to King Faisal, urging him to modernize Saudi Arabia, saying, "Please, my brother, modernize. Open up your country. Make the schools mixed women and men. Let women wear miniskirts. Have discos. Be modern. Otherwise I cannot guarantee you will stay on your throne."^[22] In response, King Faisal wrote, "Your majesty, I appreciate your advice. May I remind you, you are not the Shah of France. You are not in the Élysée. You are in Iran. Your population is 90 percent Muslim. Please don't forget that."^[22]

During the 1970s, Saudi Arabia's main concerns over Iran were firstly, Iran's modernisation of its military and its military dominance all over the region; secondly, Iran's repossession of the islands of Big Tunb, Little Tunb and Abu Musa in 1971 which challenged the claim of the United Arab Emirates over the islands. The dispute remains till today.^[23] But the relationship between Iran and Saudi Arabia was never as friendly as between the years 1968 and 1979.^[19]^[24]

The relationship between the two countries was not without its tensions in the mid-to-late 1970s. As the Shah attempted to build an Iranian security architecture in the region, the Saudis resisted these efforts. Instead, King Khalid attempted to build bilaterial security relationships with the smaller neighboring Persian Gulf states which has lasted till today. The Saudis also argued for more modest OPEC price increases in 1976 and 1977 than Iran wanted.^[25]

1979: Iranian Revolution

Following the theocratic Iranian Revolution led by Khomeini in 1979, Iran started to openly attack and criticise the character and religious legitimacy of the Saudi regime.^[26] However King Khalid, the then ruler of Saudi Arabia, sent Khomeini a congratulatory message, stating that "Islamic solidarity" could be the basis for closer relations of the two countries.^[27] He also argued that with the foundation of the Islamic Republic in Iran there were no obstacles that inhibited the cooperation between two countries.^[28]

After the 1987 Mecca incident, in a public address in 1987 Khomeini declared that "these vile and ungodly Wahhabis, are like daggers which have always pierced the heart of the Muslims from the back", and announced that Mecca was in the hands of "a band of heretics."^[29] Upon this statement diplomatic relations between the two countries ended until 1991.^[30]

1980s: Iraqi invasion of Iran

The Shia–Sunni conflict between the two countries also played a pivotal role in the Iran–Iraq War when Saudi authorities pledged US$25 billion of aid to the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The Iraqi invasion of Iran increased Saudi concerns over stability in the region, hence their financial support to Iraq regardless of the "not-so-warm" relations between Baathist Iraq and conservative Saudi Arabia. In doing so, Saudi Arabia recognised its worries that revolutionary Iran was a far greater threat to its survival and the stability of the region. Saudi Arabia encouraged other Sunni Monarchs of Arab states of the Persian Gulf, including Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, to do the same by giving financial support to Iraq.^[31] To cover the costs of the war Saudi Arabia dramatically increased its oil production. This increase in oil production by Saudi Arabia was aimed to weaken Iran's ability to fund its campaigns. However, this measure by Saudi Arabia also cost the Saudi government billions in revenue as oil prices plunged from over $30 a barrel to less than $15 by the mid-1980s.^[31]

During the Iran–Iraq War, Iran flew their aircraft in Saudi airspace and also threatened Saudi Arabia and Kuwait with severe consequences if they would not stop supporting Iraq. Unlike America, Saudi Arabia, due to its very traditional Arab-Bedouin culture, did not break diplomatic relations with Iran even during the worst periods of tension following the revolution and during the Iran–Iraq War.^[32]

1984: Four Iranian F-4 warplanes penetrate Saudi airspace

On 7 May 1984 Iranian warplanes targeted an oil tanker in the Persian Gulf. This action resulted in Saudi Arabia undertaking air defensive measurements in the region to intercept Iranian warplanes. On 5 June 1984 two Iranian F-4 warplanes penetrated Saudi airspace, reportedly to bomb oil tankers.^[33]^[34]^[35] Saudi F-15 Eagles intercepted the Iranian warplanes, and shot down both F-4s.^[33]

1987 Hajj incident

Until 1987, no satisfactory resolution was made to decrease the tension between Iran and Saudi Arabia. The already strained relationship between the two countries further deteriorated when clashes occurred between Iranian-led demonstrators and Saudi security forces on 31 July 1987.^[26] The clash claimed the lives of around 400 pilgrims, out of which the majority had Iranian nationality.^[36] Angry protesters in Tehran responded by ransacking the Saudi embassy and reportedly detained four Saudis from the embassy.^[37] In response, Saudi Arabia reduced the number of Iranian pilgrims permitted on the Hajj, then cut its diplomatic relations with Iran on 27 April 1988.^[38]^[39] In response, the Iranian government boycotted the Hajj for three years, saying that Saudi Arabia was preventing pilgrims from going on the Hajj.^[39]^[40] The diplomatic relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia were not restored for three years after this incident.^[38]

Post Iran–Iraq War

In October 1988, the late King Fahd halted all media campaigns against Iran and asked Saudi administration to pressure Iraq into implementing the UNSCR 598, which called for an immediate ceasefire between Iran and Iraq. In 1989, Iranian President Hashemi Rafsanjani stated that Iran and Saudi Arabia were holding indirect talks to improve their relations.^[41]

Responses to Satanic Verses

Ayatollah Khomeini, the spiritual leader of Iran at that time, declared a death sentence for Salman Rushdie for certain anti-Islamic remarks in his book The Satanic Verses published in 1988. The Saudi government came up with a different verdict of making Rushdie appear before an Islamic tribunal before he could be delivered a death sentence.^[41]

1990s

Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990

When Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, Iran criticised and condemned the invasion. This stance from Iran, in favor of the Kuwaitis, and the anti-Iraqi coalition of the Persian Gulf states helped to improve relations between Iran and the GCC, namely Saudi Arabia. Both Iran and Saudi Arabia rejected the use of force as a solution to regional problems and opposed the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. Iran went further, by backing UN sanctions against Iraq. Iran viewed the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait as a serious threat, considering it the first step towards its expansionist mindset. During the war, relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia thawed considerably and the official ties were restored in 1991.^[42]

This short resumption of political ties was followed by quick high level visits, notably, in April 1991, Iranian Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Velayati visited Saudi Arabia to propose an Iranian-Gulf Cooperation Council alliance with a mandate for the security of the Persian Gulf, during a meeting with the late King Fahd. He claimed the Gulf Cooperation Council was too weak and hence failed to prevent the invasion of Kuwait, and stressed the need of the inclusion of Iran to strengthen such a regional agency to ensure stability.^[42]

The Hajj (Pilgrimage) issue was also resolved. In 1991, the Saudi authorities allowed 115,000 Iranian pilgrims, which was more in number compared to the 1988 quota of 45,000, that had led to Iran's abrupt boycott.^[43] These included 5,000 relatives of the "martyrs" of the 1987 incident.^[44] In later years, Iran adopted a careful approach and undertook measures for preventing a repeat of that incident. Iranian authorities tried to discourage large demonstrations by its pilgrims and attempted to have them held within the confines of the Iranian encampment,^[45] due to the fact that certain Iranian Shi'ite rituals are not accepted by other sects of Islam, and could have endangered the lives of Iranian Pilgrims if conducted openly.^{[further explanation needed]}

Khobar Towers bombing

On 23 June 1996, a massive truck bomb exploded near U.S. military barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing nineteen U.S. servicemen and wounding hundreds. The US government held Iran responsible for the attack. The charges against Iran, however, remained unconfirmed, and therefore did not substantively affect the Iranian–Saudi relations.^[45]

1997 OIC meeting

The 1997 meeting of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) in Iran heralded a shift in the attitude of the Arab States towards Iran. Several Arab countries confirmed their commitment to the conference. Saudi Arabia, which was previously criticized by Iran because of its control over the main Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina and also because of its perceived reliance on the United States for security, also participated in the meeting. At the OIC summit meeting, Saudi Arabia was represented by Crown Prince Abdullah (later King) and its Minister of Foreign affairs Saud Al Faisal. Saudi participation proved helpful in the process of further reconciliation between Iran and Saudi Arabia. As a result, Saudi ministerial delegations visited Iran and later on, the official visit of President Mohammad Khatami to Saudi Arabia took place in February 1998.^[46]

This was the first visit by an Iranian President to Saudi Arabia after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. The aim was to address pressing economic issues of the time. Iran was looking for a reallocation of OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) producing quotas to which it required strong support from Saudi Arabia. It was also reported that Iran was trying to persuade Saudi Arabia to consider exporting the Iranian Infrastructure to Central Asia. Iran also expected that the issue of the regional security alliance would be raised in which the alliance for the security of the region could be made to ensure stability on both borders of the Persian Gulf.^[46]

A Comprehensive Cooperation Agreement was signed between Saudi Arabia and Iran in May 1998, in which both countries agreed to cooperate in the field of economics, culture and sports. The relationship between Saudi Arabia and Iran was further improved when Khatami, the then President of Iran, on his tour to neighboring Arab countries, visited Saudi Arabia in May 1999. President Khatami stayed for five days in Saudi Arabia in which various discussions were held between the heads of both countries. Discussions included Persian Gulf security, efforts to increase global oil prices, the situation in Iraq and the development of a common geo-strategic approach to regional issues. The partial détente between Iran and the USA encouraged Saudi Arabia to apply more cooperation with President Khatami. In addition to this, Saudi Arabia and Iran signed an agreement known as the Saudi-Iranian security agreement in April 2001.^[46]

In July 1999, the late King Fahd of Saudi Arabia urged other Persian Gulf countries to improve their relations with Iran. King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, speaking at the opening session of the Shura Council said that it was in the interest of all the countries of the Persian Gulf to improve relations with Iran. He further said that all the other countries should follow Saudi Arabia's lead.^[47] These improved relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran also brought criticism from the United Arab Emirates, which criticised Saudi Arabia for abandoning UAE in its territorial disputes with Iran over three strategic Islands.^[47]

2000s

Yemen

Iran and Saudi Arabia support different sides in the Yemeni Civil War,^[48] with Saudi Arabia supporting the Yemeni government while Iran supports the Houthi rebels.^[49] Iran has heavily criticized Saudi Arabia for their intervention in the Houthi insurgency in Yemen. In 2017 Saudi Prince Mohammed bin Salman called the supreme leader of Iran "new Hitler".^[48]

2003 Riyadh bombings

Adel al-Jubeir, the foreign minister of Saudi Arabia, stated in one of his articles that Al-Qaeda's chief of operations "Saif al-Adel placed a call from Iran in May 2003 giving orders for the Riyadh bombings that claimed more than 30 lives, including eight Americans. Yet he still benefits from Iranian protection."^[50]

2010s

Yemeni crisis standoff

Two Iranian officers were captured in Yemeni city of Aden during the fighting between local militia and Houthis.^[51] According to local pro-Saudi militia they served as military advisors to Houthis and were connected with Iranian Quds Force.^[52] Further worsening of bilateral relationship between Iran and Saudi Arabia is generally expected as both countries are involved intensively in Yemeni crisis.^[53]

Leaked diplomatic cables

In November 2010, leaked diplomatic cables revealed that King Abdullah urged the US to attack Iran to destroy its nuclear weapons programme, describing Iran as a snake whose head should be cut off without any procrastination.^[54] The documents were dismissed by Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, claiming them to be "organised to be released on a regular basis."^[55]

2011 Iran assassination plot

On 11 October 2011, US accused Iran of planning to assassinate Adel Al-Jubair, the Saudi ambassador to the US.^[56]

Sanctions against Iran

In 2012, in response to the global sanctions against Iran, Saudi Arabia offered to offset the loss of Iranian oil sales and Iran warned against this.^[57] The same year Turki Al Faisal, former head of Saudi General Intelligence and a Saudi royal, suggested that Saudi Arabia would support the U.S.-led sanctions against Iranian oil.^[58]

Jeddah airport incident

In April 2015, media reported that two Iranian teenage pilgrims to Saudi Arabia had been sexually harassed by Saudi police at the Jeddah Airport.^[59]^[60]^[61] After that, 80 members of Iranian parliament presented a bill for minor Hajj rituals to be suspended until the Saudi officials guarantee the security of Iranian pilgrims and stop their harassment. Hundreds of Iranians protested outside Saudi Arabia's Embassy in Tehran over the alleged abuse of these two Iranian pilgrims in 11 April and clashed with police forces after trying to climb the embassy walls.^[62]^[63] In 8 April, Saudi authorities said they had prevented a plane carrying 260 Iranian pilgrims from landing in the kingdom, saying the airline operators had not applied for a permit to enter Saudi Arabia.^[63]^[64] In 13 April, Iran suspended minor hajj trips to Saudi Arabia until the Saudi government "applies a strong attitude" to the case.^[65]

Saud al-Faisal, foreign minister of Saudi Arabia have pledged to Iran's Ambassador that his government will punish the two Saudi policemen, very soon.^{[citation needed]}

Mansour al-Turki, spokesman of Interior ministry of Saudi Arabia, informed that the accused airport staff members have been arrested and referred to court and Iranian ambassador to Saudi Arabia has been informed and the suspects have been referred for investigation.^[66]

2015 "Saudileaks"

In late May 2015, Yemeni hacking group Yemen Cyber Army launched a cyber attack on Saudi Arabia's Foreign, Interior and Defense Ministries' website to gain a portion of classified information and top secret documents. The documents were related to the Saudi agenda in Iran. The documents were later listed on WikiLeaks. The agenda included propaganda to stir chaotic unrest in Iran with the help of opposition forces, social media, newspapers, magazines and websites, in order to pave the way for changing the Iranian political system.

Furthermore, a Saudi diplomat planned to use the Persian and Arabic-language media, also the Arab-speaking citizens of Southern and Western Iran for provoking mass protests in that region.

2015 Hajj stampede

The 2015 Hajj stampede escalated tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran due to the deaths of Iranian pilgrims in the stampede. Iranian leaders accused Saudi authorities of being responsible for the disaster.^[67]^[68]^[69] A Saudi Prince, Dr. Khalid bin Abdullah bin Fahd bin Farhan Al Saud tweeted that : "Under the threat of the enemy Zoroastrians — historically – to the Kingdom – it is time to think – seriously – to ban Iranians from coming to Mecca to preserve the safety of the pilgrims".^[70]

2016 execution of Nimr al-Nimr

On 2 January 2016, 47 people were put to death in several Saudi cities, including prominent Shia cleric Nimr al-Nimr. Protesters of the executions responded by demonstrating in Iran's capital, Tehran. That same day a few protesters would eventually ransack the Saudi Embassy in Tehran and later set it ablaze.^[71] Police donned riot gear and arrested 40 people during the incident.^[72]^[73]

On 3 January 2016, Saudi Arabia's foreign ministry announced that it would cut diplomatic ties with Iran due to the violence that had occurred at their embassy.^[74] and President Rouhani called the damage on embassy "by no means justifiable".^[75]

After the events, Saudi Arabia refused to play in Iran during the 2016 AFC Champions League.^[76]

2016 Iran embassy bombing in Yemen

On 7 January 2016, Iran's foreign ministry made the claim that Saudi warplanes had deliberately targeted its embassy to Yemen in the city of Sanaa. Iran's report included claims that,"a number of the building's guards" had been injured as a result of the bombing.^[77] Sanaa residents reported that the embassy's main building suffered no visible damage.^[77] Currently General Ahmad Asseri from the Saudi-led coalition is investigating Iran's allegations. Later on, Asseri announced no evidence was found for the accusation neither by the Arab Coalition Military nor by the legitimate Yemeni government.^[78]

2016 Iranian ban on the Hajj

In September 2016, following disputes, the Iranian government barred its citizens from making the Hajj. Iran claimed that the 2015 incident was the result of Saudi "incompetence." The Saudi government suggested that the move was politically motivated as a means to put pressure on the kingdom.^[79]

In the first week of January 2017, the Saudi Minister for Pilgrims invited more than 80 countries including Iran for Iranian participation in the forthcoming Hajj rituals. Iran has also confirmed the receipt of Saudi invitation and is willing to discuss arrangements for the 2017 Hajj season. The Iranian delegation is expected to travel to Saudi Arabia on 23 February 2017 to discuss the participation of Iranian pilgrims.^[80]^[81]^[82]

2020s

The major general of Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Qasem Soleimani was assassinated in a targeted American drone strike on 3 January 2020 in Baghdad airport, when he was invited by Iraqi Prime Minister Adil Abdul-Mahdi as a mediator to talk about Iran's response to a previous message from Saudi Arabia.^[83]

In May 2015, classified Saudi government documents were leaked by Yemeni hackers uncovered that the Saudi Intelligence Agency was offering unsolicited aid to the United States which would hit "an efficient and preemptive blow" to IRGC commanders.^{[citation needed]}

Since April 2021, Iraq has hosted five rounds of direct talks between the two nations, which cut diplomatic ties in 2016. The 6th round of talks on a ministerial level stalled, but after a meeting in Amman, Jordan, in December 2022, Iran's Hossein Amir-Abdollahian and Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud signaled that both countries would be "open to more dialogue". Despite increased rhetoric by Iran against Saudi Arabia, the Saudis support efforts to revive the stalled Iran nuclear deal. However, the Saudi minister said 'all bets off' if Iran would obtain nuclear weapons.^[84]^[85] In January 2023, the Saudi foreign ministers Al Saud speaking at a panel at the World Economic Forum in Davos reiterated that "Riyadh is trying to find a dialog with Iran". He welcomed the decision by Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states to focus on their economies "towards joint prosperity".^[86]

International efforts to normalize relations

There were international efforts going on to normalize the relations between two countries following the crisis which started with the execution of Sheikh Nimr. In 2016, Pakistan's prime minister Nawaz Sharif and Chief of Army Staff Raheel Sharif visited Riyadh and Tehran, following high level visits from Saudi Arabia to Islamabad.^[87]

Pakistan's opposition leader Imran Khan visited the embassies of Iran and Saudi Arabia and met their head of commissions in Islamabad on 8 January 2016 to understand their stance regarding the conflict. He urged the Government of Pakistan to play a positive role to resolve the matter between both countries.^[88]

Since April 2019, Iraq has offered to host the peace talks to reconcile Saudi Arabia and Iran to end the crisis in the region.^[89] The roundtable talks between the two nations began in 2021, although with varying results due to the two's reluctance.^[90]^[91]^[92] However, Iran suspended the peace talks with Saudi Arabia on 14 March 2022 without giving reasons.^[93]

On 26 May 2022, Iran's foreign minister, Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, stated that the country has made "minimal but good progress" in its relations with Saudi Arabia.^[94]

2023 restoration of relations

The two countries announced the resumption of relations on 10 March 2023, following a deal brokered by China.^[95] The deal followed several days of secret talks in Beijing by Iranian and Saudi officials.^[96] The agreement was signed by secretary of the Supreme National Security Council of Iran Ali Shamkhahni and Saudi Arabian national security advisor Musaed Al-Aiban.^[97] A joint statement announced that their embassies would re-open within two months.^[95] The path to the agreement was paved by five rounds of reconciliation talks that had been hosted by Iraq over several years.^[98] The agreement was welcomed by the United States,^[99] the United Nations Secretary General, Hezbollah, Oman, UAE, Egypt,^[100] Pakistan,^[101] Russia,^[102] Indonesia^[103] and Malaysia.^[104] Two former Israeli Prime Ministers, Naftali Bennett and Yair Lapid, criticized the agreement.^[98]^[105]

Under the deal, the countries would restore agreements related to security, trade, and culture.^[1]^[2] Under the agreement both countries agree to respect the other's sovereignty and not interfere in the internal affairs of the other.^[98]

Following the reconciliation deal, Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi favourably received an invitation from Saudi Arabia's King Salman to visit the kingdom on 19 March 2023.^[106] The rapprochement deal was concluded after Iranian agreement to halt its weapon supplies to Houthi militants in Yemen and abide by the UN arms embargo, thereby opening up the possibility to push the Houthis towards a negotiated settlement with the Yemeni government. Saudi and US officials remarked that Iranian observance of its commitments towards de-escalating Yemeni conflict were a "litmus test" for the survival of Chinese-brokered reconciliation deal.^[107]^[108]^[109]

Analysts deemed the agreement significant for several reasons. It could lead the way to easing of the Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict, thus bringing stability to Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon and Bahrain.^[110] According to some analysts, the fact that the deal was brokered by China as opposed to the US, could mean that American influence in the region was declining.^[111] The deal could also enhance China's energy security given Chinese dependence on Iran and Saudi Arabia for oil.^[112] Some analysts contended that the agreement would hinder Israel–Saudi Arabia relations,^[113] while others contended that Israel's conflict with the Palestinians was more of a hindrance to its relations with Saudi Arabia than Iran.^[114]

Envoys from the two states met in Beijing on 6 April to confirm their commitment and formally restore relations.^[115]

On 8 April 2023, Saudi officials arrived in Iran to further advance the reopening of their respective diplomatic missions. The deal brokered by the People's Republic of China, known as the 'Beijing Agreement', a month earlier ended the diplomatic rift between the two nations "to bring security and stability to the turbulent Gulf region", according to the statement. On 29 April 2023, during a news conference in the Lebanese capital Beirut, Amir-Abdollahian announced the reopening of the embassies within days, but did not announce specific dates. The embassies closed in 2016 but recent talks were "implementing the tripartite agreement" facilitated by Chinese President Xi Jinping and the Chinese Foreign Ministry.^[116] The Iranian embassy in Riyadh reopened on 6 June while the Saudi embassy in Iran reopened in 9 August.^[117]^[118]

In August 2023, both Iran and Saudi-Arabia applied to join BRICS. On October 11, 2023, Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman received a phone call from Iran's President Ebrahim Raisi to discuss the outbreak of the 2023 Israel–Hamas war.^[119]^[120]

Challenged relations after escalation of Israel–Iran tensions

During the Israel–Hamas war, a majority of the Saudi population stood behind the Palestinians and sympathised with their suffering, and subsequent to the suspected Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus the leadership of Saudi Arabia had rejected categorically the targeting of diplomatic facilities for any justification.^[121] However, during the April 2024 Iranian strikes in Israel, Saudi Arabia assisted Israel along with Jordan with the defence of Israel and their own territories.^[122] These events had further complicated Saudi relations with Iran. In order to maintain an acceptable approach to lower tensions in the Middle East, some analysts have emphasised the increased economic ties with Iran, which though stand in sharp contrast with the renewed efforts by Europe and the U.S. to further increase sanctions against Iran and its proxies.^[123]

In early October 2024, during a conference on the anniversary of the Al-Aqsa Storm operation, held in Tehran, Iranian foreign minister Abbas Araghchi announced his upcoming visit to Riyadh to discuss a ceasefire and the atrocities committed by Israel. After visiting Doha, Beirut and Damascus, Araghchi reaffirmed his stance to not further escalate the war in the Middle East while at the same time supporting resistance movements against Israel. Saudi Arabia has ascertained its neutrality in the conflict.^[124] Later that month, Iran warned all the Gulf states not to allow any action against Iran by using their airspace. Arab officials have indicated that Iran would retaliate against these states if their territories or airspace were used in such operations.^[125]^[126] In November 2024, Saudi Chief of General Staff Fayyad al-Ruwaili met his Iranian counterpart Mohammad Bagheri in Tehran. During the meeting, Ruwaili discussed increasing cooperation between the two countries security forces.^[127]

Since the eruption of the Hamas-Israel war, Saudi Arabia has challenged the Abraham accords when it re-established diplomatic relations with Iran. The Gulf states have favored regional diplomacy over war and de-escalation. In late 2024, the Abraham accords appear to be stalled in light of the ongoing conflict in Palestine, Israel and the Lebanon.^[128]

Sectarian basis for tensions

Historically, Iran–Saudi relationships have always been uncertain, something attributed to the different sects that the majority of populations in both countries follow. Saudi Arabia, which is a predominantly Sunni society, is skeptical of Shi'ite Iran's activities and influence in the Persian Gulf region. It is in this context that Iran-Saudi hostilities are sometimes seen as being the successor to Ottoman–Safavid relations.^[129]

Leading Sunni and Shi'ite Clerics in both countries deemed each other's religious beliefs as incorrect for decades. An attempt was made by the Sunnis to take the Tomb of Imam Hussein, one of the important religious leaders of Shi'ite theology and the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad whose life is considered the main difference between Sunni and Shi'ite sects. Since then, tensions between both major sects of Islam, their followers, and their affiliates, have increased and this tension is considered unlikely to be resolved any time soon.^[32] According to Le Figaro, on 5 June 2010, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia told Hervé Morin, then Defense Minister of France that: "There are two countries in the world that do not deserve to exist: Iran and Israel."^[130]

In 2016, Grand Mufti Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh was replaced by Sheikh Saleh bin Hamid as the giver of the hajj sermon. The Grand Mufti had given the sermon every year since 1981, but was replaced in 2016 after claiming that the Shi'ite leaders of Iran "are not Muslims."^[79]

Saudi Arabia and Iran's attitudes toward Turkey and Qatar

Although the conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran has been mostly between themselves, the two nations are also becoming more increasingly tangled in a triangle conflict after neo-Ottomanist Turkey, led by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, demonstrated the desire to restore the Ottoman order that was once imposed at the expense of the Iranians and the Saudis, since the 2010s. Due to the historical enmities of Turkey towards both Iran and Saudi Arabia, the two countries' attitudes toward Turkey also have some impacts on Tehran and Riyadh's political decisions.^[131] Iran has had a complex relationship with Turkey, being Iran's major economic partner but also an enemy due to Turkey and Iran backing various proxy groups fighting each other while Saudi Arabia's relations with Turkey have deteriorated due to Turkish ambitions to restore the Turkish influence at the expense of Riyadh's power; it was in some aspect that Saudi Arabia and Iran found itself involuntarily on the same side, notably during the Kurdish–Turkish conflict when both Saudi Arabia and Iran back the Kurds against Turkey.^[132]

Relevant to Turkey is also reflected in the role of Qatar, which has very close relations with Turkey but was placed under an embargo by Saudi Arabia and its allies during the 2017-21 Qatar diplomatic crisis, during which Qatar opened full relations with Iran. While the Saudis reopened relations with Qatar in 2021, it was mainly due to the perception that the embargo against Qatar had failed, rather than the underlying issues between Qatar and the Saudis having been resolved.^[133] The 2023 Saudi-Iranian rapproachement would therefore possibly allow the Saudis to re-open their diplomatic conflict with Qatar.

Doctrinal differences

The difference of political ideologies and governance also divided both countries. The Islamic Republic of Iran is based on the principle of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists, which hold that a faqīh (Islamic jurist) should have custodianship over all Muslims, including their governance. Iran's Supreme Leader is a Shia faqīh. The founder of the Iranian revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini, was ideologically opposed to monarchy, which he believed to be contrary to Islamic principles. Saudi Arabia's monarchy, on the other hand, is conservative, not revolutionary, and its religious leaders have long supported monarchy where the king was given absolute obedience as long as he did not violate Islamic sharia law.^[134] Saudi Arabia has, however, a Shia minority which has made bitter complaints about institutional discrimination against it,^[14] and whom at times has been urged to overthrow the king.^[135] Both countries are major oil exporters but have clashed over energy policy. Saudi Arabia, with its large oil reserves and smaller population, has a greater interest in taking a long-term view of the global oil market and incentive to moderate prices. In contrast, Iran is compelled to focus on high prices in the short term.^[136]

Saudi Arabia, Iran and United States

As far as the relationship between Saudi Arabia and the U.S. is concerned, both countries have been strategic allies for more than sixty years. Saudi Arabia sees itself as a firm and generous partner of the U.S. in the Cold War and in other international conflicts.

From 1953 to 1979, Iran under Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was also an ally of the United States.^[137]^[138]^[139]

The visits by US President George W. Bush to the Kingdom in 2008 reaffirmed these ties. Yet Saudis have always distanced themselves from American foreign policy, particularly with regards to Iran. Even when there was growing criticism against the former Iranian President, Mahmud Ahmadinejad, for his alleged hostile foreign policy in connection to Israel,^[140] Saudi Arabia recognised that Iran was a potential threat, and a regional power that was in position to create trouble within their borders. Therefore, Saudi Arabia's security over time required accommodation and good relations with its geographic neighbors notably Iran.^[140]

Prior to this visit, Saudi National Security advisor Prince Bandar bin Sultan, seen as one of the most pro-American figures in the region, had made a trip to Tehran to voice his government's interest in building harmonious relations with Iran.^[141] During Iranian President Ahmadinejad's 3 March 2007 visit, he discussed with King Abdullah the need to protect the Islamic world from enemy "conspiracies."^[142]

In 2007, President Ahmadinejad was the first Iranian leader to attend the annual summit of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which was established in 1980 in part to contain the ambitions of revolutionary Iran.^[143]^[144] This visit by the President of Iran was an event which signaled a possible change in relations. The same year, at Saudi Arabia's invitation, Ahmadinejad traveled to Saudi Arabia to take part in the annual Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.^[145]^[146]

On 11 October 2011 US Attorney General Eric Holder accused Iran of planning to assassinate the Saudi Arabian ambassador to the United States Adel Al-Jubbair.^[56]

In 2013, Saudi Ambassador to Britain Mohammed bin Nawaf bin Abdulaziz Al Saud wrote an editorial in The New York Times criticizing Saudi Arabia's Western allies for not taking bold enough measures against Syria and Iran, thus destabilizing the Middle East and forcing Saudi Arabia to become more aggressive in international affairs.^[147] The Obama administration continued to reassure the Persian Gulf states that regional security is a U.S. priority, but, as of December 2013, the Gulf states express skepticism.^[148]

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External links

Bitter Rivals: Iran and Saudi Arabia, documentary from PBS Frontline

[2023resume-1] "Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to resume relations after years of tension". NPR. Associated Press. 10 March 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2023.

[nytimes_Saudi_Arabia_and_Iran_Agree_to_Restore_Ties-2] Nereim, Vivian (10 March 2023). "Saudi Arabia and Iran Agree to Restore Ties, in Talks Hosted by China". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 March 2023.

[3] Hafezi, Parisa; Abdallah, Nayera; Yaakoubi, Aziz El (10 March 2023). "Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to resume ties in talks brokered by China". Reuters. Retrieved 20 March 2023.

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@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Infobox bilateral relations|Iran–Saudi Arabia|Iran|Saudi Arabia|filetype=svg|mission2=[[Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Tehran|Saudi Arabian Embassy, Tehran]]|mission1=Iranian Embassy, Riyadh|envoytitle2=[[List of ambassadors of Saudi Arabia to Iran|Ambassador]]|envoytitle1=[[List of ambassadors of Iran to Saudi Arabia|Ambassador]]|envoy2=Abdullah bin Saud al-Anzi|envoy1=Alireza Enayati}}
-[[Bilateral relations]] between [[Iran]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] have been strained over several [[geopolitical]] issues, such as aspirations for regional leadership, oil export policy and relations with the [[United States]] and other [[Western culture|Western]] countries. [[Diplomatic relations]] were suspended from 1987 to 1990, and in 2016 for seven years following certain issues like the intervention in Yemen, Iran embassy bombing in Yemen, [[2015 Mina stampede#Increased Saudi–Iranian tensions|incidents in 2015 Hajj]], the [[execution of Nimr al-Nimr]], the [[2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran|attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran]]. However, in March 2023, after discussions brokered by [[China]] and [[Iraq]], Iran and Saudi Arabia agreed to reestablish relations.<ref name="2023resume" /><ref name="nytimes Saudi Arabia and Iran Agree to Restore Ties" /><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hafezi |first1=Parisa |last2=Abdallah |first2=Nayera |last3=Yaakoubi |first3=Aziz El |date=2023-03-10 |title=Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to resume ties in talks brokered by China |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iran-saudi-arabia-agree-resume-ties-re-open-embassies-iranian-state-media-2023-03-10/ |access-date=2023-03-20}}</ref>
+[[Bilateral relations]] between [[Iran]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] have been strained over several [[geopolitical]] issues, such as aspirations for regional leadership, oil export policy and relations with the [[United States]] and other [[Western culture|Western]] countries. [[Diplomatic relations]] were suspended from 1987 to 1990, and they were more recently suspended from 2016 to 2023 again following certain issues like the intervention in [[Yemen]], Iran embassy bombing in Yemen, [[2015 Mina stampede#Increased Saudi–Iranian tensions|incidents during the 2015 Hajj]], the [[execution of Nimr al-Nimr]], and the [[2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran|attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran]]. However, in March 2023, after discussions brokered by [[China]], Iran and Saudi Arabia agreed to reestablish relations. As of October 2024, Saudi Arabia and Iran have made efforts to improve their relations. In a meeting in Doha, Qatar, Iranian President Masoud Pezeshkian and Saudi Arabia’s Foreign Minister Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud discussed the promotion of bilateral ties, Israeli attacks on Gaza and Lebanon, and Iran’s recent “retaliatory attacks” on Israel. The two sides emphasized the need to set aside their differences and work towards the expansion of relations.<ref name="2023resume" /><ref name="nytimes Saudi Arabia and Iran Agree to Restore Ties" /><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hafezi |first1=Parisa |last2=Abdallah |first2=Nayera |last3=Yaakoubi |first3=Aziz El |date=2023-03-10 |title=Iran and Saudi Arabia agree to resume ties in talks brokered by China |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iran-saudi-arabia-agree-resume-ties-re-open-embassies-iranian-state-media-2023-03-10/ |access-date=2023-03-20}}</ref>
-Saudi Arabia is an [[absolute monarchy]] established in 1932, with a post-World War II tradition of close ties to the United States and the United Kingdom. Iran's government alternated between absolute monarchy and increasing parliamentarianism, until the [[1953 Iranian coup d'état]] increased [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]'s powers as monarch within a parliamentary system. The coup was supported by the army, the bazaar, the clerics{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}, the United States and the United Kingdom. Both states were aligned with the [[Western Bloc]] in the [[Cold War]] against the [[Soviet Union]], until the end of formal [[Iran-United States relations]] in 1980 following the [[Iranian Revolution]]. Throughout both the Cold War and the [[war on terror]], the United States has continued to pursue a [[Saudi Arabia-United States relations|strategic relationship with Saudi Arabia]].
+Saudi Arabia is an [[absolute monarchy]] established in 1932, with a post-World War II tradition of close ties to the United States and the [[United Kingdom]]. Iran's government alternated between absolute monarchy and increasing parliamentarianism, until the [[1953 Iranian coup d'état]] increased [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]'s powers as monarch within a parliamentary system. The coup was supported by the army, the bazaar, the clerics{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}, the United States and the United Kingdom. Both states were aligned with the [[Western Bloc]] in the [[Cold War]] against the [[Soviet Union]], until the end of formal [[Iran-United States relations]] in 1980 following the [[Iranian Revolution]]. Throughout both the Cold War and the [[war on terror]], the United States has continued to pursue a [[Saudi Arabia-United States relations|strategic relationship with Saudi Arabia]].
 Both countries are major oil and gas exporters and have clashed over [[energy policy]]. Saudi Arabia, with its large oil reserves and smaller population, has a greater interest in taking a long-term view of the global oil market and incentive to moderate prices. In contrast, Iran is compelled to focus on high prices in the short term due to its low standard of living given recent sanctions after its [[Iran–Iraq War|decade-old war]] with [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]] and its larger population.<ref name=Wehrey />
-In the [[Syrian civil war]], [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War|Iran]] has supported the Syrian government militarily and with billions of dollars of aid, while Saudi Arabia was a [[Saudi Arabian support to Syrian Opposition in the Syrian Civil War|major supplier of aid]] to rebel groups. Each has accused the other of support for terrorism.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2017/05/17/Saudi-Arabia-accuses-Iran-of-deception-and-supporting-terrorism.html|title=Saudi Arabia accuses Iran of 'deception' and supporting terrorism|date=17 May 2017|agency=Al Arabiya|access-date=7 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/07/world/middleeast/iran-parliament-attack-khomeini-mausoleum.html|title=Iran Assails Saudi Arabia After Pair of Deadly Terrorist Attacks|last=Erdbrink|first=Thomas|date=2017-06-07|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-06-07|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Iran and Saudi Arabia have competing interests in [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict|the battle for dominance of their region]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42008809 |title=Why Saudi Arabia and Iran are bitter rivals. |agency=BBC News |date=16 September 2019}}</ref>
+In the [[Syrian civil war]], [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War|Iran]] has supported the Syrian government militarily and with billions of dollars of aid, while Saudi Arabia was a [[Saudi Arabian support to Syrian Opposition in the Syrian Civil War|major supplier of aid]] to rebel groups. Each has accused the other of support for terrorism.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2017/05/17/Saudi-Arabia-accuses-Iran-of-deception-and-supporting-terrorism.html|title=Saudi Arabia accuses Iran of 'deception' and supporting terrorism|date=17 May 2017|agency=Al Arabiya|access-date=7 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/07/world/middleeast/iran-parliament-attack-khomeini-mausoleum.html|title=Iran Assails Saudi Arabia After Pair of Deadly Terrorist Attacks|last=Erdbrink|first=Thomas|date=2017-06-07|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-06-07|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Iran and Saudi Arabia have competing interests in [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict|the battle for dominance over their region]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42008809 |title=Why Saudi Arabia and Iran are bitter rivals. |agency=BBC News |date=16 September 2019}}</ref>
 ==Tensions==
-After the [[Iranian Revolution]], relations deteriorated considerably after Iran accused Saudi Arabia of being an agent of the US in the [[Persian Gulf]] region, representing US interests rather than Islam. Saudi Arabia is concerned by Iran's consistent desire to export its revolution across the board to expand its influence within the Persian Gulf region—notably in post-Saddam [[Iraq]], the Levant and within further south in addition to Iran's controversial, much debated [[Iranian nuclear program|nuclear program]].<ref name=Wehrey>{{cite book|title=Saudi-Iranian Relations Since the Fall of Saddam: Rivalry, Cooperation and Implication for US Policy|first1=Frederic|last1=Wehrey|first2=Theodore W.|last2=Karasik |first3=Alireza |last3=Nader|first4=Jeremy J.|last4=Ghez|first5=Lydia|last5=Hansell|first6=Robert A.|last6=Guffey |url=http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG840.html|publisher=[[RAND Corporation]] |date=2009|access-date=14 November 2015|isbn=978-0833046574}}</ref>
+After the [[Iranian Revolution]], relations deteriorated considerably after Iran accused Saudi Arabia of aligning itself with the United States in the [[Persian Gulf]] region, representing U.S. interests rather than what it perceived to be those of the [[Muslim world]]. Saudi Arabia is concerned by Iran's consistent desire to export its revolution across the Persian Gulf region—notably in post-Saddam [[Iraq]], the Levant, and further south. It is also opposed to Iran's controversial [[Iranian nuclear program|nuclear program]].<ref name=Wehrey>{{cite book|title=Saudi-Iranian Relations Since the Fall of Saddam: Rivalry, Cooperation and Implication for US Policy|first1=Frederic|last1=Wehrey|first2=Theodore W.|last2=Karasik |first3=Alireza |last3=Nader|first4=Jeremy J.|last4=Ghez|first5=Lydia|last5=Hansell|first6=Robert A.|last6=Guffey |url=http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG840.html|publisher=[[RAND Corporation]] |date=2009|access-date=14 November 2015|isbn=978-0833046574}}</ref>
-Tensions between the two countries have waxed and waned. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran soured particularly after the [[Iranian Revolution]], the [[Iranian nuclear program|nuclear program]], the [[2011 alleged Iran assassination plot]] and more recently the execution of [[Nimr al-Nimr]]. There have also been numerous attempts to improve the relationship. After the 1991 Gulf war there was a noticeable thaw in relations.<ref name=bradley-expo->{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=John R.|title=Saudi Arabia Exposed : Inside a Kingdom in Crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaexpos00brad|url-access=registration|date=2005|publisher=Palgrave|pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaexpos00brad/page/82 82–83]|isbn=978-1403964335}}</ref> In March 2007 [[President Ahmadinejad]] of Iran visited [[Riyadh]] and was greeted at the airport by King Abdullah, and the two countries were referred to in the press as "brotherly nations".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hadzikadunic |first1=Emir |title=1 Iran–Saudi Ties: Can History Project Their Trajectory? |url=https://mei.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Insight-215-Saudi-Iranian-Ties.pdf |website=mei.nus.edu.sg |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
+Tensions between the two countries have waxed and waned. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Iran soured particularly after the [[Iranian Revolution]], the commencement of the Iranian [[Iranian nuclear program|nuclear program]], the [[2011 alleged Iran assassination plot]] l and the 2016 execution of [[Nimr al-Nimr]]. There have also been numerous attempts to improve the relationship. After the 1991 Gulf war there was a noticeable thaw in relations.<ref name=bradley-expo->{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=John R.|title=Saudi Arabia Exposed : Inside a Kingdom in Crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaexpos00brad|url-access=registration|date=2005|publisher=Palgrave|pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaexpos00brad/page/82 82–83]|isbn=978-1403964335}}</ref> In March 2007, [[President Ahmadinejad]] of Iran visited [[Riyadh]] and was greeted at the airport by [[Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (1931–2015)|King Abdullah]], and the two countries were referred to in the press as "brotherly nations".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hadzikadunic |first1=Emir |title=1 Iran–Saudi Ties: Can History Project Their Trajectory? |url=https://mei.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Insight-215-Saudi-Iranian-Ties.pdf |website=mei.nus.edu.sg |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
-After March 2011, the [[Syrian civil war]] has also been a source of tension. Iran has provided financial and military support for the [[Syrian government]], led by [[Bashar al-Assad]], while Saudi Arabia supported rebels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Timeline: Iran and Saudi Arabia, from rivalry to rapprochement |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/10/iran-and-saudi-arabia-from-rivalry-to-mending-ties-a-timeline |access-date=13 March 2023 |agency=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>
+Since March 2011, the [[Syrian civil war|Syrian Civil War]] has also been a source of tension. Iran has provided financial and military support for the [[Syrian government]], led by [[Bashar al-Assad]], while Saudi Arabia has supported [[List of armed factions in the Syrian Civil War|Syrian rebels]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Timeline: Iran and Saudi Arabia, from rivalry to rapprochement |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/10/iran-and-saudi-arabia-from-rivalry-to-mending-ties-a-timeline |access-date=13 March 2023 |agency=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>
-On 3 January 2016, Saudi Arabia's embassy in Tehran, Iran was ransacked following the [[Execution of Nimr al-Nimr|execution]] of Saudi-born [[Shia Islam]] cleric [[Nimr al-Nimr]]. The execution prompted widespread condemnation within the Arab World as well as other countries, the [[European Union]] and the [[United Nations]], with protests being carried out in cities in Iran, [[Iraq]], [[Lebanon]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Turkey]]. Following the attack on its embassy in Iran, Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with Iran and the Saudi foreign minister said that all Iranian diplomats were to leave the country within 48 hours.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35217328|title=Saudi Arabia cuts diplomatic ties with Iran|agency=BBC News|date=4 January 2016|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> For a long time now, Iran has wanted to be part of the regular region, as well as sharing benefits and responsibilities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/10/16/saudi-arabia-and-iran-may-finally-be-ready-for-rapprochement|title=Saudi Arabia and Iran may finally be ready for rapprochement|first=Imad K.|last=Harb|agency=Al Jazeera}}</ref>
+On 3 January 2016, Saudi Arabia's embassy in Tehran, Iran was ransacked following the [[Execution of Nimr al-Nimr|execution]] of Saudi-born [[Shia Islam]] cleric [[Nimr al-Nimr]]. The execution prompted widespread condemnation within the Arab World and by other countries, the [[European Union]], and the [[United Nations]], with protests being carried out in cities in Iran, [[Iraq]], [[Lebanon]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]]. Following the attack on its embassy in Iran, Saudi Arabia broke diplomatic relations with Iran and the Saudi foreign minister said that all Iranian diplomats were to leave the country within 48 hours.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35217328|title=Saudi Arabia cuts diplomatic ties with Iran|agency=BBC News|date=4 January 2016|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> For a long time now, Iran has wanted to be more involved in the affairs of the Middle East, including sharing benefits and responsibilities of being a dominant power in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/10/16/saudi-arabia-and-iran-may-finally-be-ready-for-rapprochement|title=Saudi Arabia and Iran may finally be ready for rapprochement|first=Imad K.|last=Harb|agency=Al Jazeera}}</ref>
-The difference of political ideologies and governance has also divided both countries. The Islamic Republic of Iran is based on the principle of [[Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist]], which holds that a [[faqīh]] (Islamic jurist) should have custodianship over all Muslim followers, including their governance and regardless of nationality. Iran's [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]] is a Shia faqīh. The founder of the [[Iranian revolution]] in 1979, [[Ayatollah Khomeini]], was ideologically opposed to monarchy, which he [[Political thought and legacy of Ruhollah Khomeini#Rulers|believed]] to be un-[[Islam]]ic. Saudi Arabia's monarchy, on the other hand, remains consistently conservative, not revolutionary, and politically married to age-old religious leaders of the tribes who support the monarchy and the king (namely the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques) is given absolute obedience as long as he does not violate Islamic [[sharia]] law.<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins |first=David |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2009 |page=115|quote="Saudi Arabia lacks a constitution that defines legislative authority and processes. Wahhabi doctrine, however, possesses a political theory, based on the views of the Philosopher Ibn Taymiyya, which requires Muslims to obey the ruler, even if he is a sinner. Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the ''Book of God's Unity'' had declared that to obey the rulers in permitting something forbidden by Islamic law is tantamount to idolatry. In Ibn Taymiyya's view, the only ground for disobedience to a ruler is if he commands a believer to violate something prohibited by the shari'a.}}</ref> Saudi Arabia has, however, a Shia minority which has made bitter complaints of institutional discrimination against it.<ref name="Saudi Arabia: Treat Shia Equally">[https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/09/02/saudi-arabia-treat-shia-equally Saudi Arabia: Treat Shia Equally]|hrw.org| 2009/09/02</ref> At some stages it has gone as far as to call for overthrowing the king and the entire system.<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins |first=David |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2009 |page=171 |quote=Tehran's efforts to export the revolution through leaflets, radio broadcasts and tape cassettes castigating Al Saud for corruption and hypocrisy found a receptive audience in the Eastern Province. On 28 November, Saudi Shiites summoned the courage to break the taboo on public religious expression by holding processions to celebrate the Islamic holy day of Ashura ... (both Sunni and Shia followers celebrate it but in different ways as per their individual beliefs, customs and rituals) ... on 1 February, the one-year anniversary of Ayatollah Khomeini's return to Iran, violent demonstrations again erupted. Crowds attacked banks and vehicles and hoisted placards with Khomeini's picture. The government responded to the February protests with a mix of coercion and cooptation. On the one hand, leading Shiite activists were arrested. On the other hand, a high official from the Interior Ministry met with Shiite representatives and acknowledged that Riyadh had neglected the region's development needs. ... extending electricity networks ... more schools and hospitals and improving sewage infrastructures.}}</ref> Another source of disagreement is the U.S. sanctions on Iran which have destroyed Iran's oil industry.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/06/saudi-arabia-and-iran-dont-like-each-other--how-are-they-at-opec.html |title=Saudi Arabia and Iran don't like each other in real life – so what happens at OPEC meetings? |website=[[CNBC]] |agency=[[CNBC]] |date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
+The difference in political ideologies and governing structures has also divided both countries. The Islamic Republic of Iran is based on the principle of [[Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist]], which holds that a [[faqīh]] (Islamic jurist) should have custodianship over all Muslim followers, including over traditional governors, such as monarchs, and regardless of nationality. Iran's [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]] is a Shia [[faqīh]]. The leader of the 1979 [[Iranian revolution]], [[Ayatollah Khomeini]], was ideologically opposed to monarchy, which he [[Political thought and legacy of Ruhollah Khomeini#Rulers|believed]] to be un-[[Islam]]ic. Saudi Arabia's monarchy, on the other hand, remains consistently conservative, and non-revolutionary. The king is politically tied to traditional religious leaders of the Arab tribes who support the monarchy and the king in his capacity as the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, and is thus given absolute obedience as long as he does not violate Islamic [[sharia]] law.<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins |first=David |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2009 |page=115|quote="Saudi Arabia lacks a constitution that defines legislative authority and processes. Wahhabi doctrine, however, possesses a political theory, based on the views of the Philosopher Ibn Taymiyya, which requires Muslims to obey the ruler, even if he is a sinner. Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the ''Book of God's Unity'' had declared that to obey the rulers in permitting something forbidden by Islamic law is tantamount to idolatry. In Ibn Taymiyya's view, the only ground for disobedience to a ruler is if he commands a believer to violate something prohibited by the shari'a.}}</ref> However, Saudi Arabia has a Shia minority which has made bitter complaints of institutional discrimination against it.<ref name="Saudi Arabia: Treat Shia Equally">[https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/09/02/saudi-arabia-treat-shia-equally Saudi Arabia: Treat Shia Equally]|hrw.org| 2009/09/02</ref> Sometimes, it has gone as far as to call for the abolition of the monarchy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins |first=David |title=The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2009 |page=171 |quote=Tehran's efforts to export the revolution through leaflets, radio broadcasts and tape cassettes castigating Al Saud for corruption and hypocrisy found a receptive audience in the Eastern Province. On 28 November, Saudi Shiites summoned the courage to break the taboo on public religious expression by holding processions to celebrate the Islamic holy day of Ashura ... (both Sunni and Shia followers celebrate it but in different ways as per their individual beliefs, customs and rituals) ... on 1 February, the one-year anniversary of Ayatollah Khomeini's return to Iran, violent demonstrations again erupted. Crowds attacked banks and vehicles and hoisted placards with Khomeini's picture. The government responded to the February protests with a mix of coercion and cooptation. On the one hand, leading Shiite activists were arrested. On the other hand, a high official from the Interior Ministry met with Shiite representatives and acknowledged that Riyadh had neglected the region's development needs. ... extending electricity networks ... more schools and hospitals and improving sewage infrastructures.}}</ref> Another source of disagreement is the U.S. sanctions on Iran which have destroyed Iran's oil industry.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/06/saudi-arabia-and-iran-dont-like-each-other--how-are-they-at-opec.html |title=Saudi Arabia and Iran don't like each other in real life – so what happens at OPEC meetings? |website=[[CNBC]] |agency=[[CNBC]] |date=6 December 2018}}</ref>
 ==History==
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 However, relations were not active until the 1960s mostly due to differences in religious practices and Iran's recognition of [[Israel]].<ref name=ack>{{cite journal|last=Ackerman |first=Harrison|title=Symptoms of Cold Warfare between Saudi Arabia and Iran: Part 1 of 3|journal=Journalism and Political Science|date=28 November 2011|volume=16 |url=http://www.nupoliticalreview.com/?p=940|access-date=11 August 2013}}</ref> In 1966 [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]] of Saudi Arabia visited Iran with the aim of further strengthening relationships between both neighboring countries. The Shah of Iran [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] reciprocated by paying an official visit to Saudi Arabia which eventually led to a peaceful resolution of the lands. Mohammad Reza supported Faisal's efforts regarding Islamic solidarity and actively contributed to the establishment of multinational Islamic institutions, including the Organization of the Islamic World Congress, [[Muslim World League|the Muslim World League]], and [[the Organization of the Islamic Conference]].<ref name=brooks99>{{cite news|last=Wrampelmeier|first=Brooks|title=Saudi-Iranian Relations 1932–1982|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Saudi-Iranian+Relations+1932-1982.-a054208508|access-date=11 August 2013|work=Middle East Policy|date=1 February 1999}}</ref>
-In 1968, Saudi Arabia and Iran signed a demarcation agreement.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mokhtari |first=Fariborz |title=No One Will Scratch My Back: Iranian Security Perceptions in Historical Context |journal=[[Middle East Journal]] |date=Spring 2005 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=209–229 |doi=10.3751/59.2.12 }}</ref> When the [[United Kingdom]] announced it would withdraw and vacate [[the Persian Gulf]] in the late 1960s,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Alvandi |first=Roham |title=Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The Origins of Iranian Primacy in the Persian Gulf |journal=Diplomatic History |year=2012 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=337–372
+In 1968, Saudi Arabia and Iran signed a demarcation agreement.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mokhtari |first=Fariborz |title=No One Will Scratch My Back: Iranian Security Perceptions in Historical Context |journal=[[Middle East Journal]] |date=Spring 2005 |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=209–229 |doi=10.3751/59.2.12 }}</ref> When the [[United Kingdom]] announced it would withdraw and vacate [[the Persian Gulf]] in the late 1960s,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Alvandi |first=Roham |title=Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The Origins of Iranian Primacy in the Persian Gulf |journal=Diplomatic History |year=2012 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=337–372 |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/32743/1/Nixon,_Kissinger,_and_the_Shah_the_origins_of_Iranian_primacy_in_the_Persian_Gulf_(LSE_RO).pdf |access-date=2 August 2013 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.2011.01025.x |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130720224433/http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/32743/1/Nixon%2C_Kissinger%2C_and_the_Shah_the_origins_of_Iranian_primacy_in_the_Persian_Gulf_%28LSE_RO%29.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2013}}</ref> Iran and Saudi Arabia took the primary responsibility for peace and security in the region. In the late 1960s, the Shah sent a series of letters to King Faisal, urging him to modernize Saudi Arabia, saying, "Please, my brother, modernize. Open up your country. Make the schools mixed women and men. Let women wear [[miniskirt]]s. Have [[disco]]s. Be modern. Otherwise I cannot guarantee you will stay on your throne."<ref name=ela4nov>{{cite news|last=Sciolino|first=Elaine|title=U.S. Pondering Saudis' Vulnerability|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/04/world/a-nation-challenged-ally-s-future-us-pondering-saudis-vulnerability.html|access-date=12 August 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 November 2001|location=Washington}}</ref> In response, King Faisal wrote, "Your majesty, I appreciate your advice. May I remind you, you are not the Shah of [[France]]. You are not in the [[Élysée]]. You are in Iran. Your population is [[Religion in Iran|90 percent Muslim]]. Please don't forget that."<ref name=ela4nov />
 During the 1970s, Saudi Arabia's main concerns over Iran were firstly, Iran's modernisation of its military and its military dominance all over the region; secondly, Iran's repossession of the islands of [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs|Big Tunb, Little Tunb]] and [[Abu Musa]] in 1971 which challenged the claim of the [[United Arab Emirates]] over the islands. The dispute remains till today.<ref name="Afrasiab">{{cite news|first=Kaven L. |last=Afrasiab |title=Saudi-Iran Tension Fuel Wider Conflict |work=Asia Times |date=6 December 2006 |url=http://www.atimes.com/atime/Middle_East/HLO6AKo4.html}}{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> But the relationship between Iran and Saudi Arabia was never as friendly as between the years 1968 and 1979.<ref name=ack /><ref>Iran and Saudi Arabia: External "Game Cocks?" Henner Furtig.</ref>
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 ====1987 Hajj incident====
 {{Main|1987 Mecca incident}}
-Until 1987, no satisfactory resolution was made to decrease the tension between Iran and Saudi Arabia. The already strained relationship between the two countries further deteriorated when [[1987 Mecca incident|clashes]] occurred between Iranian-led demonstrators and Saudi security forces on 31 July 1987.<ref name=amiri>{{cite journal|last=Amiri|first=Reza Ekhtiari|author2=Ku Hasnita Binti Ku Samsu |author3=Hassan Gholipour Fereidouni|title=The Hajj and Iran's Foreign Policy towards Saudi Arabia|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|year=2011|volume=46|issue=678|pages=678–690|doi=10.1177/0021909611417546|s2cid=143799946 |url=http://jas.sagepub.com/content/46/6/678}}</ref> The clash claimed the lives of around 400 pilgrims, out of which the majority had Iranian nationality.<ref>{{cite news |title=A history of hajj tragedies |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jan/13/saudiarabia |access-date=11 March 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=13 January 2006}}</ref> Angry protesters in [[Tehran]] responded by ransacking the Saudi [[embassy]] and reportedly detained four Saudis from the embassy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kifner |first1=John |title=400 DIE AS IRANIAN MARCHERS BATTLE SAUDI POLICE IN MECCA; EMBASSIES SMASHED IN TEHERAN |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/02/world/400-die-iranian-marchers-battle-saudi-police-mecca-embassies-smashed-teheran.html |access-date=13 March 2023 |work=The New York Times |date=2 August 1987}}</ref> In response, Saudi Arabia reduced the number of Iranian pilgrims permitted on the Hajj, then cut its diplomatic relations with Iran on 27 April 1988.<ref name=mehko>{{cite book|author1=Mehrzad Boroujerdi|author2=Kourosh Rahimkhani|title=Postrevolutionary Iran. A Political Handbook|date=2018|publisher=Syracuse University Press|location=Syracuse, NY|isbn=978-0815635741|page=21|url=https://irandataportal.syr.edu/postrevolutionary-iran-a-political-handbook}}</ref><ref name="Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East 176-177">{{cite book |last1=Kramer |first1=Martin Seth |title=Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East |date=31 December 2011 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-1739-4 |pages=176–177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jjM74ZYS5kC&pg=PA176 |access-date=13 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In response, the Iranian government boycotted the Hajj for three years, saying that Saudi Arabia was preventing pilgrims from going on the Hajj.<ref name="Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East 176-177"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi-Iran war of words escalates over Hajj row |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/9/8/saudi-iran-war-of-words-escalates-over-hajj-row |access-date=13 March 2023 |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> The diplomatic relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia were not restored for three years after this incident.<ref name=mehko/>
+Until 1987, no satisfactory resolution was made to decrease the tension between Iran and Saudi Arabia. The already strained relationship between the two countries further deteriorated when [[1987 Mecca incident|clashes]] occurred between Iranian-led demonstrators and Saudi security forces on 31 July 1987.<ref name=amiri>{{cite journal|last=Amiri|first=Reza Ekhtiari|author2=Ku Hasnita Binti Ku Samsu |author3=Hassan Gholipour Fereidouni|title=The Hajj and Iran's Foreign Policy towards Saudi Arabia|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|year=2011|volume=46|issue=678|pages=678–690|doi=10.1177/0021909611417546|s2cid=143799946 |url=http://jas.sagepub.com/content/46/6/678}}</ref> The clash claimed the lives of around 400 pilgrims, out of which the majority had Iranian nationality.<ref>{{cite news |title=A history of hajj tragedies |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jan/13/saudiarabia |access-date=11 March 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=13 January 2006}}</ref> Angry protesters in [[Tehran]] responded by ransacking the Saudi [[embassy]] and reportedly detained four Saudis from the embassy.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kifner |first1=John |title=400 DIE AS IRANIAN MARCHERS BATTLE SAUDI POLICE IN MECCA; EMBASSIES SMASHED IN TEHERAN |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/02/world/400-die-iranian-marchers-battle-saudi-police-mecca-embassies-smashed-teheran.html |access-date=13 March 2023 |work=The New York Times |date=2 August 1987}}</ref> In response, Saudi Arabia reduced the number of Iranian pilgrims permitted on the Hajj, then cut its diplomatic relations with Iran on 27 April 1988.<ref name=mehko>{{cite book|author1=Mehrzad Boroujerdi|author2=Kourosh Rahimkhani|title=Postrevolutionary Iran. A Political Handbook|date=2018|publisher=Syracuse University Press|location=Syracuse, NY|isbn=978-0815635741|page=21|url=https://irandataportal.syr.edu/postrevolutionary-iran-a-political-handbook|access-date=29 August 2021|archive-date=21 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921151947/https://irandataportal.syr.edu/postrevolutionary-iran-a-political-handbook|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East 176-177">{{cite book |last1=Kramer |first1=Martin Seth |title=Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East |date=31 December 2011 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-1739-4 |pages=176–177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0jjM74ZYS5kC&pg=PA176 |access-date=13 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In response, the Iranian government boycotted the Hajj for three years, saying that Saudi Arabia was preventing pilgrims from going on the Hajj.<ref name="Arab Awakening and Islamic Revival: The Politics of Ideas in the Middle East 176-177"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi-Iran war of words escalates over Hajj row |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/9/8/saudi-iran-war-of-words-escalates-over-hajj-row |access-date=13 March 2023 |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> The diplomatic relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia were not restored for three years after this incident.<ref name=mehko/>
 ====Post Iran–Iraq War====
@@ Line 96: / Line 96: @@
 ====Leaked diplomatic cables====
-In November 2010, [[United States diplomatic cables leak|leaked diplomatic cables]] revealed that [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|King Abdullah]] urged the US to attack Iran to destroy its [[Nuclear program of Iran|nuclear weapons programme]], describing Iran as a snake whose head should be cut off without any procrastination.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 November 2010 |title=Wikileaks and Iran |url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2010-11-29/news/ct-edit-wiki-20101129_1_iran-s-arab-nuclear-program-diplomats |access-date=5 December 2010 |work=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref> The documents were dismissed by Iranian president [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], claiming them to be "organised to be released on a regular basis."<ref name="regular basis">{{cite news |date=29 November 2010 |title=Iran's Ahmadinejad dismisses Wikileaks cables release |agency=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-11860435 |access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref>
+In November 2010, [[United States diplomatic cables leak|leaked diplomatic cables]] revealed that [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|King Abdullah]] urged the US to attack Iran to destroy its [[Nuclear program of Iran|nuclear weapons programme]], describing Iran as a snake whose head should be cut off without any procrastination.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 November 2010 |title=Wikileaks and Iran |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2010/11/29/wikileaks-and-iran/ |access-date=5 December 2010 |work=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref> The documents were dismissed by Iranian president [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], claiming them to be "organised to be released on a regular basis."<ref name="regular basis">{{cite news |date=29 November 2010 |title=Iran's Ahmadinejad dismisses Wikileaks cables release |agency=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-11860435 |access-date=9 May 2011}}</ref>
 ====2011 Iran assassination plot====
@@ Line 119: / Line 119: @@
 [[File:Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Tehran.jpg|300px|thumbnail|Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Tehran under Iranian police protection after Mina stampede crisis.]]
 {{see also|2015 Hajj stampede}}
-The [[2015 Hajj stampede]] escalated tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran due to the deaths of Iranian pilgrims in the stampede. Iranian leaders accused Saudi authorities of being responsible for the disaster.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/25/iran-blames-saudi-government-hajj-disaster-investigation|title=Iran blames Saudi leaders for hajj disaster as investigation begins|first=Ian |last=Black|work=The Guardian|date=25 September 2015|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWWXFg1isy0|title=Rouhani: Transfer of experienced Saudi troops to Yemen may have caused stampede|date=25 September 2015|access-date=4 January 2016|via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/un-assembly-iran-idINKCN0RP1R720150926|title=Iran's Rouhani: US ties better but still a long road to travel|author=Dayan Candappa|date=26 September 2015|agency=Reuters India|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> A Saudi Prince, Dr. Khalid bin Abdullah bin Fahd bin Farhan Al Saud tweeted that : "Under the threat of the enemy Zoroastrians — historically – to the Kingdom – it is time to think – seriously – to ban Iranians from coming to Mecca to preserve the safety of the pilgrims".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/dr_khalidalsaud/status/647116556355244032|title=د. خــالـد آل سـعـود|publisher=Twitter|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref>
+The [[2015 Hajj stampede]] escalated tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran due to the deaths of Iranian pilgrims in the stampede. Iranian leaders accused Saudi authorities of being responsible for the disaster.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/25/iran-blames-saudi-government-hajj-disaster-investigation|title=Iran blames Saudi leaders for hajj disaster as investigation begins|first=Ian |last=Black|work=The Guardian|date=25 September 2015|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWWXFg1isy0|title=Rouhani: Transfer of experienced Saudi troops to Yemen may have caused stampede|date=25 September 2015|access-date=4 January 2016|via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/un-assembly-iran-idINKCN0RP1R720150926|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131115919/http://in.reuters.com/article/un-assembly-iran-idINKCN0RP1R720150926|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 January 2016|title=Iran's Rouhani: US ties better but still a long road to travel|author=Dayan Candappa|date=26 September 2015|agency=Reuters India|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> A Saudi Prince, Dr. Khalid bin Abdullah bin Fahd bin Farhan Al Saud tweeted that : "Under the threat of the enemy Zoroastrians — historically – to the Kingdom – it is time to think – seriously – to ban Iranians from coming to Mecca to preserve the safety of the pilgrims".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/dr_khalidalsaud/status/647116556355244032|title=د. خــالـد آل سـعـود|publisher=Twitter|access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref>
 ====2016 execution of Nimr al-Nimr====
@@ Line 145: / Line 145: @@
 ====International efforts to normalize relations====
-There were international efforts going on to normalize the relations between two countries following the crisis which started with the execution of [[Nimr al-Nimr|Sheikh Nimr]]. In 2016, Pakistan's prime minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] and Chief of Army Staff [[Raheel Sharif]] visited Riyadh and Tehran, following high level visits from Saudi Arabia to [[Islamabad]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewsteller.com/pakistan/pm-nawaz-coas-raheel-leaves-for-tehran-after-saudi-arabia/31595/|title=PM Nawaz, COAS Raheel leaves for Tehran, after Saudi Arabia|work=thenewsteller.com|access-date=19 January 2016}}</ref>
+There were international efforts going on to normalize the relations between two countries following the crisis which started with the execution of [[Nimr al-Nimr|Sheikh Nimr]]. In 2016, Pakistan's prime minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] and Chief of Army Staff [[Raheel Sharif]] visited Riyadh and Tehran, following high level visits from Saudi Arabia to [[Islamabad]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewsteller.com/pakistan/pm-nawaz-coas-raheel-leaves-for-tehran-after-saudi-arabia/31595/|title=PM Nawaz, COAS Raheel leaves for Tehran, after Saudi Arabia|work=thenewsteller.com|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707061858/http://www.thenewsteller.com/pakistan/pm-nawaz-coas-raheel-leaves-for-tehran-after-saudi-arabia/31595/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 Pakistan's opposition leader [[Imran Khan]] visited the embassies of Iran and Saudi Arabia and met their head of commissions in Islamabad on 8 January 2016 to understand their stance regarding the conflict. He urged the [[Government of Pakistan]] to play a positive role to resolve the matter between both countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nation.com.pk/national/09-Jan-2016/imran-wants-govt-to-mediate-in-saudi-iran-conflict|title=Imran wants govt to mediate in Saudi-Iran conflict|date=9 January 2016|work=The Nation|access-date=9 January 2016}}</ref>
@@ Line 173: / Line 173: @@
 ====Challenged relations after escalation of Israel–Iran tensions====
-During the [[Israel–Hamas war]], a majority of the Saudi population stood behind the Palestinians and sympathised with their suffering, and subsequent to the suspected [[Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus]] the leadership of Saudi Arabia had rejected categorically the targeting of diplomatic facilities for any justification.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia condemns targeting of Iranian consulate in Syria |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2486601/saudi-arabia2024 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=Arab News |language=en}} </ref> However, during the [[2024 Iranian strikes in Israel]], Saudi Arabia assisted Israel along with [[Jordan]] with the defence of Israel and their own territories.<ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/report-gulf-states-including-saudi-arabia-provided-intelligence-on-iran-attack/ "Report: Gulf states, including Saudi Arabia, provided intelligence on Iran attack"] ''The Times of Israel''. Retrieved April 17 2024.</ref> These events had further complicated Saudi relations with Iran. In order to maintain an acceptable approach to lower tensions in the Middle East, some analysts have emphasised the increased economic ties with Iran, which though stand in sharp contrast with the renewed efforts by Europe and the U.S. to further increase sanctions against Iran and its proxies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alsudairi |first=Mohammed |last2=Saif |first2=Bader Al |date=2024-04-12 |title=The Iran-Saudi agreement has survived a year – here’s how it can survive another |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/11/the-iran-saudi-agreement-survived-a-year-heres-how-it-can-survive-another/ |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=The National |language=en}}</ref>
+During the [[Israel–Hamas war]], a majority of the Saudi population stood behind the Palestinians and sympathised with their suffering, and subsequent to the suspected [[Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus]] the leadership of Saudi Arabia had rejected categorically the targeting of diplomatic facilities for any justification.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia condemns targeting of Iranian consulate in Syria |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2486601/saudi-arabia2024 |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=Arab News |language=en}} </ref> However, during the [[April 2024 Iranian strikes against Israel|April 2024 Iranian strikes in Israel]], Saudi Arabia assisted Israel along with [[Jordan]] with the defence of Israel and their own territories.<ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/report-gulf-states-including-saudi-arabia-provided-intelligence-on-iran-attack/ "Report: Gulf states, including Saudi Arabia, provided intelligence on Iran attack"] ''The Times of Israel''. Retrieved April 17 2024.</ref> These events had further complicated Saudi relations with Iran. In order to maintain an acceptable approach to lower tensions in the Middle East, some analysts have emphasised the increased economic ties with Iran, which though stand in sharp contrast with the renewed efforts by Europe and the U.S. to further increase sanctions against Iran and its proxies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alsudairi |first=Mohammed |last2=Saif |first2=Bader Al |date=2024-04-12 |title=The Iran-Saudi agreement has survived a year – here’s how it can survive another |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2024/04/11/the-iran-saudi-agreement-survived-a-year-heres-how-it-can-survive-another/ |access-date=2024-04-17 |website=The National |language=en}}</ref>
+In early October 2024, during a conference on the anniversary of the [[Al-Aqsa]] Storm operation, held in [[Tehran]], Iranian foreign minister [[Abbas Araghchi]] announced his upcoming visit to [[Riyadh]] to discuss a ceasefire and the atrocities committed by Israel. After visiting  [[Doha]], [[Beirut]] and [[Damascus]], Araghchi reaffirmed his stance to not further escalate the war in the Middle East while at the same time supporting resistance movements against Israel. Saudi Arabia has ascertained its neutrality in the conflict.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iran-foreign-minister-visit-saudi-arabia-regional-countries-2024-10-08/ "Iran foreign minister to visit Saudi Arabia, regional countries"] ''Reuters''. October 8, 2024 . Accessed October 8 2024.</ref> Later that month, Iran warned all the Gulf states not to allow any action against Iran by using their airspace. Arab officials have indicated that Iran would retaliate against these states if their territories or airspace were used in such operations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-09 |title=Iran reportedly warns Arab states against Israeli use of airspace for attacks |url=https://www.iranintl.com/en/202410096899 |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=Iran International |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-10-10 |title=Iran's Secret Warning to U.S. Allies: Don't Help Israel, or You're Next |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/irans-secret-warning-to-u-s-allies-dont-help-israel-or-youre-next-ccfa5fa0?mod=hp_lead_pos4 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> In November 2024, Saudi [[Chairman of the General Staff|Chief of General Staff]] [[Fayyadh Al Ruwaili|Fayyad al-Ruwaili]] met his Iranian counterpart [[Mohammad Bagheri (Iranian commander)|Mohammad Bagheri]] in Tehran. During the meeting, Ruwaili discussed increasing cooperation between the two countries security forces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-10 |title=Saudi armed forces chief visits Iranian counterpart for rare meeting |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/10/saudi-armed-forces-chief-visits-iranian-counterpart-for-rare-meeting |access-date=2024-11-13 |website=[[Al Jazeera]] |language=en}}</ref>
+Since the eruption of the [[Hamas-Israel war]], Saudi Arabia has challenged the [[Abraham accords]] when it re-established diplomatic relations with Iran. The Gulf states have favored regional diplomacy over war and de-escalation. In late 2024, the Abraham accords appear to be stalled in light of the ongoing conflict in [[Palestine]], [[Israel]] and the [[Lebanon]].<ref>[https://www.stimson.org/2024/walking-a-tightrope-how-gulf-states-are-navigating-the-iran-israel-conflict/ "Walking a Tightrope: How Gulf States are Navigating the Iran-Israel Conflict"] stimson.org. Accessed Nov 15 2024.</ref>
 ==Sectarian basis for tensions==
@@ Line 188: / Line 192: @@
 {{see also|Saudi Arabia–Turkey relations|Iran–Turkey relations}}
-Although the conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran has been mostly between themselves, the two nations are also becoming more increasingly tangled in a triangle conflict after [[neo-Ottomanism|neo-Ottomanist]] Turkey, led by [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], demonstrated the desire to restore the Ottoman order that was once imposed at the expense of the Iranians and the Saudis since the 2010s. Due to the historical enmities of Turkey towards both Iran and Saudi Arabia, the two countries' attitudes toward Turkey also have some impacts on Tehran and Riyadh's political decisions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/enemies-or-allies-the-new-middle-east-turkey-iran-and-saudi-arabia|title=Enemies or Allies in the New Middle East? Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia |publisher=Wilson Center}}</ref> Iran has had a complex relationship with Turkey, being Iran's major economic partner but also an enemy due to Turkey and Iran backing various proxy groups fighting each other while Saudi Arabia's relations with Turkey have deteriorated due to Turkish ambitions to restore the Turkish influence at the expense of Riyadh's power; it was in some aspect that Saudi Arabia and Iran found itself involuntarily on the same side, notably during the [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict]] when both Saudi Arabia and Iran back the Kurds against Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/commentisfree/2019/oct/12/turkey-invasion-syria-trump-withdrawal-gulf-rivals-unite#comments|title=Erdoğan has managed the unthinkable: Uniting all the other Middle East rivals |author=Simon Tisdall|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=12 October 2019}}</ref>
+Although the conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran has been mostly between themselves, the two nations are also becoming more increasingly tangled in a triangle conflict after [[neo-Ottomanism|neo-Ottomanist]] Turkey, led by [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], demonstrated the desire to restore the Ottoman order that was once imposed at the expense of the Iranians and the Saudis, since the 2010s. Due to the historical enmities of Turkey towards both Iran and Saudi Arabia, the two countries' attitudes toward Turkey also have some impacts on Tehran and Riyadh's political decisions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/enemies-or-allies-the-new-middle-east-turkey-iran-and-saudi-arabia|title=Enemies or Allies in the New Middle East? Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia |publisher=Wilson Center}}</ref> Iran has had a complex relationship with Turkey, being Iran's major economic partner but also an enemy due to Turkey and Iran backing various proxy groups fighting each other while Saudi Arabia's relations with Turkey have deteriorated due to Turkish ambitions to restore the Turkish influence at the expense of Riyadh's power; it was in some aspect that Saudi Arabia and Iran found itself involuntarily on the same side, notably during the [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict]] when both Saudi Arabia and Iran back the Kurds against Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/commentisfree/2019/oct/12/turkey-invasion-syria-trump-withdrawal-gulf-rivals-unite#comments|title=Erdoğan has managed the unthinkable: Uniting all the other Middle East rivals |author=Simon Tisdall|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=12 October 2019}}</ref>
 {{see also|Qatar-Saudi Arabia relations|Iran–Qatar relations}}
@@ Line 205: / Line 209: @@
 Prior to this visit, Saudi National Security advisor Prince Bandar bin Sultan, seen as one of the most pro-American figures in the region, had made a trip to Tehran to voice his government's interest in building harmonious relations with Iran.<ref>Mafinezam, Alidad. ''Iran And Its Place Among Nations'', Greenwood Press, Westport, 2008, p. 70.</ref> During Iranian President Ahmadinejad's 3 March 2007 visit, he discussed with King Abdullah the need to protect the Islamic world from enemy "conspiracies."<ref>Tarek Al-Issawi, "[https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=ac1VCSyQnRm0&refer=home Saudi Arabia Warns Against Attack on Iran Over Nuclear Issue]" [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]]. 2007.</ref>
-In 2007, President Ahmadinejad was the first Iranian leader to attend the annual summit of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] (GCC), which was established in 1980 in part to contain the ambitions of revolutionary Iran.<ref>"[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/22063268/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/t/iran-ahmadinejad-attend-gulf-arab-summit/#.WR9PqTe1uVM Iran: Ahmadinejad to attend Gulf Arab summit]" [[Associated Press]]. 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi King Invites Iranian President Ahmadinejad to Mecca for Hajj |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2007-12-19/ty-article/saudi-king-invites-iranian-president-ahmadinejad-to-mecca-for-hajj/0000017f-dbd4-db5a-a57f-dbfe41e90000 |access-date=14 March 2023 |work=Haaretz |agency=Reuters |date=19 December 2007 |language=en}}</ref> This visit by the President of Iran was an event which signaled a possible change in relations. The same year, at Saudi Arabia's invitation, Ahmadinejad traveled to Saudi Arabia to take part in the annual Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.<ref>{{cite news |title=Iranian leader attends Hajj ritual |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/12/17/ahmadinejad.hajj/ |access-date=14 March 2023 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ahmadinejad on pilgrimage to Makkah, invited by King Abdullah |url=https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Ahmadinejad-on-pilgrimage-to-Makkah,-invited-by-King-Abdullah-11029.html |access-date=14 March 2023 |work=www.asianews.it |language=en}}</ref>
+In 2007, President Ahmadinejad was the first Iranian leader to attend the annual summit of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] (GCC), which was established in 1980 in part to contain the ambitions of revolutionary Iran.<ref>"[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna22063268 Iran: Ahmadinejad to attend Gulf Arab summit]" [[Associated Press]]. 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi King Invites Iranian President Ahmadinejad to Mecca for Hajj |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2007-12-19/ty-article/saudi-king-invites-iranian-president-ahmadinejad-to-mecca-for-hajj/0000017f-dbd4-db5a-a57f-dbfe41e90000 |access-date=14 March 2023 |work=Haaretz |agency=Reuters |date=19 December 2007 |language=en}}</ref> This visit by the President of Iran was an event which signaled a possible change in relations. The same year, at Saudi Arabia's invitation, Ahmadinejad traveled to Saudi Arabia to take part in the annual Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca.<ref>{{cite news |title=Iranian leader attends Hajj ritual |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/12/17/ahmadinejad.hajj/ |access-date=14 March 2023 |publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ahmadinejad on pilgrimage to Makkah, invited by King Abdullah |url=https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Ahmadinejad-on-pilgrimage-to-Makkah,-invited-by-King-Abdullah-11029.html |access-date=14 March 2023 |work=www.asianews.it |language=en}}</ref>
 On 11 October 2011 [[US Attorney General]] [[Eric Holder]] accused Iran of [[Adel al-Jubeir assassination plot|planning to assassinate]] the Saudi Arabian ambassador to the United States Adel Al-Jubbair.<ref name="ABC News"/>
@@ Line 218: / Line 222: @@
 * [[Iran–Saudi Arabia football rivalry]]
 * [[Arab League–Iran relations]]
+* [[International propagation of Salafism]]
 ==Further reading==

v t e Iran–Saudi Arabia relations
Diplomatic posts	Ambassadors of Iran to Saudi Arabia Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Tehran Ambassadors of Saudi Arabia to Iran
Diplomacy	Safari Club
Conflicts	Iranian revolution 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Arab separatism in Khuzestan Qatif conflict 1979 Qatif Uprising Iran–Iraq War Action of June 5, 1984 Qatar–Saudi Arabia diplomatic conflict Qatar diplomatic crisis 2011 Egyptian revolution 2011 Bahraini uprising Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain insurgency in Bahrain 2011 Libyan civil war Syrian civil war Hezbollah involvement Iranian involvement Saudi involvement Spillover in Lebanon Axis of Resistance Iranian intervention in Iraq Yemeni crisis Houthi insurgency Operation Scorched Earth Operation Blow to the Head Yemeni revolution Yemeni civil war Saudi-led intervention in Yemen Houthi–Saudi Arabian conflict Houthi takeover in Yemen Second Libyan civil war Western Iran clashes
Incidents	1987 Mecca incident Khobar Towers bombing 2011–2012 Saudi Arabian protests 2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution Execution of Nimr al-Nimr 2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran 2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution 2011 alleged Iran assassination plot 2015 Mina stampede 2017 Lebanon–Saudi Arabia dispute 2017–2020 Qatif unrest 2018 Riyadh missile strike International Maritime Security Construct United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231 May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident 2019 Afif attack Abha International Airport attacks Abqaiq–Khurais attack
Iranian relations with GCC member states	Bahrain Kuwait Oman Qatar United Arab Emirates
Related	Iran–Saudi Arabia football rivalry Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Iran–Israel proxy conflict Arab League–Iran relations Arab–Israeli alliance Warsaw Middle East conference Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition Opposition to military action against Iran Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition Gulf Cooperation Council People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran Iran International Shia–Sunni relations Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia
Category:Iran–Saudi Arabia relations

v t e Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict
Background	Iranian revolution 1979 Khuzestan insurgency Arab separatism in Khuzestan Qatif conflict 1979 Qatif Uprising
Conflicts	Iran–Iraq War Action of June 5, 1984 Qatar–Saudi Arabia diplomatic conflict Qatar diplomatic crisis 2011 Egyptian revolution 2011 Bahraini uprising Saudi-led intervention in Bahrain insurgency in Bahrain First Libyan civil war Syrian civil war Hezbollah involvement Iranian involvement Saudi involvement Spillover in Lebanon Axis of Resistance War in Iraq (2013–2017) Iranian intervention in Iraq Yemeni crisis Houthi insurgency Operation Scorched Earth Operation Blow to the Head Yemeni revolution Yemeni civil war Saudi-led intervention in Yemen Houthi–Saudi Arabian conflict Houthi takeover in Yemen Second Libyan civil war Western Iran clashes
Incidents	1987 Mecca incident Khobar Towers bombing 2011–2012 Saudi Arabian protests 2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution Execution of Nimr al-Nimr 2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran 2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution 2011 alleged Iran assassination plot 2015 Mina stampede 2017 Lebanon–Saudi Arabia dispute 2017–2020 Qatif unrest 2018 Riyadh missile strike International Maritime Security Construct United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231 May 2019 Gulf of Oman incident 2019 Afif attack Abha International Airport attacks Abqaiq–Khurais attack
Iranian relations with GCC member states	Bahrain Kuwait Oman Qatar United Arab Emirates
Related topics	Iran and state-sponsored terrorism Iran–Israel proxy conflict Arab League–Iran relations Arab–Israeli alliance against Iran Warsaw Middle East conference Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition Opposition to military action against Iran Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition Gulf Cooperation Council People's Mujahedin of Iran Iran International Shia–Sunni relations Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia
Category:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

v t e Foreign relations of Iran
Africa	Algeria Burkina Faso Egypt Gambia Ghana Kenya Libya Morocco Senegal South Africa Sudan Tunisia
Americas	Argentina Bolivia Brazil Canada Cuba Ecuador Mexico United States after 1979 Uruguay Venezuela
Asia	Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh China Georgia History India Indonesia Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Malaysia North Korea Oman Pakistan Palestine Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia South Korea Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen
Europe	Albania Belarus Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Holy See Hungary Italy Kosovo Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom
Oceania	Australia
Former	Czechoslovakia Rome Yugoslavia
Multilateral relations	Arab League European Union NATO
Disputes	Nuclear program Views Iran–Israel proxy conflict Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict Israeli–Sunni Coalition Sanctions U.S. sanctions
Related	Ministry of Foreign Affairs Minister of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic missions of / in Iran Trade Promotion Organization of Iran Foreign direct investment in Iran Propaganda in Iran Iranian diaspora Ambassadors from Iran Foreign policy of the Masoud Pezeshkian administration

v t e Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia
Africa	Algeria Egypt Kenya Libya Morocco Nigeria Senegal South Africa Sudan Tanzania Tunisia	Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia
Americas	Brazil Canada Mexico Peru United States
Asia	Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh China India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Myanmar Oman Pakistan Palestine Philippines Qatar Russia Singapore South Korea Syria Taiwan Thailand Turkey United Arab Emirates Vietnam Yemen
Europe	Austria Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Denmark France Germany Greece Holy See Italy Kosovo Norway Poland Romania Russia Serbia Spain Sweden Ukraine United Kingdom
Oceania	Australia
Multilateral relations	Arab–Israeli alliance against Iran Arab League Arab Peace Initiative Gulf Cooperation Council
Diplomatic missions	Diplomatic missions of Saudi Arabia / in Saudi Arabia