Automobile drag coefficient: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Revision as of 11:02, 26 November 2024

The drag coefficient is a common measure in automotive design as it pertains to aerodynamics. Drag is a force that acts parallel to and in the same direction as the airflow. The drag coefficient of an automobile measures the way the automobile passes through the surrounding air. When automobile companies design a new vehicle they take into consideration the automobile drag coefficient in addition to the other performance characteristics. Aerodynamic drag increases with the square of speed; therefore it becomes critically important at higher speeds. Reducing the drag coefficient in an automobile improves the performance of the vehicle as it pertains to speed and fuel efficiency.^[1] There are many different ways to reduce the drag of a vehicle. A common way to measure the drag of the vehicle is through the drag area.

The importance of drag reduction

The reduction of drag in road vehicles has led to increases in the top speed of the vehicle and the vehicle's fuel efficiency, as well as many other performance characteristics, such as handling and acceleration.^[2] The two main factors that impact drag are the frontal area of the vehicle and the drag coefficient. The drag coefficient is a unit-less value that denotes how much an object resists movement through a fluid such as water or air. A potential complication of altering a vehicle's aerodynamics is that it may cause the vehicle to get too much lift. Lift is an aerodynamic force that acts perpendicular to the airflow around the body of the vehicle. Too much lift can cause the vehicle to lose road traction which can be very unsafe.^[3] Lowering the drag coefficient comes from streamlining the exterior body of the vehicle. Streamlining the body requires assumptions about the surrounding airspeed and characteristic use of the vehicle.

Cars that try to reduce drag employ devices such as spoilers, wings, diffusers, and fins to reduce drag and increase speed in one direction.^[4]

Drag area

While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The product of drag coefficient and area – drag area – is represented as CdA (or C_xA), a multiplication of Cd value by area.

The term drag area derives from aerodynamics, where it is the product of some reference area (such as cross-sectional area, total surface area, or similar) and the drag coefficient. In 2003, Car and Driver magazine adopted this metric as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles.

The force F required to overcome drag is calculated with the drag equation: $F={\tfrac {1}{2}}\times {\text{air density}}\times {\text{drag coefficient}}\times {\text{reference area}}\times {\text{speed}}^{2}$ Therefore: $F={\tfrac {1}{2}}\times {\text{air density}}\times \mathbf {\text{drag area}} \times {\text{speed}}^{2}$ Where the drag coefficient and reference area have been collapsed into the drag area term. This allows direct estimation of the drag force at a given speed for any vehicle for which only the drag area is known and therefore easier comparison. As drag area CdA is the fundamental value that determines power required for a given cruise speed it is a critical parameter for fuel consumption at a steady speed. This relation also allows an estimation of the new top speed of a car with a tuned engine:

{\text{estimated top speed}}={\text{original top speed}}\times {\sqrt[{3}]{\frac {\text{new power}}{\text{original power}}}}

Or the power required for a target top speed:

{\text{power required}}={\text{original power}}\times \left({\frac {\text{target speed}}{\text{original speed}}}\right)^{3}

Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8 sq ft (0.74 m²). Reported drag areas range from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.1 sq ft (0.47 m²) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.5 sq ft (2.46 m²). The drag area of a bicycle (and rider) is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m²).^[5]

Typical drag coefficients

The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle. Various other characteristics affect the coefficient of drag as well, and are taken into account in these examples. Some sports cars have a surprisingly high drag coefficient (such as the Ariel Atom at 0.40), but this is to compensate for the amount of lift the vehicle generates, while others use aerodynamics to their advantage to gain speed and as a result have much lower drag coefficients.

Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model, which may not be available in some markets. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires, extra spoilers and larger cooling systems as many basic/low power models have half size radiators with the remaining area blanked off to reduce cooling and engine bay drag.

The Cd of a given vehicle will vary depending on which wind tunnel it is measured in. Variations of up to 5% have been documented^[6] and variations in test technique and analysis can also make a difference. So if the same vehicle with a drag coefficient of Cd=0.30 was measured in a different tunnel it could be anywhere from Cd=0.285 to Cd=0.315.

Typical drag coefficients

The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle. Various other characteristics affect the coefficient of drag as well, and are taken into account in these examples. Some sports cars have a surprisingly high drag coefficient (such as the Ariel Atom at 0.40), but this is to compensate for the amount of lift the vehicle generates, while others use aerodynamics to their advantage to gain speed and as a result have much lower drag coefficients.

Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model, which may not be available in some markets. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires, extra spoilers and larger cooling systems as many basic/low power models have half size radiators with the remaining area blanked off to reduce cooling and engine bay drag.

The Cd of a given vehicle will vary depending on which wind tunnel it is measured in. Variations of up to 5% have been documented^[7] and variations in test technique and analysis can also make a difference. So if the same vehicle with a drag coefficient of Cd=0.30 was measured in a different tunnel it could be anywhere from Cd=0.285 to Cd=0.315.

Production cars
Cd	Automobile	Calendar Year
0.7 to 1.1	typical values for a Formula One car (downforce settings change for each circuit)
0.74	Legends car
0.7	Caterham Seven
0.65 to 0.75	Lotus Seven	1957–1972
0.6 +	a typical truck
0.59^[8]	Land Rover Defender	2008
0.57	Hummer H2	2003
0.54	Mercedes Benz G-Class
0.51	Volkswagen Westfalia Camper	1980-1991
0.51	Citroën 2CV	1948
0.48	Rover Mini	1998
0.48	Volkswagen Beetle (original design)^[9]^[10]	1938
0.48	Volkswagen Cabriolet (Rabbit Convertible)^[11]	1979–1993
0.47	Lancia Aprilia^[12]	1937
0.46	Ford Mustang (coupe)	1979
0.46	Lincoln Town Car (sedan)	1985-1989^[13]
0.454^[14]	Jeep Wrangler (JL)	2018
0.45	Dodge Viper RT/10	1996
0.45	Mercury Grand Marquis (sedan)	1988-1991^[15]
0.45	Range Rover Classic	1990
0.45	Volkswagen Gol G1	1980
0.44	Volkswagen Vanagon	1980-1991
0.44	Ford Mustang (fastback)	1979
0.44	Peugeot 305	1978
0.44	Peugeot 504	1968
0.44	Toyota Truck	1990
0.43	TVR 3000S	1978-79
0.425	Duple 425 coach (named for its low Cd by coach standards)	1985
0.42	Lamborghini Countach	1974
0.42	Plymouth Duster	1994
0.42	Triumph Spitfire Mk IV	1971
0.41	Smart Roadster	2003
0.41	Volvo 740 (sedan)	1982
0.405	Subaru Forester	1997-2002^[16]
0.40	Chevrolet Astro	1995-2005^[17]
0.40	Mercury Cougar	1983-1986
0.40	Ariel Atom	2002^[18]
0.40	Ford Escape Hybrid	2005
0.40	Nissan Skyline GT-R R32	1989
0.40	Jaguar XJS	1976-1996
0.40	Ford Ranger	2011-2015 ^[19]
0.39	Chevrolet Tahoe	2006
0.39	MG ZR	2001
0.39	Dodge Durango	2004
0.39	Ford Aerostar	1995^[20]
0.39	Ford Escort 5 Door	1981-1984^[21]
0.39	Honda Odyssey	1994-98
0.39^[22]	Toyota Tacoma (N300)	2016
0.39	Triumph Spitfire	1964
0.385	Nissan 280ZX	1978
0.38	Fiat Ritmo	1978
0.38	Ford Territory	2011
0.38	Lexus GX	2003
0.38	Lincoln Mark VII	1984-1992^[23]
0.38	Mazda Miata	1989
0.38	Fiat 500	1957
0.38	Smart Roadster Coupé	2003
0.38	Subaru Forester	2009-2013^[24]
0.38	VW NewBeetle^[25] without wing or spoiler 0.39^[26]	2003
0.374	Ford Capri Mk III	1978
0.372	Ferrari F50	1996
0.37	Ford Escort Mk.III (Europe)	1980
0.37	BMW Z3 M coupe	1999
0.37	Jaguar XJ (X300/X308)	1994-2003
0.37	Mercury Grand Marquis	1998-2002^[27]
0.37	Mercury Grand Marquis	2003-2011^[28]
0.37	Renault Twingo I
0.37	Volkswagen Tiguan	2008
0.37	Volkswagen Transporter T4	1990-2004^[29]
0.36	Alfa Romeo 33	1983^{[citation needed]}
0.36	Cadillac Escalade hybrid	2008
0.36	Cadillac Fleetwood	1996
0.36	Citroën CX (named after the term for Cd)	1974
0.36	Citroën DS	1955
0.36	Chrysler Sebring	1996
0.36	Ferrari Testarossa	1986
0.36	Ford Escort	1997-2002^[29]
0.36	Ford Focus 3-door	2000-2004
0.36	Ford Mustang	1999
0.36	Honda Civic	2001–2005
0.36	Lincoln Town Car	1990-1997^[30]
0.36	Mercury Cougar	1987-1988
0.36	Mercury Grand Marquis	1992-1997^[15]
0.36	Mitsubishi Magna, V3000 sedan	1985-1991
0.36	Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution IX	2006
0.36	Subaru Impreza WRX^[31]	2010
0.36	Saturn SW	1996-2001^[29]
0.36, 0.244 (1:5)	Tatra 87	1936-1950^[32]
0.36	Toyota Celica Convertible	1994-1999^[33]
0.36	Volkswagen Jetta	1985-1992^[34]
0.36	Tatra 77 & Tatra 77A	1934-1936^[35]
0.357	Ram 1500 Quad Cab 4x2	2018^[36]
0.355	NSU Ro 80	1967
0.355	Ford Focus RS	2016
0.35	Maserati Quattroporte V	2003
0.35	Aleko 2141	1986-2002
0.35	Aston Martin Vanquish	2004
0.35	BMW M3 Convertible	2005
0.35	BMW Z4 M coupe	2006
0.35	DeltaWing^[37] (endurance racing car)	2012
0.35	Dodge Viper GTS	1996
0.35	Ford Thunderbird	1983-1988
0.35	Ford Windstar	1995-1998^[38]
0.35	Ford Windstar	1999-2003^[39]
0.35	Honda Del Sol	1992–1997^[29]
0.35	Jaguar XKR	2005
0.35	Lexus GX	2010
0.35	Lexus RX	2003–2009
0.35	MINI Cooper	2008
0.35	Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X	2008
0.35	Nissan Cube	2009
0.35	Renault Clio (Mk 2)	2002^[40]
0.35	SSC Ultimate Aero	2007–2013
0.35	Tesla Roadster^[41]	2008
0.35	Mitsubishi i-MiEV	2011
0.35	Smart ForTwo^[42]	2008-
0.35	Toyota MR-2	1998
0.35	Toyota Previa	1991-1997^[43]^[44]
0.35	Toyota Sequoia	2007
0.35	Volvo 940 (sedan)	1990
0.348	Toyota Celica Supra (Mk 2)	1982^[45]
0.347	Hyundai Tiburon (RD1)	1997
0.342	Toyota Celica (Liftback Model)	1982
0.34	Alfa Romeo Giulia sedan	1968-1972
0.34	Aston Martin DB9	2004
0.34	Audi TT MK1 (8N)	1998-2005^[46]
0.34	Chevrolet Caprice	1994
0.34	Chevrolet C6 Corvette Z06	2006–2013
0.34	Chevrolet Tahoe hybrid	2008
0.34	Ferrari 360 Modena	1999
0.34	Ferrari F40	1987
0.34	Ferrari F430 F1	2004
0.34	Fiat Uno	1984-1989
0.34	Ford Puma	1997
0.34	Ford Sierra	1982
0.34	Geo Metro (Hatchback)	1995-1997^[29]
0.34	Volkswagen Gol G2	1994
0.34	Honda Prelude	1988
0.34	Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Down)	2001
0.34	Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X	2014
0.34	Nissan Altima	1993-1997^[47]
0.34	Nissan Skyline R34 GT-R	1999-2002^[48]
0.34	Peugeot 106	1991
0.34	Saab 900 NG	2003^[49]
0.34	Saab 9000	1984-1998^[49]
0.34	Saturn SL2	1991-1995^[50]
0.34	Subaru Impreza WRX (4 Door)	2009^[51]
0.34	Subaru Legacy Wagon	1993-1999^[52]
0.34	Toyota Corolla (Wagon)	1993-1997^[53]
0.34	Toyota Supra (with factory 3 piece turbo wing)	1989–1990
0.339	Citroen SM	1970-1975^[54]
0.338	Chevrolet Camaro	1995
0.335	Tesla Cybertruck	2024
0.334	Seat Leon FR	2005-2011
0.33	Acura Integra	1993-2001^[55]
0.33	Acura RSX	2002-2006^[56]
0.33	Alfa Romeo Giulia (saloon)	1962^[57]
0.33	Audi A3	2006
0.33	BMW E30 M3	1986–1992
0.33	Chevrolet Caprice (sedan)	1991-1996
0.33^[58]	Chevrolet Impala	2006
0.33	Dodge Charger	2006
0.33	Ford Crown Victoria	1992
0.33	Ford Escort ZX2	1998-2003^[59]
0.33	Ford Fusion	2010^[60]
0.33	Holden Commodore (VT) sedan	1997
0.33	Honda Accord Sedan	2002
0.33	Honda Civic Hatchback	1988-1991^[29]
0.33	Honda S2000	2000-2009^[61]
0.33 to 0.37	Koenigsegg Agera R	2013
0.33	Lamborghini Murciélago	2001
0.33	Lexus RX	2010
0.33	Mazda RX-7 FC3C	1987
0.33	Nissan 200SX Coupe	1995-1998^[62]
0.33	Peugeot 206	1998
0.33	Dodge Durango (without roof-rack), ("HEAT" model, 0.325)	2011–present
0.33	Peugeot 309	1986
0.33	Renault Modus	2004
0.33	Saab 9-3 SC	2003^[49]
0.33	Saturn SL2	1999^[63]
0.33	Subaru Impreza WRX STi	2004
0.33	Subaru Forester	2014-2018
0.33^[64]	Toyota Camry (Sedan)	1991
0.33	Toyota Corolla (E100)	1993-1997^[29]
0.33	Toyota Supra (without wing)	1989–1990
0.329	Chevrolet Corsica	1989-2006^[65]
0.325	Opel Astra J	2009
0.324	Cobalt SS Supercharged	2005
0.321	Toyota Matrix	2003-2008^[66]

Production cars (continued)
Cd	Automobile	Calendar Year
0.32	Mitsubishi RVR	2010^[67]
0.32	Buick Riviera	1995
0.32	BMW M3 Coupe	2005
0.32^[68]	Daewoo Espero	1990
0.32	Dodge Avenger	1995
0.32	Ferrari California	2008
0.32	Chrysler 300C	2011-2014
0.32	Fiat Croma	1985-1996
0.32	Ford Taurus	1992-1995^[69]
0.32	Geo Metro (Sedan)	1995-1997^[29]
0.32	Seat Leon	2005-2011
0.32	Honda Accord (Coupe)	2002
0.32	Honda Ascot Innova (Sedan)	1992-1996
0.32	Honda Civic (Coupe)	1992-1995^[29]
0.32	Honda Civic (Hatchback DX)	1996-2000^[70]
0.32	Honda Civic (Sedan EX)	1996-2000^[71]
0.32	Honda NSX	1990
0.32	Hyundai Veloster	2012
0.32	Jaguar XJ (X350)	2006
0.32	Koenigsegg CCX	2006
0.32	Mazdaspeed3	2007
0.32	McLaren F1	1992
0.32	Mercedes-Benz 190E 2.5-16/2.3-16	1983-1990
0.32	Nissan 240SX Coupe	1995-1998^[72]
0.32	Nissan 300ZX	1989
0.32	Nissan Altima	1998-2001^[73]
0.32	Nissan Maxima	1997
0.32	Oldsmobile Aurora	1995-1999
0.32	Porsche 997 GT2	2008–2013
0.32	Peugeot 406	1995
0.32	Peugeot 806	1994
0.32	Saab Sonett II	1966-1969^[49]
0.32	Scion xB	2008
0.32	Suzuki Swift	1991
0.32	Tatra 600	1948-1952^[74]
0.32	Toyota Celica	1994
0.32	Toyota Celica	2000-2005^[75]
0.32	Toyota Supra (N/A with wing and turbo models)	1993
0.32	Toyota Supra (with factory turbo wing)	1987–1988
0.32	Toyota Tercel Sedan	1995-2000^[76]
0.32^[77]	Toyota Corolla Hatchback (E210, US)	2019
0.32	Volkswagen Golf Mk3	1991
0.32	Volkswagen GTI Mk V	2006
0.32	Volvo V50	2004
0.315	Saturn SL1	1996-1999^[78]
0.31	Alfa Romeo 156	1997–2007
0.31	Audi A4 B5	1995
0.31	Audi A5	2011–2016
0.31	Audi A3	2014
0.31	BMW 7 Series	2009
0.31	Buick Park Avenue	1996
0.31	Cadillac CTS	2004
0.31	Cadillac CTS-V	2005
0.31	Citroën AX	1986
0.31	Citroën GS	1970
0.31	Eagle Vision	1995
0.31	Ford Focus sedan	2000-2004
0.31	Fiat Coupé	1995^[79]
0.31	Fiat Tipo	1988-1995
0.31	Ford Falcon	1995
0.31	Ford Thunderbird	1989-1997^[80]
0.31	Holden Commodore	1998
0.31	Honda Civic (Hatchback)	1992-1995^[29]
0.31	Honda Civic (Sedan)	2006
0.31	Infiniti G37 (Coupe)	2008–2015^[81]
0.31	Kia Rio (Sedan)	2001^[82]
0.31	Lamborghini Diablo	1990
0.31	Lexus LFA (wing retracted)	2010
0.31	Mazda MX-3	1990–1996
0.31	Mazda MX-6	1992–1997
0.31	Mazda RX-7 FC3S	1986
0.31	Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2)	1993
0.31	Mazda RX-8	2004
0.31	Mazda2 (Hatchback)	2010-2014^[83]
0.31	Mazda3 (Hatchback)	2010-2013
0.31	Nissan Tiida / Versa	2004
0.31	Opel Tigra	1994-2000
0.31	Pagani Huayra	2012^[84]
0.31	Peugeot 307	2001
0.31	Peugeot 405	1987
0.31	Porsche 997 Turbo/GT3	2006
0.31	Renault 25	1984
0.31	Saab Sonett III	1970-1974^[49]
0.31	Saab 9-3 Viggen	2003^[49]
0.31	Saab 9-5 Wagon (2000-2010)	2003^[49]
0.31	Saturn SC2	2001
0.31	Scion xA	2004
0.31	Toyota Avalon	1995–2000
0.31	Toyota Corolla (E110)	1998-2002^[85]
0.31	Toyota Corolla (E210, UK)	2019^[86]
0.31	Toyota Paseo	1995-1999^[87]
0.31	Toyota RAV4	2006
0.31	Toyota Supra (N/A; without factory wing)	1993
0.31	Volkswagen GTI Mk IV	1997
0.31	Volkswagen Golf Mk6	2008-2012
0.31	Volvo S40 2nd generation	2003
0.308	Chevrolet Bolt	2016^[88]
0.308	Škoda Octavia RS^{[citation needed]}	2005
0.304	Ford Probe	1988-1992^[89]
0.30	Lotus Elan+2^[90]	1967-1974
0.30	Alfa Romeo 164	1988^[91]
0.30	Audi 100 ^{[citation needed]}	1983
0.30^[92]	BMW 5 Series (E34)	1988
0.30	BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 335i ^[93]	2012
0.30^[68]	Citroën XM	1989
0.30	Fiat Uno facelift ^{[citation needed]}	1989-2000
0.30	Ford Taurus	1996-1999^[94]^[95]
0.30	Ford Focus Wagon ^{[citation needed]}	2000-2004
0.30	Ford Focus ST^{[citation needed]}	2013–2018
0.30	Honda Accord Sedan ^{[citation needed]}	2003, 2005–2007
0.30	Honda CRX DX/Si^[96]	1988
0.30	Honda NSX ^{[citation needed]}	2002
0.30	Hyundai Sonata^{[citation needed]}	2006
0.30	Koenigsegg CCX^{[citation needed]}	2006
0.30	Mitsubishi Eclipse^{[citation needed]}	2000
0.30	Nissan 180SX^{[citation needed]}	1989
0.30	Nissan 300ZX ^{[citation needed]}	1983
0.30	Nissan 350Z Coupe Base and Enthusiast models ^{[citation needed]}	2003–2008
0.30	Nissan 370Z Coupe (0.29 with sport package)	2009^[97]
0.30	Peugeot 207^[98]	2006-2014
0.30	Renault 19 16V^{[citation needed]}	1991
0.30	Saab 92	1947^[49]
0.30	Seat Leon^{[citation needed]}	2012
0.30^[64]	Toyota Camry (Sedan)	1996
0.30	Toyota Corolla (E120)	2003-2008^[99]
0.30	Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Hatchback)	2019^[100]
0.30	Toyota Sienna^{[citation needed]}	2003–2009
0.30	Volkswagen Bora mk4^{[citation needed]}	1999–2005
0.30^[a]	Mercedes-Benz CLA 250 ^[101]	2013–2018
0.299	Cadillac ATS	2012 ^[102]
0.296^[103]	Chevrolet Impala (I4)	2013
0.295	Ford Focus Mk.III hatchback ^[104] (0.274 sedan)	2011
0.291^[105]	Toyota Avalon	2005
0.29	Subaru Alcyone/XT Coupe	1985-1989 ^[106]
0.29	Alfa Romeo 155	1992^[107]
0.29	Alfa Romeo MiTo	2011^[108]
0.29 ^[109]	Audi A4 sedan	2007
0.29	BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 328i ^[93]	2012
0.29^[110]^[b]	BMW i3	2013
0.29^[68]	Chevrolet Corvette	2005
0.29^[111]	Chevrolet Cruze sedan	2016
0.29	Fiat Tipo	2015^[112]
0.29	Ford Escape	2010^[113]
0.29	Ford Focus C-Max	2003^[114]
0.29	Honda Accord Coupe	2003, 2005–2007^[115]
0.29^[116]	Honda Accord Hybrid	2005, 2007
0.29	Honda CRX HF^[96]	1988
0.29	Kia Niro Hybrid/EV Compact SUV	2016^[117]
0.29	Lancia Dedra ^{[citation needed]}	1990
0.29 ^[118]	Lexus LS 400	1990
0.29^[119]	Mazda3 (sedan)	2009
0.29	Mercedes-Benz C-Class Sportscoupe^{[citation needed]}	2001
0.29	Nissan Leaf	2010 ^[120]
0.29	Rover 75	1998 ^[121]
0.29	Saab 9-5 (1998 – 2009)	2003^[49]
0.29^[122]^[123]	Toyota Corolla L/LE sedan (E170), (E210)	2013 (E170), 2019 (E210)
0.29	Toyota Platz	2000-2005^[124]^[125]
0.29^[126]	Toyota Prius	2001
0.29^[127]	Toyota Yaris (hatchback & sedan)	2006-2011
0.29^[128]	Volvo C70	1998
0.29^[129]	NIO ES8^[130]	2017
0.29^[131]	Škoda Scala	2019–present
0.288^[132]	Chrysler Concorde	1998–2001
0.286^[133]	Perodua Bezza	2016
0.286^[134]	Chevrolet Corvette C6 (coupe)	2005–2013
0.285^[111]	Chevrolet Volt	2016
0.285^[135]	Dodge Dart (PF)	2012
0.285^[136]	Opel Astra K Hatchback	2015
0.284^[137]	Volkswagen Passat CC	2008–2017
0.281^[138]	Chevrolet Volt	2010-2015
0.28	Alfa Romeo Giulietta Sprint Speciale	1959^[139]
0.28^[140]	Audi A2 1.4 TDI	2000
0.28^[68]	Citroën C4	2004
0.28^[141]	Fiat Croma Nuova	2005-2011
0.28^[142]	Honda Civic Hybrid	2003-2005
0.28^[143]	Honda Insight	2009-2014
0.28^[144]	Hyundai Elantra	2011
0.28^[145]	Hyundai Sonata (0.25 for the Hybrid)	2011-2013
0.28^[146]^[147]	Lexus IS	2006–present
0.28^[148]^[149]	Opel Omega (sedan)	1986–1993
0.28	Saab 9-3 SS	2003^[49]
0.28	Škoda Fabia IV	2021–present^[150]
0.28^[151]	Rumpler Tropfenwagen	1921-1925
0.28^[152]^[153]	Toyota Camry XV40, XV50	2006–2018
0.28	Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Saloon)	2019^[100]
0.28	Maserati Quattroporte VI	2013^[154]
0.28^[155]	NIO ES6^[156]	2018
0.275	Ford Fusion	2013^[157]
0.274	Peugeot 207 Economique^[98]	2009
0.273^[158]	Ford Focus Mk IV hatchback, (0.25 sedan)	2018
0.27^[159]	BMW 5 Series (E39)	1996
0.27^[c]	BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d ^[93]	2012
0.27^[160]	Hyundai Elantra	2016
0.27^[161]	Hyundai Sonata	2019
0.27	Mazda6 (sedan and hatchback)^[162]	2008
0.27^[163]	Mercedes-Benz S Class (0.268 with Sport Package^{[citation needed]})	1998–2005
0.27	Subaru BRZ and Toyota 86	2012^[164]
0.27^[165]	Toyota Avalon (XX50)	2018
0.27^[166]^[d]	Toyota Prius (XW60) LE	2023
0.27^[167]	Volkswagen Jetta Mk7	2018
0.263^[168]	NIO ES7^[169]	2022
0.26^[c]	BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d EfficientDynamics ^[93]	2012
0.26	BMW 3 Series (E90) (0.26-0.30)	2009^[170]
0.26	BMW i8	2015^[171]
0.26^[172]	Infiniti Q70 Hybrid / Nissan Fuga Hybrid (0.27 for ICE version)	2015
0.26	Jaguar XE^[173]	2014
0.26	Mazda3 (Sedan)	2012^[174]
0.26^[c]	Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupe^[175]	2015–2018
0.26^[176]	Nissan Altima (6th gen.)	2018
0.26^[177]	Nissan Sylphy (B18)	2019
0.26	Opel Calibra 8-valve^[178]	1989
0.26^[c]^[179]	Audi e-tron Sportback	2020
0.26^[4]	NIO EC6^[180]	2020
0.25^[181]	BMW iX	2020
0.25 (Manufacturer claim. Independent test measured 0.26.)^[182]	Toyota Prius^[183]	2009-2015
0.25	Honda Insight^[184]	1999-2006
0.25 (w/air suspension) 0.26 (non-air suspension)	Lexus LS430^[185]	2001-2006
0.250^[186]	Nio ES6^[187]	2023
0.250^[188]	NIO ES8^[189]	2023
0.249^[190]	Škoda Octavia MkIV liftback	2020
0.24	Tesla Model X^[191]	2018
0.24^[192]	Hyundai Ioniq	2016–2022
0.24^[193]	Kia Optima Hybrid	2016
0.24^[c]	Mercedes-Benz S 350 BlueTec^[194]	2013
0.24^[c]	Mercedes-Benz C 220 BlueTec BlueEfficiency Sedan^[195]	2014–2016
0.24	Tesla Model S^[196]	2012
0.24	Toyota Prius^[197]	2016
0.24–0.30^[c]^[198]	BMW i4 eDrive40	2021
0.236	Xpeng P7^[199]	2020
0.23^[200]^[c]	Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW)	2015
0.23^[201]^[c]	Alfa Romeo Giulia Advanced Efficiency	2016
0.23^[202]^[c]	BMW 320d (G20)	2018
0.23^[203]	Tesla Model 3	2017
0.230^[204]	NIO EC7^[205]	2023
0.22^[206]^[e]	Porsche Taycan Turbo	2019
0.22^[207]^[c]	BMW 5 series (G30) 520d EfficientDynamics	2017
0.22^[208]^[c]	Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency Sedan	2013
0.215^[209]^[210]	Li Auto Mega	2023
0.212 (1:5 model test, 1:1 car = 0.36, see above)^[211]^[212]^[213]	Tatra T77A	1935^[214] ^[215] ^[216] ^[217]
0.208^[218]^[219]	NIO ET7^[220]	2021
0.208^[221]	Tesla Model S^[222]	2021
0.20^[223]^[f]	Mercedes-Benz EQS	2021
0.197^[224]^[g]	Lucid Air	2022
0.195^[225]	Xiaomi SU7	2024
0.19^[226]	General Motors EV1	1996
0.19^[227]	Volkswagen XL1	2013
0.175^[228]	Lightyear 0^[229]	2022

Concept/experimental cars
Cd	Automobile	Calendar Year
0.29	FSM Beskid Polish hatchback prototype	1983
0.27	Avion^[230]	1986
0.26	Alfa Romeo Disco Volante	1952
0.25	BMW Kamm-Coupé	1938 ^[231]
0.25	Dymaxion Car	1933
0.25	SmILE (an experimental car)	1996
0.23	Volvo ECC	1992 ^[232]
0.23	Pininfarina X (Morelli shape)	1960^[233]
0.22	BMW Vision EfficientDynamics Concept	2009
0.22	Citroën ECO 2000 Concept	1981^[234]
0.22	Aurel Persu Streamliner	1923^[235]
0.20	Opel Eco-Speedster	2002^[236]
0.20	Loremo Concept	2006
0.19	Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7 Concept	1954^[237]
0.19	Dodge Intrepid ESX Concept	1995
0.19	General Motors Ultralite	1992
0.19	Mercedes-Benz Bionic Concept^[238](based on the boxfish)	2005
0.170	Chrysler Ghia Dart	1955^[239]
0.170	Mercedes-Benz Vision EQXX	2022 (Cd figure measured in the Daimler aero-acoustic wind tunnel at a wind speed of 140 km/h) ^[240]
0.168	Daihatsu UFE-III Concept	2005^[241]
0.16	General Motors Precept Concept (5 seats)^[242]	2000
0.16	Edison2 Very Light Car, Automotive X Prize winner^[243]	2010
0.159	Volkswagen 1-litre car Concept	2002
0.157	Li-ion Motors Wave II, Automotive X Prize winner^[244]	2010
0.15	Schlörwagen^[245]	1939
0.15	Aptera 2 Series 2e Prototype	2011
0.15	Keris RV Nakoela Team (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype	2015
0.149-0.150	Urbee 2^[246]	2013
0.147	JCB Dieselmax land speed record holder	2006
0.14	Fiat Turbina Concept^[247]	1954
0.137	Ford Probe V Concept	1985
0.13	Aptera Sol Prototype	2021 ^[248]
0.125	Sunraycer, solar race car	1987
0.12	Reflex 1000, solar cycle	1996^[249]
0.12	Panhard CD LM64	1964
0.117	Summers Brothers Goldenrod Bonneville race car	1965
0.116	TUT Sunchaser 4^[250]	2022
0.095	Sunswift 7^[251] (Guinness World Record Holder,^[252] World Solar Challenge Winner)	2022
0.08	Fortis Saxonia (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept	2007
0.072	Alérion Supermileage (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype	2013
0.07	Nuna, World Solar Challenge winner	2001–2007
0.0512	Ecorunner V (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype	2015^[253]
0.048	Ecorunner VI (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype	2016
0.045	Ecorunner 8 (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype	2018

Drag area

While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The product of drag coefficient and area – drag area – is represented as CdA (or C_xA), a multiplication of Cd value by area.

The term drag area derives from aerodynamics, where it is the product of some reference area (such as cross-sectional area, total surface area, or similar) and the drag coefficient. In 2003, Car and Driver magazine adopted this metric as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles.

The force F required to overcome drag is calculated with the drag equation: $F={\tfrac {1}{2}}\times {\text{air density}}\times {\text{drag coefficient}}\times {\text{reference area}}\times {\text{speed}}^{2}$ Therefore: $F={\tfrac {1}{2}}\times {\text{air density}}\times \mathbf {\text{drag area}} \times {\text{speed}}^{2}$ Where the drag coefficient and reference area have been collapsed into the drag area term. This allows direct estimation of the drag force at a given speed for any vehicle for which only the drag area is known and therefore easier comparison. As drag area CdA is the fundamental value that determines power required for a given cruise speed it is a critical parameter for fuel consumption at a steady speed. This relation also allows an estimation of the new top speed of a car with a tuned engine:

{\text{estimated top speed}}={\text{original top speed}}\times {\sqrt[{3}]{\frac {\text{new power}}{\text{original power}}}}

Or the power required for a target top speed:

{\text{power required}}={\text{original power}}\times \left({\frac {\text{target speed}}{\text{original speed}}}\right)^{3}

Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8 sq ft (0.74 m²). Reported drag areas range from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.1 sq ft (0.47 m²) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.5 sq ft (2.46 m²). The drag area of a bicycle (and rider) is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m²).^[254]

Automobile examples of **CdA**^[255]
CdA sqft	CdA m2	Automobile model
5.2 sq ft	0.48 m²	2019 Mercedes-Benz A 180 d (V177)^[256]^[c]
5.3 sq ft	0.49 m²	2013 Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency^[257]^[c]
5.4 sq ft	0.50 m²	1989 Opel Calibra (8 valve)
5.5 sq ft	0.51 m²	2015 Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW)^[200]^[c]
5.52 sq ft	0.513 m²	2019 Porsche Taycan Turbo^[206]
5.6 sq ft	0.52 m²	2017 BMW 520d EfficientDynamics ^[258]^[c]
5.6 sq ft	0.52 m²	1993 Mazda RX-7 FD (base model) ^[259]
5.70 sq ft	0.530 m²	1985 Subaru Alcyone/XT/Vortex
5.71 sq ft	0.530 m²	1990 Honda CR-X Si
5.74 sq ft	0.533 m²	2002 Acura NSX
5.76 sq ft	0.535 m²	1968 Toyota 2000GT
5.80 sq ft	0.539 m²	1986 Toyota MR2
5.81 sq ft	0.540 m²	1989 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSX
5.86 sq ft	0.544 m²	2001 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 3L
5.88 sq ft	0.546 m²	1990 Nissan 240SX / 200SX / 180SX
5.90 sq ft	0.548 m²	1992 Mazda Xedos 6^[260]
5.90 sq ft	0.548 m²	2015 BMW i8^[171]
5.92 sq ft	0.550 m²	1994 Porsche 911 Speedster
5.95 sq ft	0.553 m²	1990 Mazda RX7
5.96 sq ft	0.554 m²	1993 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2)^[259]
6.0 sq ft	0.56 m²	2001 Honda Insight^[182]
6.00 sq ft	0.557 m²	1992 Subaru SVX
6.00 sq ft	0.557 m²	1970 Lamborghini Miura
6.05 sq ft	0.562 m²	2012 Tesla Model S P85^[182]
6.08 sq ft	0.565 m²	2008 Nissan GTR
6.08 sq ft	0.565 m²	1989 Geo Metro^[29]
6.13 sq ft	0.569 m²	1991 Acura NSX
6.17 sq ft	0.573 m²	1995 Lamborghini Diablo
6.19 sq ft	0.575 m²	1981 Citroën GSA X3 ^[54]
6.20 sq ft	0.576 m²	2014 Toyota Prius^[182]
6.24 sq ft	0.580 m²	2004 Toyota Prius
6.27 sq ft	0.583 m²	1986 Porsche 911 Carrera
6.27 sq ft	0.583 m²	1992 Chevrolet Corvette
6.35 sq ft	0.590 m²	1999 Lotus Elise
6.37 sq ft	0.592 m²	2000 Vauxhall VX220 N/A
6.40 sq ft	0.595 m²	1990 Lotus Esprit
6.41 sq ft	0.596 m²	2003 Smart Roadster Coupé
6.54 sq ft	0.608 m²	1991 Saturn Sports Coupe
6.57 sq ft	0.610 m²	1985 Chevrolet Corvette
6.63 sq ft	0.616 m²	2001 Audi A2
6.66 sq ft	0.619 m²	1996 Citroën Saxo
6.70 sq ft	0.622 m²	2014 Chevrolet Volt^[182]
6.77 sq ft	0.629 m²	1995 BMW M3
6.79 sq ft	0.631 m²	1993 Toyota Corolla DX
6.80 sq ft	0.632 m²	2007 BMW 335i Coupe
6.81 sq ft	0.633 m²	1991 Subaru Legacy
6.89 sq ft	0.640 m²^[261]	2019 Renault Clio V
6.90 sq ft	0.641 m²	1993 Saturn Wagon
6.93 sq ft	0.644 m²	1982 DMC DeLorean
6.94 sq ft	0.645 m²	2003 Smart Roadster
6.96 sq ft	0.647 m²	1988 Porsche 944 S
7.00 sq ft	0.650 m²	2013 Mercedes-Benz CLA250^[182]
7.02 sq ft	0.652 m²	1992 BMW 325I
7.04 sq ft	0.654 m²	1991 Honda Civic EX
7.06 sq ft	0.656 m²	2004 Vauxhall VX220 Turbo
7.10 sq ft	0.660 m²	1995 Saab 900
7.11 sq ft	0.661 m²	1991 Ford Thunderbird LX
7.13 sq ft	0.662 m²	1970 Citroën SM^[54]
7.14 sq ft	0.663 m²	1995 Subaru Legacy L
7.20 sq ft	0.669 m²	1995 Nissan Maxima GLE
7.34 sq ft	0.682 m²	2001 Honda Civic
7.39 sq ft	0.687 m²	1994 Honda Accord EX
7.4 sq ft	0.69 m²	2018 BMW X1 sDrive18i ^[262]^[c]
7.48 sq ft	0.695 m²	1993 Chevrolet Camaro Z28
7.57 sq ft	0.703 m²	1992 Toyota Camry
7.63 sq ft	0.709 m²	1974 Citroën CX^[54]
7.69 sq ft	0.714 m²	1994 Chrysler LHS
7.72 sq ft	0.717 m²	1993 Subaru Impreza
7.80 sq ft	0.725 m²	2012 Nissan Leaf SL^[182]
8.02 sq ft	0.745 m²	2005 Bugatti Veyron
8.1 sq ft	0.75 m²	2016 Renault Zoe^[263]
8.70 sq ft	0.808 m²	1990 Volvo 740 Turbo
8.70 sq ft	0.808 m²	1992 Ford Crown Victoria
8.71 sq ft	0.809 m²	1991 Buick LeSabre Limited
8.79 sq ft	0.817 m²	1956 Citroën DS Spécial ^[54]
9.54 sq ft	0.886 m²	1992 Chevrolet Caprice Wagon
9.6 sq ft	0.89 m²	2010 Chrysler PT Cruiser
9.95 sq ft	0.924 m²	2016 Chrysler Pacifica^[264]
10.7 sq ft	0.99 m²	1992 Chevrolet Blazer
11.6 sq ft	1.08 m²	2005 Ford Escape Hybrid
11.7 sq ft	1.09 m²	1993 Jeep Grand Cherokee
12.2 sq ft	1.13 m²	1949 Nash Airflyte
13.0 sq ft	1.21 m²	2019 Ram 1500^[265]
13.1 sq ft	1.22 m²	2021 Jeep Wagoneer (WS)^[266]
16.8 sq ft	1.56 m²	2006 Hummer H3
17 sq ft	1.6 m²	2013 Mercedes-Benz G-Class^[267]
17.4 sq ft	1.62 m²	1995 Land Rover Discovery
26.5 sq ft	2.46 m²	2003 Hummer H2

Limited production cars
CdA sqft	CdA m2	Automobile model
3.00 sq ft	0.279 m²	2011 Volkswagen XL1
3.95 sq ft	0.367 m²	1996 GM EV1

Concept/experimental cars
CdA sqft	CdA m2	Automobile model
0.21 sq ft	0.020 m²	Pac-car II^[268]
2.04 sq ft	0.190 m²	2011 Aptera 2 Series^[269]
2.10 sq ft	0.195 m²	2013 Urbee 2^[270]
2.50 sq ft	0.232 m²	1986 Twike^[271]
2.54 sq ft	0.236 m²	2002 Opel Eco-Speedster ^[272]
2.69 sq ft	0.250 m²	2009 Loremo
2.78 sq ft	0.258 m²	2010 Edison2 Very Light Car^[273]
3.27 sq ft	0.304 m²	1987 Renault VESTA II [fr]^[274]
4.72 sq ft	0.439 m²	2014 Volkswagen XL Sport^[275]
5.00 sq ft	0.465 m²	2005 Mercedes-Benz Bionic^[276]

Notes

^ North American market
^ 0.30 with range extender
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q European market
^ w/ 17-inch wheels
^ in Range mode in combination with a low level and closed air intake flaps
^ w/ 19-inch AMG wheel/tire combination in "Sport" driving mode
^ w/ 19-inch wheel/tire combination

References

^ Wang, Brian (2009-03-16). "Reducing Drag on Cars and Trucks by 15-18%". Next Big Future. Archived from the original on 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2018-01-28.
^ Turner, Mike. "Aerocivic - Honda Civic modifications for maximum gas mileage -". aerocivic. Retrieved 2018-01-28.
^ Guinn, Wayne D. "Camaro Spoiler Equipment". Camaro - Untold Secrets. US. Archived from the original on 2000-05-19.
^ ^a ^b Nath, Devang S.; Pujari, Prashant Chandra; Jain, Amit; Rastogi, Vikas (2021-01-28). "Drag reduction by application of aerodynamic devices in a race car". Advances in Aerodynamics. 3 (1): 4. doi:10.1186/s42774-020-00054-7. ISSN 2524-6992. Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ "(a bicycle's lower frontal area is offset by a higher drag coefficient)". Lafn.org. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
^ Hoyt, Wade (October 1985). "Shaping up tomorrow's cars". Popular Mechanics: 131.
^ Hoyt, Wade (October 1985). "Shaping up tomorrow's cars". Popular Mechanics: 131.
^ König, Wolfgang (2008-04-22). "Die Tops und Flops im Windkanal". Auto Bild (in German). Axel Springer. Retrieved 2019-09-10.
^ "Technique of the VW Beetle". Maggiolinoweb.it. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ "The Mayfield Homepage - Coefficient of Drag for Selected Vehicles". Mayfco.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ "Volkswagen Cabriolet MK1 Specs". Cabby-Info.com. Archived from the original on 2010-02-05. Retrieved 2010-01-12.
^ "Lancia Aprilia Tipo 97 technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2012-03-13.
^ "Lincoln Town Car technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ Visnic, Bill (2017-12-18). "Level Zero hero". SAE International. Archived from the original on 2019-05-29. Retrieved 2019-05-29.
^ ^a ^b "Report on 2nd generation Grand Marquis updates". nwitimes.com. 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ "1998 SUBARU FORESTER S". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Chevrolet Astro Van (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "2002 Ariel Atom Specifications". getcarspecs.com. Retrieved 2012-10-12.
^ "F1 aero tech for new Ranger". www.carsales.com.au. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
^ "1995 Ford Aerostar Specs". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-08-18.
^ "1981 Ford Escort". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "2016 Tacoma Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2015. Retrieved 2019-05-19.
^ "Lincoln Mark VII technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ "Subaru Forester specs available". CarsDirect. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ "Evworld Feature: Giving The New Beetle Wings:Vw | Rogers | Beetle | Wing | Drag | Porsche | Volkswagen | Thiokol | Utah | Fuel | Economy | Biodiesel | Diesel | Aerodynamics". Evworld.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ "Aero Testing - Part 3". AutoSpeed. Archived from the original on 2009-11-21. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ "Mercury Grand Marquis technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ "Mercury Grand Marquis technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k "Ecomodder Wiki Vehicle Coefficient of Drag". Archived from the original on 2010-04-25. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Lincoln Town Car technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ Ralf J. F. Kieselbach, Stromlinienautos in Europa und USA, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1982, page 19
^ "Toyota Celica GT (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ Smith, David C. (December 1984). "Golf, Jetta much improved and, with them, VWA's hopes". Ward's Auto World.
^ "Tatra 77 před 85 lety nastartovala aerodynamickou revoluci". Retrieved 2023-01-07.
^ "All-new 2019 Ram 1500 – No Compromise Truck, Leading in Durability, Technology and Efficiency" (Press release). FCA North America. 2018-01-15. Retrieved 2019-09-22.
^ "Deltawing - the Car". Archived from the original on 2012-07-21. Retrieved 2012-07-28. Data as published on the Team website after 2012 Le Mans Race after the addition of rear view mirrors
^ "Ford Windstar 1st gen technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ "Ford Windstar 2nd gen technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
^ "2002 Renault Clio II 1.5 dCi 80 technical specifications and data - 3 door 1.5 litre (1461 cc) S4 79.1 PS - Carfolio.com car specifications pages". Carfolio.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ Ramsey, Jonathon (2009-03-26). "Tesla Model S: Kč970.000 (Kč970.000 (Kč970.000 ($50,000))) EV sedan seats seven, 300-mile range, 0-60 in 5.5s". autobloggreen. Archived from the original on 2009-03-27. Retrieved 2009-04-12.
^ "Leichtbau ist nicht das Wichtigste" (in German). Auto, Motor und Sport. Da der Smart aufgrund seiner großen Frontfläche von 2,06 m2 einen hohen cW-Wert von 0,35 hat, verbraucht er im Vergleich zum niedrigen Gewicht vergleichsweise viel.
^ "Toyota Previa LE S/C 1995". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "1990 Toyota Previa". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "1982 Toyota Celica Supra" (Press release). US: Toyota. 1981. Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2018-05-26.
^ "Technical Preview Review: 2008 Audi TT". Car and Driver. 2006-07-01. Retrieved 2022-12-23.
^ "Nissan Altima GXE (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-24. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "2002 Nissan Skyline R34 - R34 vs R35". importtuner.com. 2009-10-01. Retrieved 2014-10-01.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "The Aerodynamics of the Saab Automobiles". Saab Scene. 2007-04-01. Retrieved 2023-08-11.
^ "Saturn SL2 (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ "1995 SUBARU LEGACY L WAGON". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "1996 Toyota Corolla DX Wagon". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 1996-11-28. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Aerodynamics". Le Double Chevron (#59). 1980.
^ "Acura Integra GS-R (1994)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "2004 Acura RSX Coupe Specs". automobilemag.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-01.
^ "1964 Giulia 1600 Series 105". conceptcarz.com. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
^ "2006 Chevrolet Impala: Reliable Flagship Sedan Exudes Strength and Performance" (Press release). Retrieved 2021-03-08.
^ "Ford Escort ZX2 (1998)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-06-04. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Ford Fusion specs available". CarsDirect. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ Katz, Joseph (2016). Automotive aerodynamics. Chichester, UK. ISBN 978-1-119-18572-7. OCLC 1153046337.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ "1995 NISSAN 200SX SE-R TWO-DOOR COUPE". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Saturn SL2 (1999)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ ^a ^b Paul, Rik (1996-10-02). "1997 Toyota Camry Road Test". Motor Trend. Retrieved 2018-12-04.
^ "1990 Chevrolet Corsica Sales training Video". youtube.com. Retrieved 2011-01-15.^{[dead YouTube link]}
^ "Review:2003 Toyota Matrix". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Review:2010 Mitsubishi ASX". autocar.co.uk. Retrieved 2021-01-16.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Katz, Joseph (2016-05-02). Automotive Aerodynamics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-18574-1.
^ "1994 FORD TAURUS GL". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2020-08-08.
^ "Honda Civic DX Hatchback (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Honda Civic EX Sedan (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "1995 NISSAN 240SX SE SPORT COUPE". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Nissan Altima GLE (1998)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-04-20. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ Karel Rosenkranz, Tatra, Autoalbum 2002, page 107
^ "Toyota Celica GT-S (2000)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Toyota Tercel DX (1995)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "2019 Corolla Hatchback eBrochure" (PDF). US: Toyota. p. 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
^ "Saturn SL1 (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02. ^{[dead link‍]}
^ "fiatcoupehistory". Archived from the original on 2009-08-04.
^ "Toyota Tercel Reference - CdA List". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
^ "2011 Infiniti G Coupe Specifications". Infiniti USA. Archived from the original on 2010-12-05. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
^ "2001 Kia Rio Specifications - View New Kia Rio 2001 Specs & Data at". Internetautoguide.com. Archived from the original on 2010-07-26. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ "2010 Mazda 2 II (DE, facelift 2010) 1.5i (102 Hp) Automatic | Technical specs, data, fuel consumption, Dimensions". www.auto-data.net. Retrieved 2020-06-21.
^ "TG meets the Pagani Huayra - BBC Top Gear". Topgear.com. 2012-06-08. Archived from the original on 2011-08-28. Retrieved 2013-04-05.
^ "1998 TOYOTA COROLLA LE". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Corolla" (Press release). UK: Toyota. February 2019. Retrieved 2019-02-14.
^ "Toyota Paseo (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "2017 Chevy Bolt EV Is Less of a Drag Than Originally Believed". Retrieved 2017-03-29.
^ "Carfolio Car Specifications". Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Lotus Elan+2". Lotus. 1967 – via LotusElan.net.
^ "Four of a Kind: The Alfa Romeo 164 and the "Type Four" Cars". ateupwithmotor.com. 2009-06-13. Archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
^ "The BMW 5 Series History. The 3rd Generation (E34) - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2021-01-26.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "The new BMW 3 Series Sedan" (Press release).
^ "1996/1997 FORD TAURUS SHO". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "1996 FORD TAURUS GL SEDAN". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ ^a ^b gtmash. "Honda Civic CRX - Car Cutaway - Modern Racer - Features". Modern Racer. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ "2009 Nissan 370Z Coupe Specs". Nissan USA. 2009-08-31. Archived from the original on 2010-02-08. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ ^a ^b "Vehicle Coefficient of Drag List - EcoModder". ecomodder.com. Retrieved 2017-12-09.
^ "2003 Toyota Corolla Specs". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ ^a ^b "The New Corolla Model Range" (PDF) (Press release). Toyota Motor Europe. February 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
^ Sherman, Don (June 2014). "Five slippery cars enter a wind tunnel; one slinks out a winner" (PDF) (Press release). US: Tesla. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
^ "Design, Engineering Contribute to ATS Fuel Economy" (Press release). US: General Motors. 2012-09-25. Retrieved 2020-07-10.
^ Voss, Arv. "Chevy's new Impala provides a breath of fresh air". SFGate. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
^ "Meet the Focus". Archived from the original on 2018-02-26.
^ toyotanews.pressroom.toyota.com/article_download.cfm?article_id=2633
^ Arimoto, Masatsugu (July 1985). "Subaru Alcyone / XT Coupe". CAR STYLING. No. 51. CAR STYLING Publishing Co.
^ "1992 Alfa Romeo 155 1.8 Twin Spark technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
^ "2011 Alfa Romeo MiTo Twinair S&S technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
^ "Technische Daten Audi A4 2.0 TDI (103 kW)" (PDF) (in German). Germany: Audi. March 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-17.
^ "The BMW i3" (Press release). BMW. 2013. Retrieved 2018-05-24.
^ ^a ^b "Mini wind tunnel fine-tunes GM designs". Automotive News. 2015-11-30. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
^ "Fiat Tipo - Al lancio le Opening Edition benzina e diesel". Quattroruote (in Italian). Italy. 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
^ "Ford Escape Hybrid". All-about-car-selection.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ "All-new Ford Focus C-Max - Ford Forums - Mustang Forum, Ford Trucks and Cars". Ford Forums. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ "Vehicle Specifications - 2006 Honda Accord Coupe - Honda Owners Site". Honda Owners Site. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
^ "Vehicle Specifications 2005 Honda Accord Hybrid". Honda Owners Site. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
^ "Kia Niro Exterior". Kia Motors. Retrieved 2017-11-20.
^ Long, Brian (2000). Lexus: The Challenge to Create the Finest Automobile. Cardiff: Veloce Publishing. pp. 19–20. ISBN 1-901295-81-8.
^ "2010 Mazda3 Specification Deck" (PDF). Mazda Motor of America, Inc. 2009-03-24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-24. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
^ "Nissan Leaf Zero Emission" (PDF) (Press release). UK: Nissan. 2013-07-01. Retrieved 2016-02-25.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
^ "1998 Rover 75 2.5 KV6". UK: carfolio.com. 2001-04-22. Retrieved 2022-10-24.
^ "2014 Toyota Corolla Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2013-08-27. Retrieved 2018-12-07.
^ "2020 Corolla eBrochure". US: Toyota. p. 25. Archived from the original on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
^ "2000 Toyota Echo Review". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "Toyota Echo 4-Door (2000)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
^ "2001 Toyota Prius Press Kit" (Press release). Australia: Toyota. 2001-10-04. Retrieved 2020-07-10.
^ "2010 Yaris Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. Archived from the original on 2018-05-22.
^ "Dream Machines Number 39 – Volvo C70" (PDF). Sweden: Volvo. Retrieved 2018-11-11 – via Volvo Club UK.
^ Matousek, Mark. "Nio is Tesla's biggest competitor in the Chinese electric-vehicle market — here's how its ES8 SUV compares with Tesla's Model X". Business Insider. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ "NIO ES8 - Beyond Expectations | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ "2019 Škoda Scala Storyboard" (Press release). Škoda Auto.
^ "Chrysler Concorde Specifications - Dimensions". US: Chrysler. Archived from the original on 2001-01-10. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
^ Tan, Danny (2016-07-21). "Perodua Bezza officially launched – first ever sedan, 1.0 VVT-i and 1.3 Dual VVT-i, RM37k to RM51k EEV". Malaysia: paultan.org. Retrieved 2019-06-29. {{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
^ "2006 Chevrolet Corvette" (Press release). US: General Motors. 2005. Retrieved 2018-07-05.
^ "The All-new 2013 Dodge Dart Redefines Performance" (Press release). FCA US. 2012-09-01. Retrieved 2019-07-05.
^ "New Astra Price/Specification Guide" (PDF). UK: Vauxhall. p. 23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-02. Retrieved 2019-03-02.
^ "2012 CC Technical Specifications" (PDF) (Press release). US: Volkswagen. Retrieved 2022-01-16.
^ "Chevrolet Volt - 2011" (Press release). US: Chevrolet. Retrieved 2022-01-16.
^ "1959-'66 Alfa Romeo Sprint Speciale". hemmings.com. Retrieved 2019-11-15.
^ Hutton, Ray (July 2000). "Audi A2". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
^ "New FIAT Croma in UK" (Press release). Fiat Auto (UK) Limited. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
^ Csere, Csaba (May 2002). "2003 Honda Civic Hybrid". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
^ "All-New Honda Insight Hybrid Vehicle Introduced in Japan" (Press release). Tokyo, Japan: Honda Motor Co. 2009-02-05. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
^ Markus, Frank (2010-11-15). "First Look: 2011 Hyundai Elantra - Motor Trend". Motor Trend. Motor Trend Group, LLC. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
^ Walton, Chris (2010-08-20). "2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid Road Test". Edmunds. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
^ "Lexus IS Specifications". Archived from the original on 2006-04-08. Retrieved 2006-04-08.
^ "IS". Archived from the original on 2014-06-09. Retrieved 2014-06-09.
^ "Special Report: Imports '87". Popular Mechanics. February 1987. p. 126.
^ Hucho, Wolf-Heinrich (1986). Aerodynamics of road vehicles : from fluid mechanics to vehicle engineering. London: Butterworths. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-408-01422-9.
^ "The Škoda Fabia: Best-in-class for aerodynamics" (Press release). Škoda. Retrieved 2022-12-16.
^ Schütz, Thomas (2013-10-07). Hucho - Aerodynamik des Automobils: Strömungsmechanik, Wärmetechnik, Fahrdynamik, Komfort. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8348-1919-2.
^ Winfield, Barry (March 2006). "2007 Toyota Camry SE" (PDF). Car and Driver. Hearst Magazine Media. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-08. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
^ "2017 Toyota Camry Product Information Sheet" (Press release). Archived from the original on 2019-01-09. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
^ "Quattroporte MY19 Press Kit". media.maserati.com. Retrieved 2019-06-01.
^ "Nio ES6 EV unveiled in China". Autoblog. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ "NIO ES6: Racetrack performance and SUV comfort". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ Nate Martinez. "First Test:2013 Ford Fusion". motortrend.com. Archived from the original on 2014-05-17. Retrieved 2014-05-28.
^ "Ford Unveils All-New Focus" (PDF) (Press release). The Ford Motor Company. 2018-04-10. Retrieved 2018-04-11.
^ "The BMW 5 Series History. The 4th Generation (E39). - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2021-01-26.
^ "All-New 2017 Hyundai Elantra Brings Advanced Technology and Premium Convenience to the Compact Car Segment" (Press release). Imperial Beach, California: Hyundai Motor America. 2016-01-26. Retrieved 2018-12-18.
^ "New 2020 Hyundai Sonata Makes Its North American Debut at the New York International Auto Show" (Press release). New York City. 2019-04-17. Retrieved 2019-07-05.
^ "Mazda6" (PDF) (Press release) (in German). Germany: Mazda. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-01-20.
^ "Mercedes-Benz S-Class, W 220 series (1998 to 2005)".
^ Edward Loh (2011-12-02). "First Drive:2013 Subaru BRZ". Motortrend.com. Retrieved 2013-04-04.
^ "Attainable Premium, Actualized: All-New 2019 Toyota Avalon Beams Effortless Sophistication, Style, and Exhilaration at the 2018 North American International Auto Show" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2018-01-15. Archived from the original on 2018-07-10. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
^ "2023 Prius Product Information" (PDF) (Press release). US: Toyota. 2022-12-14. Retrieved 2022-12-14.
^ > "The new Jetta - world premiere - North American International Auto Show" (Press release).
^ "NIO Launched Smart Electric Mid-Large SUV ES7". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-06-16.
^ "NIO ES7 - Far Beyond | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-06-16.
^ Interone Worldwide GmbH (2008-06-17). "BMW 3 Series Sedan : Technical data". Bmw.com. Archived from the original on 2009-10-13. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
^ ^a ^b "Sports car with a social conscience: Ars reviews the BMW i8". 2015-07-03.
^ "Q70_UK.pdf" (PDF). Infiniti Europe. Retrieved 2022-01-31. Coefficient of drag: 0.27 / 0.28 / 0.26
^ "Jaguar XE (2015) technical details and prices confirmed". Car. 2014-10-01. Retrieved 2014-10-15.
^ "Mazda Launches Second SKYACTIV Model in Japan: Facelifted Axela".
^ "Instantly thrilling: The new Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupé". Mercedes. 2015-08-13. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
^ "2019 Nissan Altima Press Kit" (Press release). US: Nissan. 2018-03-28. Retrieved 2018-06-22.
^ "All-new Nissan Sylphy unveiled at Auto Shanghai 2019" (Press release). Shanghai: Nissan. 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2019-04-05.
^ "Calibra - Proof That Old School Still Rocks @ Top Speed". 2006-10-23.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
^ "Innovative aerodynamics concept of the Audi e-tron S models" (Press release). 2020-06-17.
^ "NIO EC6: Our electric coupé with a view of the sky". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ "The first ever BMW iX" (Press release). BMW. 2020. Retrieved 2020-11-11.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Sherman, Don. "Drag Queens: Aerodynamics Compared" (PDF). Car and Driver. No. June 2014. Hearst Communications. Retrieved 2017-12-29.
^ "2010 Toyota Prius Product Information | Toyota". Retrieved 2017-10-09.
^ "Vehicle Coefficient of Drag List". EcoModder. Retrieved 2017-11-16.
^ "2002 Lexus LS430 Specifications" (PDF). Lexus.ca. Retrieved 2020-01-20.
^ "2023上海车展｜蔚来全新ES6亮相：秦力洪称今年销量目标不变". finance.sina.com.cn. 2023-04-20. Retrieved 2023-05-25.
^ "蔚来全新ES6-NIO蔚来官网". www.nio.cn. Retrieved 2023-05-25.
^ "2023 NIO ES8 Specs, Price and Comparisons - Licarco". Licarco - Latest Electric Cars, E-Motors, Vehicle Comparisons. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
^ "All New ES8: Redefine Prime | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
^ "Technical Data" (Press release). Škoda. 2020-03-16. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
^ "Model X Tesla Motors". Teslamotors.com. Retrieved 2018-02-13.
^ "2017 Hyundai Ioniq Hybrid and Electric Models Soon to Be Available to U.S. Consumers" (Press release). Hyundai Motor America. 2017-02-14. Retrieved 2018-01-30.
^ "All-New Kia Optima Hybrid Unveiled At 2016 Chicago Auto Show" (Press release). Kia Motors America. 2016-02-11. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
^ "Die technischen Daten der S-Klasse Limousine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
^ "C-Class awarded Environmental Certificate" (Press release). Archived from the original on 2014-09-27.
^ "Slippery Tesla Model S triumphs in wind-tunnel shootout". Ecomento. 2014-05-30. Archived from the original on 2014-10-19. Retrieved 2014-10-15.
^ Seabaugh, Christian (2015-11-18). "2016 Toyota Prius First Drive Review". MotorTrend. Retrieved 2015-11-18.
^ "The first-ever BMW i4. (Specifications)" (Press release). BMW Group. 2021-08-26. Retrieved 2021-11-19.
^ Krivevski, Blagojce (2020-06-28). "Xpeng Starts Delivery of P7 EV Sports Sedan". Retrieved 2020-06-28.
^ ^a ^b "Audi A4" (Press release). Audi AG. Retrieved 2018-01-27.
^ "Alfa Romeo at the 2016 Paris International Motor Show" (Press release). Retrieved 2018-01-29.
^ "Specifications of the all-new BMW 3 Series Sedan, valid from 10/2018" (Press release). 2018-10-02. Archived from the original on 2019-03-17. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
^ "Press Kit" (Press release). Tesla. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
^ Maricic, Dane (2022-12-29). "The New Nio EC7 Wins The EV SUV Range Title With Up To 582 Miles On A Single Charge". TopSpeed. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
^ "NIO EC7: Elegance is Power | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
^ ^a ^b "Aerodynamics: The best value of all current Porsche models" (Press release). 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2019-10-14.
^ Disdale, James (2017-01-12). "New BMW 5 Series 2017 review". Auto Express. UK: Dennis Publishing Ltd. Retrieved 2018-01-25.
^ Kable, Greg (2013-02-07). "Mercedes-Benz CLA180 cheats the wind". Autoweek. Crain Communications, Inc. Retrieved 2018-11-28.
^ "Li Auto Inc. (NASDAQ:LI) Q3 2023 Earnings Call Transcript". Yahoo Finance (Press release). 2023-11-10. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
^ "理想MEGA，重新定义MPV" [Ideal MEGA, Redefine MPV]. Li Auto Inc (in Chinese). China. Retrieved 2023-11-15.
^ Some sources also claim this figure relates to a T87 1:5 model test not T77a"Tatra T600 Tatraplan". www.tatraplan.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-08-28.
^ Ivan Margolius, 'Model Behaviour', Octane, February 2012, pp. 38-9
^ Ivan Margolius & John G Henry, 'Tatra - The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka', Veloce, Dorchester, 2015, page 124
^ Optimization and computational fluid dynamics, Gàbor Janiga, Springer, 2008, page 196
^ "Cheating Wind - Aerodynamic Tech and Buyers Guide". europeancarweb.com. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
^ "Tatra 77 aerodynamic car (czech)". Retrieved 2010-05-17.
^ Winning the oil endgame: innovation for profits, jobs and security, Amory B. Lovins, Rocky Mountain Institute, 2004, page 53
^ "NIO ET7 Achieves 0.208 Drag Coefficient". InsideEVs. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ NIO ET7 Certified Drag Coefficient of 0.208, retrieved 2022-01-27
^ "NIO ET7: Our electric sedan with a range of up to 1000 km". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ Golson, Daniel. "Tesla says the new Model S is the world's most aerodynamic production car". Roadshow. Retrieved 2022-01-27.
^ "Model S". 2021. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
^ "The new EQS: passion for electromobility" (Press release). Stuttgart. 2021-04-03. Retrieved 2021-04-06.
^ "Lucid Air Touring and Air Pure Now Ready for the Road with Market-Leading Range and Aero; Air Sapphire Dominates Test Tracks on the Way to 2023 Introduction" (Press release). Newark, California. 2022-11-15. Retrieved 2022-11-15.
^ Lye, Gerard (2023-12-28). "Xiaomi SU7 debuts in China – brand's first EV; up to 673 PS, 838 Nm, 800 km range, 265 km/h top speed". Paul Tan's Automotive News. Retrieved 2023-12-28.
^ Brown, Aaron (2016-03-16). "Here's the story behind GM's revolutionary electric car from the 90s that disappeared". Business Insider. Insider Inc. Retrieved 2018-11-28.
^ ZOELLTER, JUERGEN (2013-06-14). "2014 Volkswagen XL1". Car and Driver. Hearst Communications, Inc. Retrieved 2017-12-25.
^ Gent, James (2022-09-19). "Lightyear 0 is the most aerodynamic production vehicle". The Charge. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
^ "Lightyear". lightyear.one. Retrieved 2023-01-29.
^ "Original Avion Specifications - 1986". 100 mpg plus. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-11-20. vehicle set the 1986 Guinness World Record for fuel efficiency at 103.7 mpg
^ Ihrig, Ron (2004-12-03). "Part 3: Production, Physics, Politics – Only the Strong Survive". Car Design News. German Design History. Archived from the original on 2005-01-11. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
^ Volvo Car Corporation (2005-03-01). "Volvo ECC – the car that gave the world a preview of Volvo's future already back in 1992". media.volvocars.com (Press release). Retrieved 2017-12-15.
^ "Pininfarina's dream: the PFX". Italian Ways. 2015-04-14. Retrieved 2022-01-04.
^ "50 000 km avec une Citroën Ax diesel, mon avis d'utilisateur ainsi que son coût kilométrique réel". Generationsfutures.chez-alice.fr. Archived from the original on 2010-10-28. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ "Aerodinamica automobilelor si inventia inginerului roman Aurel Persu | Headline, Practic, Utile". 2014-10-09.
^ "Opel 2002 Eco-Speedster". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-09-30.
^ "1954 Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7". conceptcarz.com. Retrieved 2019-11-15.
^ Frank Giovinazzi (2005-06-14). "Mercedes Bionic Concept Car". Carbuyersnotebook.com. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ Motor Life-1958
^ "VISION EQXX – taking electric range and efficiency to an entirely new level". group-media.mercedes-benz.com. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
^ "Daihatsu UFE-III | Concept Cars". Diseno-art.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ "GM Unveils Concept Car That Gets 108 Miles A Gallon". Electrifying Times. US. 2000-01-11. Archived from the original on 2000-05-19.
^ Annoy as little air as possible, Edison2 blog
^ "Li-ion Motors Wave II". Li-ionmotors.com. Archived from the original on 2010-12-18. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ "The Bizarre German Car That Was Ultra-Aerodynamic—And Totally Impractical". Wired. 2014-09-04. Retrieved 2014-10-15.
^ Bargmann, Joe (2013-11-04). "Urbee 2, the 3D-Printed Car That Will Drive Across the Country". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
^ Ludvigsen, Karl. "Turbine Speed with Style". Hemmings Daily. Retrieved 2019-03-12.
^ "Aptera.us FAQ Section". Retrieved 2021-09-19.
^ "D & H Enterprises, composites and fibreglass technology". Dhenterprises.com.au. Archived from the original on 2020-03-12. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ "Sunchaser 4". South Africa: Tshwane University of Technology. 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-16.
^ "Australian solar-powered race car nets Guinness World Record after nail-biting finish". ABC News. 2022-12-19. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
^ z3525182 (2022-12-19). "EV record breakers! Sunswift 7 goes 1000km on a single charge in world's best time". UNSW Newsroom. Retrieved 2023-11-12.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "TU Delft students build a car with the lowest air resistance in the world". Delft University of Technology. 2015-04-20. Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
^ "(a bicycle's lower frontal area is offset by a higher drag coefficient)". Lafn.org. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
^ "The Mayfield Company Homepage - Coefficient of Drag Tables and Curves". Mayfco.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ "World record defended: The new A-Class Sedan: none is more aerodynamic" (Press release). Stuttgart, Germany: Daimler AG. 2018-07-23. Archived from the original on 2019-05-19. Retrieved 2019-05-18.
^ Birch, Stuart (2013-03-18). "Mercedes' 2014 CLA is the new low-Cd king". SAE International. Archived from the original on 2018-02-01. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
^ "Technical Specifications BMW 520d EfficientDynamics Edition, valid from 03/2017" (Press release). BMW. 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-28.
^ ^a ^b "AutoSpeed - Aero Testing - Part 5".
^ "Mazda Xedos 6 1992 Presskit" (PDF). 2023-07-23.
^ "The All-new Renault Clio: The icon of a new generation fully revealed at Geneva Motor Show" (Press release). 2019-03-05. Retrieved 2019-10-21.
^ "Specifications of the BMW X1, valid from 09/2018" (Press release). BMW Group. 2018-05-11. Retrieved 2019-03-29.
^ "Renault Zoe Technical Specifications" (Press release). Renault Press. 2016-11-30. Archived from the original on 2018-02-19.
^ Brooke, Lindsay (2016-01-11). "2017 Pacifica is first hybrid minivan, rides on all-new FCA platform - SAE International". articles.sae.org. SAE International. Retrieved 2019-01-23.
^ "2019 Ram 1500 – More Space. More Storage. More Technology". www.ramtrucks.com. Archived from the original on 2018-01-16. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
^ "2022 Wagoneer / Grand Wagoneer Specifications" (Press release). Stellantis. 2021-03-11. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
^ "Taking the drag out of aerodynamics: Aerodynamics world champion in almost all vehicle classes" (Press release). Daimler. 2013-10-05. Retrieved 2021-03-02.
^ Santin, J. J.; Onder, C.H.; Bernard, J.; Isler, D.; Kobler, P.; Kolb, F.; Weidmann, N.; Guzzella, L. (2007). The world's most fuel efficient vehicle : design and development of Pac Car II. Zürich: vdf, Hochschulverlag AG and der ETH. p. 113. ISBN 978-3-7281-3134-8.
^ "Power Consumption - IGSS'13". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
^ McLeod, Mike (2013-05-26). "The Future of Automotive Design?". Design Engineering. Retrieved 2015-09-25.
^ "Program: hpvplot (updated 11/12/07)". Ent.ohiou.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
^ "Opel 2002 Eco-Speedster". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-09-30.
^ "350 MPGe at $20,000?". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
^ Maroselli, Yves (2014-09-18). "Renault : la Vesta 2 plus performante en 1987 que l'Eolab en 2015". Le Point (in French). Retrieved 2018-02-08.
^ "VW reveals 197bhp XL Sport". TopGear.com. October 2014. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
^ "Specs of Mercedes-Benz Bionic Car Concept (2005)". engineact. Archived from the original on 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2013-05-11.

External links

[NA-101] North American market

[112] 0.30 with range extender

[EU-162] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q European market

[170] w/ 17-inch wheels

[PT-211] Range mode in combination with a low level and closed air intake flaps

[EQS-229] w/ 19-inch AMG wheel/tire combination in "Sport" driving mode

[Air-231] w/ 19-inch wheel/tire combination

[1] Wang, Brian (2009-03-16). "Reducing Drag on Cars and Trucks by 15-18%". Next Big Future. Archived from the original on 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2018-01-28.

[2] Turner, Mike. "Aerocivic - Honda Civic modifications for maximum gas mileage -". aerocivic. Retrieved 2018-01-28.

[3] Guinn, Wayne D. "Camaro Spoiler Equipment". Camaro - Untold Secrets. US. Archived from the original on 2000-05-19.

[:0-4] Nath, Devang S.; Pujari, Prashant Chandra; Jain, Amit; Rastogi, Vikas (2021-01-28). "Drag reduction by application of aerodynamic devices in a race car". Advances in Aerodynamics. 3 (1): 4. doi:10.1186/s42774-020-00054-7. ISSN 2524-6992. Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[5] "(a bicycle's lower frontal area is offset by a higher drag coefficient)". Lafn.org. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-06-28.

[6] Hoyt, Wade (October 1985). "Shaping up tomorrow's cars". Popular Mechanics: 131.

[7] Hoyt, Wade (October 1985). "Shaping up tomorrow's cars". Popular Mechanics: 131.

[8] König, Wolfgang (2008-04-22). "Die Tops und Flops im Windkanal". Auto Bild (in German). Axel Springer. Retrieved 2019-09-10.

[9] "Technique of the VW Beetle". Maggiolinoweb.it. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[10] "The Mayfield Homepage - Coefficient of Drag for Selected Vehicles". Mayfco.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[11] "Volkswagen Cabriolet MK1 Specs". Cabby-Info.com. Archived from the original on 2010-02-05. Retrieved 2010-01-12.

[12] "Lancia Aprilia Tipo 97 technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2012-03-13.

[13] "Lincoln Town Car technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[14] Visnic, Bill (2017-12-18). "Level Zero hero". SAE International. Archived from the original on 2019-05-29. Retrieved 2019-05-29.

[nwitimes.com-15] "Report on 2nd generation Grand Marquis updates". nwitimes.com. 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[16] "1998 SUBARU FORESTER S". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[17] "Chevrolet Astro Van (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[18] "2002 Ariel Atom Specifications". getcarspecs.com. Retrieved 2012-10-12.

[19] "F1 aero tech for new Ranger". www.carsales.com.au. Retrieved 2020-09-01.

[20] "1995 Ford Aerostar Specs". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-08-18.

[21] "1981 Ford Escort". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[22] "2016 Tacoma Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2015. Retrieved 2019-05-19.

[23] "Lincoln Mark VII technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[24] "Subaru Forester specs available". CarsDirect. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[25] "Evworld Feature: Giving The New Beetle Wings:Vw | Rogers | Beetle | Wing | Drag | Porsche | Volkswagen | Thiokol | Utah | Fuel | Economy | Biodiesel | Diesel | Aerodynamics". Evworld.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[26] "Aero Testing - Part 3". AutoSpeed. Archived from the original on 2009-11-21. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[27] "Mercury Grand Marquis technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[28] "Mercury Grand Marquis technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[ecomodder.com-29] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k "Ecomodder Wiki Vehicle Coefficient of Drag". Archived from the original on 2010-04-25. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[30] "Lincoln Town Car technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[31] "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[32] Ralf J. F. Kieselbach, Stromlinienautos in Europa und USA, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1982, page 19

[33] "Toyota Celica GT (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[Smith-34] Smith, David C. (December 1984). "Golf, Jetta much improved and, with them, VWA's hopes". Ward's Auto World.

[35] "Tatra 77 před 85 lety nastartovala aerodynamickou revoluci". Retrieved 2023-01-07.

[36] "All-new 2019 Ram 1500 – No Compromise Truck, Leading in Durability, Technology and Efficiency" (Press release). FCA North America. 2018-01-15. Retrieved 2019-09-22.

[37] "Deltawing - the Car". Archived from the original on 2012-07-21. Retrieved 2012-07-28. Data as published on the Team website after 2012 Le Mans Race after the addition of rear view mirrors

[38] "Ford Windstar 1st gen technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[39] "Ford Windstar 2nd gen technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.

[40] "2002 Renault Clio II 1.5 dCi 80 technical specifications and data - 3 door 1.5 litre (1461 cc) S4 79.1 PS - Carfolio.com car specifications pages". Carfolio.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[Ramsey2009-41] Ramsey, Jonathon (2009-03-26). "Tesla Model S: Kč970.000 (Kč970.000 (Kč970.000 ($50,000))) EV sedan seats seven, 300-mile range, 0-60 in 5.5s". autobloggreen. Archived from the original on 2009-03-27. Retrieved 2009-04-12.

[drag-42] "Leichtbau ist nicht das Wichtigste" (in German). Auto, Motor und Sport. Da der Smart aufgrund seiner großen Frontfläche von 2,06 m2 einen hohen cW-Wert von 0,35 hat, verbraucht er im Vergleich zum niedrigen Gewicht vergleichsweise viel.

[43] "Toyota Previa LE S/C 1995". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[44] "1990 Toyota Previa". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[45] "1982 Toyota Celica Supra" (Press release). US: Toyota. 1981. Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2018-05-26.

[46] "Technical Preview Review: 2008 Audi TT". Car and Driver. 2006-07-01. Retrieved 2022-12-23.

[47] "Nissan Altima GXE (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-24. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[48] "2002 Nissan Skyline R34 - R34 vs R35". importtuner.com. 2009-10-01. Retrieved 2014-10-01.

[saabhistory-49] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "The Aerodynamics of the Saab Automobiles". Saab Scene. 2007-04-01. Retrieved 2023-08-11.

[50] "Saturn SL2 (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[51] "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[52] "1995 SUBARU LEGACY L WAGON". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[53] "1996 Toyota Corolla DX Wagon". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 1996-11-28. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[citroenetAero-54] "Aerodynamics". Le Double Chevron (#59). 1980.

[55] "Acura Integra GS-R (1994)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[56] "2004 Acura RSX Coupe Specs". automobilemag.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-01.

[Alfa_Romeo_Giulia_1600-57] "1964 Giulia 1600 Series 105". conceptcarz.com. Retrieved 2011-06-28.

[58] "2006 Chevrolet Impala: Reliable Flagship Sedan Exudes Strength and Performance" (Press release). Retrieved 2021-03-08.

[59] "Ford Escort ZX2 (1998)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-06-04. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[60] "Ford Fusion specs available". CarsDirect. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[61] Katz, Joseph (2016). Automotive aerodynamics. Chichester, UK. ISBN 978-1-119-18572-7. OCLC 1153046337.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[62] "1995 NISSAN 200SX SE-R TWO-DOOR COUPE". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[63] "Saturn SL2 (1999)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[motortrend-camry-64] Paul, Rik (1996-10-02). "1997 Toyota Camry Road Test". Motor Trend. Retrieved 2018-12-04.

[65] "1990 Chevrolet Corsica Sales training Video". youtube.com. Retrieved 2011-01-15.^{[dead YouTube link]}

[66] "Review:2003 Toyota Matrix". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[67] "Review:2010 Mitsubishi ASX". autocar.co.uk. Retrieved 2021-01-16.

[PA584-68] Katz, Joseph (2016-05-02). Automotive Aerodynamics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-18574-1.

[69] "1994 FORD TAURUS GL". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2020-08-08.

[70] "Honda Civic DX Hatchback (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[71] "Honda Civic EX Sedan (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[72] "1995 NISSAN 240SX SE SPORT COUPE". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[73] "Nissan Altima GLE (1998)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-04-20. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[74] Karel Rosenkranz, Tatra, Autoalbum 2002, page 107

[75] "Toyota Celica GT-S (2000)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[76] "Toyota Tercel DX (1995)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[77] "2019 Corolla Hatchback eBrochure" (PDF). US: Toyota. p. 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-17.

[78] "Saturn SL1 (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02. ^{[dead link‍]}

[79] "fiatcoupehistory". Archived from the original on 2009-08-04.

[80] "Toyota Tercel Reference - CdA List". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2010-07-15.

[81] "2011 Infiniti G Coupe Specifications". Infiniti USA. Archived from the original on 2010-12-05. Retrieved 2011-01-25.

[82] "2001 Kia Rio Specifications - View New Kia Rio 2001 Specs & Data at". Internetautoguide.com. Archived from the original on 2010-07-26. Retrieved 2010-04-23.

[83] "2010 Mazda 2 II (DE, facelift 2010) 1.5i (102 Hp) Automatic | Technical specs, data, fuel consumption, Dimensions". www.auto-data.net. Retrieved 2020-06-21.

[topgear_paganih-84] "TG meets the Pagani Huayra - BBC Top Gear". Topgear.com. 2012-06-08. Archived from the original on 2011-08-28. Retrieved 2013-04-05.

[85] "1998 TOYOTA COROLLA LE". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[86] "Corolla" (Press release). UK: Toyota. February 2019. Retrieved 2019-02-14.

[87] "Toyota Paseo (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[88] "2017 Chevy Bolt EV Is Less of a Drag Than Originally Believed". Retrieved 2017-03-29.

[89] "Carfolio Car Specifications". Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[90] "Lotus Elan+2". Lotus. 1967 – via LotusElan.net.

[Alfa_164-91] "Four of a Kind: The Alfa Romeo 164 and the "Type Four" Cars". ateupwithmotor.com. 2009-06-13. Archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2011-06-28.

[92] "The BMW 5 Series History. The 3rd Generation (E34) - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2021-01-26.

[BMWPressF30-93] "The new BMW 3 Series Sedan" (Press release).

[94] "1996/1997 FORD TAURUS SHO". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[95] "1996 FORD TAURUS GL SEDAN". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[modernracer1-96] tmash. "Honda Civic CRX - Car Cutaway - Modern Racer - Features". Modern Racer. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[97] "2009 Nissan 370Z Coupe Specs". Nissan USA. 2009-08-31. Archived from the original on 2010-02-08. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[ReferenceC-98] "Vehicle Coefficient of Drag List - EcoModder". ecomodder.com. Retrieved 2017-12-09.

[99] "2003 Toyota Corolla Specs". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[E210Europa-100] "The New Corolla Model Range" (PDF) (Press release). Toyota Motor Europe. February 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-17.

[102] Sherman, Don (June 2014). "Five slippery cars enter a wind tunnel; one slinks out a winner" (PDF) (Press release). US: Tesla. Retrieved 2019-03-03.

[103] "Design, Engineering Contribute to ATS Fuel Economy" (Press release). US: General Motors. 2012-09-25. Retrieved 2020-07-10.

[104] Voss, Arv. "Chevy's new Impala provides a breath of fresh air". SFGate. Retrieved 2018-02-09.

[FocusMkIII-105] "Meet the Focus". Archived from the original on 2018-02-26.

[106] toyotanews.pressroom.toyota.com/article_download.cfm?article_id=2633

[107] Arimoto, Masatsugu (July 1985). "Subaru Alcyone / XT Coupe". CAR STYLING. No. 51. CAR STYLING Publishing Co.

[1992_Alfa_Romeo_155-108] "1992 Alfa Romeo 155 1.8 Twin Spark technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2011-06-28.

[2011_Alfa_Romeo_MiTo-109] "2011 Alfa Romeo MiTo Twinair S&S technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2020-10-27.

[110] "Technische Daten Audi A4 2.0 TDI (103 kW)" (PDF) (in German). Germany: Audi. March 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-17.

[111] "The BMW i3" (Press release). BMW. 2013. Retrieved 2018-05-24.

[autonews-mini-113] "Mini wind tunnel fine-tunes GM designs". Automotive News. 2015-11-30. Retrieved 2018-12-16.

[Test_Quattroruote-114] "Fiat Tipo - Al lancio le Opening Edition benzina e diesel". Quattroruote (in Italian). Italy. 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2016-12-27.

[115] "Ford Escape Hybrid". All-about-car-selection.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2010-04-23.

[116] "All-new Ford Focus C-Max - Ford Forums - Mustang Forum, Ford Trucks and Cars". Ford Forums. Retrieved 2010-04-23.

[117] "Vehicle Specifications - 2006 Honda Accord Coupe - Honda Owners Site". Honda Owners Site. Retrieved 2020-08-06.

[118] "Vehicle Specifications 2005 Honda Accord Hybrid". Honda Owners Site. Retrieved 2019-03-03.

[119] "Kia Niro Exterior". Kia Motors. Retrieved 2017-11-20.

[120] Long, Brian (2000). Lexus: The Challenge to Create the Finest Automobile. Cardiff: Veloce Publishing. pp. 19–20. ISBN 1-901295-81-8.

[121] "2010 Mazda3 Specification Deck" (PDF). Mazda Motor of America, Inc. 2009-03-24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-24. Retrieved 2018-11-25.

[122] "Nissan Leaf Zero Emission" (PDF) (Press release). UK: Nissan. 2013-07-01. Retrieved 2016-02-25.^{[permanent dead link‍]}

[123] "1998 Rover 75 2.5 KV6". UK: carfolio.com. 2001-04-22. Retrieved 2022-10-24.

[124] "2014 Toyota Corolla Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2013-08-27. Retrieved 2018-12-07.

[125] "2020 Corolla eBrochure". US: Toyota. p. 25. Archived from the original on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-17.

[126] "2000 Toyota Echo Review". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[127] "Toyota Echo 4-Door (2000)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.

[128] "2001 Toyota Prius Press Kit" (Press release). Australia: Toyota. 2001-10-04. Retrieved 2020-07-10.

[129] "2010 Yaris Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. Archived from the original on 2018-05-22.

[130] "Dream Machines Number 39 – Volvo C70" (PDF). Sweden: Volvo. Retrieved 2018-11-11 – via Volvo Club UK.

[131] Matousek, Mark. "Nio is Tesla's biggest competitor in the Chinese electric-vehicle market — here's how its ES8 SUV compares with Tesla's Model X". Business Insider. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[132] "NIO ES8 - Beyond Expectations | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[133] "2019 Škoda Scala Storyboard" (Press release). Škoda Auto.

[134] "Chrysler Concorde Specifications - Dimensions". US: Chrysler. Archived from the original on 2001-01-10. Retrieved 2018-12-31.

[135] Tan, Danny (2016-07-21). "Perodua Bezza officially launched – first ever sedan, 1.0 VVT-i and 1.3 Dual VVT-i, RM37k to RM51k EEV". Malaysia: paultan.org. Retrieved 2019-06-29. {{cite magazine}}: Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)

[136] "2006 Chevrolet Corvette" (Press release). US: General Motors. 2005. Retrieved 2018-07-05.

[137] "The All-new 2013 Dodge Dart Redefines Performance" (Press release). FCA US. 2012-09-01. Retrieved 2019-07-05.

[138] "New Astra Price/Specification Guide" (PDF). UK: Vauxhall. p. 23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-02. Retrieved 2019-03-02.

[139] "2012 CC Technical Specifications" (PDF) (Press release). US: Volkswagen. Retrieved 2022-01-16.

[140] "Chevrolet Volt - 2011" (Press release). US: Chevrolet. Retrieved 2022-01-16.

[141] "1959-'66 Alfa Romeo Sprint Speciale". hemmings.com. Retrieved 2019-11-15.

[142] Hutton, Ray (July 2000). "Audi A2". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2018-12-16.

[143] "New FIAT Croma in UK" (Press release). Fiat Auto (UK) Limited. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2018-12-16.

[144] Csere, Csaba (May 2002). "2003 Honda Civic Hybrid". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2018-12-16.

[145] "All-New Honda Insight Hybrid Vehicle Introduced in Japan" (Press release). Tokyo, Japan: Honda Motor Co. 2009-02-05. Retrieved 2019-01-09.

[146] Markus, Frank (2010-11-15). "First Look: 2011 Hyundai Elantra - Motor Trend". Motor Trend. Motor Trend Group, LLC. Retrieved 2018-12-16.

[147] Walton, Chris (2010-08-20). "2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid Road Test". Edmunds. Retrieved 2018-12-16.

[148] "Lexus IS Specifications". Archived from the original on 2006-04-08. Retrieved 2006-04-08.

[149] "IS". Archived from the original on 2014-06-09. Retrieved 2014-06-09.

[150] "Special Report: Imports '87". Popular Mechanics. February 1987. p. 126.

[151] Hucho, Wolf-Heinrich (1986). Aerodynamics of road vehicles : from fluid mechanics to vehicle engineering. London: Butterworths. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-408-01422-9.

[152] "The Škoda Fabia: Best-in-class for aerodynamics" (Press release). Škoda. Retrieved 2022-12-16.

[153] Schütz, Thomas (2013-10-07). Hucho - Aerodynamik des Automobils: Strömungsmechanik, Wärmetechnik, Fahrdynamik, Komfort. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8348-1919-2.

[CD_2007_Camry-154] Winfield, Barry (March 2006). "2007 Toyota Camry SE" (PDF). Car and Driver. Hearst Magazine Media. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-08. Retrieved 2019-01-09.

[155] "2017 Toyota Camry Product Information Sheet" (Press release). Archived from the original on 2019-01-09. Retrieved 2019-01-09.

[156] "Quattroporte MY19 Press Kit". media.maserati.com. Retrieved 2019-06-01.

[157] "Nio ES6 EV unveiled in China". Autoblog. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[158] "NIO ES6: Racetrack performance and SUV comfort". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[159] Nate Martinez. "First Test:2013 Ford Fusion". motortrend.com. Archived from the original on 2014-05-17. Retrieved 2014-05-28.

[160] "Ford Unveils All-New Focus" (PDF) (Press release). The Ford Motor Company. 2018-04-10. Retrieved 2018-04-11.

[161] "The BMW 5 Series History. The 4th Generation (E39). - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2021-01-26.

[163] "All-New 2017 Hyundai Elantra Brings Advanced Technology and Premium Convenience to the Compact Car Segment" (Press release). Imperial Beach, California: Hyundai Motor America. 2016-01-26. Retrieved 2018-12-18.

[164] "New 2020 Hyundai Sonata Makes Its North American Debut at the New York International Auto Show" (Press release). New York City. 2019-04-17. Retrieved 2019-07-05.

[165] "Mazda6" (PDF) (Press release) (in German). Germany: Mazda. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-01-20.

[166] "Mercedes-Benz S-Class, W 220 series (1998 to 2005)".

[motortrend1-167] Edward Loh (2011-12-02). "First Drive:2013 Subaru BRZ". Motortrend.com. Retrieved 2013-04-04.

[168] "Attainable Premium, Actualized: All-New 2019 Toyota Avalon Beams Effortless Sophistication, Style, and Exhilaration at the 2018 North American International Auto Show" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2018-01-15. Archived from the original on 2018-07-10. Retrieved 2018-02-08.

[169] "2023 Prius Product Information" (PDF) (Press release). US: Toyota. 2022-12-14. Retrieved 2022-12-14.

[171] > "The new Jetta - world premiere - North American International Auto Show" (Press release).

[172] "NIO Launched Smart Electric Mid-Large SUV ES7". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-06-16.

[173] "NIO ES7 - Far Beyond | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-06-16.

[174] Interone Worldwide GmbH (2008-06-17). "BMW 3 Series Sedan : Technical data". Bmw.com. Archived from the original on 2009-10-13. Retrieved 2009-10-24.

[arstechnica-175] "Sports car with a social conscience: Ars reviews the BMW i8". 2015-07-03.

[176] "Q70_UK.pdf" (PDF). Infiniti Europe. Retrieved 2022-01-31. Coefficient of drag: 0.27 / 0.28 / 0.26

[177] "Jaguar XE (2015) technical details and prices confirmed". Car. 2014-10-01. Retrieved 2014-10-15.

[178] "Mazda Launches Second SKYACTIV Model in Japan: Facelifted Axela".

[179] "Instantly thrilling: The new Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupé". Mercedes. 2015-08-13. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.

[180] "2019 Nissan Altima Press Kit" (Press release). US: Nissan. 2018-03-28. Retrieved 2018-06-22.

[181] "All-new Nissan Sylphy unveiled at Auto Shanghai 2019" (Press release). Shanghai: Nissan. 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2019-04-05.

[182] "Calibra - Proof That Old School Still Rocks @ Top Speed". 2006-10-23.^{[permanent dead link‍]}

[183] "Innovative aerodynamics concept of the Audi e-tron S models" (Press release). 2020-06-17.

[:1-184] "NIO EC6: Our electric coupé with a view of the sky". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[185] "The first ever BMW iX" (Press release). BMW. 2020. Retrieved 2020-11-11.

[C&D-186] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Sherman, Don. "Drag Queens: Aerodynamics Compared" (PDF). Car and Driver. No. June 2014. Hearst Communications. Retrieved 2017-12-29.

[187] "2010 Toyota Prius Product Information | Toyota". Retrieved 2017-10-09.

[188] "Vehicle Coefficient of Drag List". EcoModder. Retrieved 2017-11-16.

[189] "2002 Lexus LS430 Specifications" (PDF). Lexus.ca. Retrieved 2020-01-20.

[190] "2023上海车展｜蔚来全新ES6亮相：秦力洪称今年销量目标不变". finance.sina.com.cn. 2023-04-20. Retrieved 2023-05-25.

[191] "蔚来全新ES6-NIO蔚来官网". www.nio.cn. Retrieved 2023-05-25.

[192] "2023 NIO ES8 Specs, Price and Comparisons - Licarco". Licarco - Latest Electric Cars, E-Motors, Vehicle Comparisons. Retrieved 2023-01-29.

[193] "All New ES8: Redefine Prime | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2023-01-29.

[194] "Technical Data" (Press release). Škoda. 2020-03-16. Retrieved 2020-04-22.

[195] "Model X Tesla Motors". Teslamotors.com. Retrieved 2018-02-13.

[196] "2017 Hyundai Ioniq Hybrid and Electric Models Soon to Be Available to U.S. Consumers" (Press release). Hyundai Motor America. 2017-02-14. Retrieved 2018-01-30.

[197] "All-New Kia Optima Hybrid Unveiled At 2016 Chicago Auto Show" (Press release). Kia Motors America. 2016-02-11. Retrieved 2018-02-08.

[198] "Die technischen Daten der S-Klasse Limousine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-11-11.

[199] "C-Class awarded Environmental Certificate" (Press release). Archived from the original on 2014-09-27.

[200] "Slippery Tesla Model S triumphs in wind-tunnel shootout". Ecomento. 2014-05-30. Archived from the original on 2014-10-19. Retrieved 2014-10-15.

[201] Seabaugh, Christian (2015-11-18). "2016 Toyota Prius First Drive Review". MotorTrend. Retrieved 2015-11-18.

[202] "The first-ever BMW i4. (Specifications)" (Press release). BMW Group. 2021-08-26. Retrieved 2021-11-19.

[203] Krivevski, Blagojce (2020-06-28). "Xpeng Starts Delivery of P7 EV Sports Sedan". Retrieved 2020-06-28.

[PressAudiA4_8w-204] "Audi A4" (Press release). Audi AG. Retrieved 2018-01-27.

[205] "Alfa Romeo at the 2016 Paris International Motor Show" (Press release). Retrieved 2018-01-29.

[206] "Specifications of the all-new BMW 3 Series Sedan, valid from 10/2018" (Press release). 2018-10-02. Archived from the original on 2019-03-17. Retrieved 2019-03-17.

[207] "Press Kit" (Press release). Tesla. Retrieved 2018-03-05.

[208] Maricic, Dane (2022-12-29). "The New Nio EC7 Wins The EV SUV Range Title With Up To 582 Miles On A Single Charge". TopSpeed. Retrieved 2023-01-29.

[209] "NIO EC7: Elegance is Power | NIO". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2023-01-29.

[taycan-210] "Aerodynamics: The best value of all current Porsche models" (Press release). 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2019-10-14.

[212] Disdale, James (2017-01-12). "New BMW 5 Series 2017 review". Auto Express. UK: Dennis Publishing Ltd. Retrieved 2018-01-25.

[213] Kable, Greg (2013-02-07). "Mercedes-Benz CLA180 cheats the wind". Autoweek. Crain Communications, Inc. Retrieved 2018-11-28.

[214] "Li Auto Inc. (NASDAQ:LI) Q3 2023 Earnings Call Transcript". Yahoo Finance (Press release). 2023-11-10. Retrieved 2023-11-15.

[215] "理想MEGA，重新定义MPV" [Ideal MEGA, Redefine MPV]. Li Auto Inc (in Chinese). China. Retrieved 2023-11-15.

[216] Some sources also claim this figure relates to a T87 1:5 model test not T77a"Tatra T600 Tatraplan". www.tatraplan.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-08-28.

[217] Ivan Margolius, 'Model Behaviour', Octane, February 2012, pp. 38-9

[218] Ivan Margolius & John G Henry, 'Tatra - The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka', Veloce, Dorchester, 2015, page 124

[ReferenceA-219] Optimization and computational fluid dynamics, Gàbor Janiga, Springer, 2008, page 196

[europeancarweb.com-220] "Cheating Wind - Aerodynamic Tech and Buyers Guide". europeancarweb.com. Retrieved 2008-03-13.

[221] "Tatra 77 aerodynamic car (czech)". Retrieved 2010-05-17.

[ReferenceB-222] Winning the oil endgame: innovation for profits, jobs and security, Amory B. Lovins, Rocky Mountain Institute, 2004, page 53

[223] "NIO ET7 Achieves 0.208 Drag Coefficient". InsideEVs. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[224] NIO ET7 Certified Drag Coefficient of 0.208, retrieved 2022-01-27

[225] "NIO ET7: Our electric sedan with a range of up to 1000 km". www.nio.com. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[226] Golson, Daniel. "Tesla says the new Model S is the world's most aerodynamic production car". Roadshow. Retrieved 2022-01-27.

[227] "Model S". 2021. Retrieved 2021-02-20.

[228] "The new EQS: passion for electromobility" (Press release). Stuttgart. 2021-04-03. Retrieved 2021-04-06.

[230] "Lucid Air Touring and Air Pure Now Ready for the Road with Market-Leading Range and Aero; Air Sapphire Dominates Test Tracks on the Way to 2023 Introduction" (Press release). Newark, California. 2022-11-15. Retrieved 2022-11-15.

[232] Lye, Gerard (2023-12-28). "Xiaomi SU7 debuts in China – brand's first EV; up to 673 PS, 838 Nm, 800 km range, 265 km/h top speed". Paul Tan's Automotive News. Retrieved 2023-12-28.

[233] Brown, Aaron (2016-03-16). "Here's the story behind GM's revolutionary electric car from the 90s that disappeared". Business Insider. Insider Inc. Retrieved 2018-11-28.

[234] ZOELLTER, JUERGEN (2013-06-14). "2014 Volkswagen XL1". Car and Driver. Hearst Communications, Inc. Retrieved 2017-12-25.

[235] Gent, James (2022-09-19). "Lightyear 0 is the most aerodynamic production vehicle". The Charge. Retrieved 2023-01-29.

[236] "Lightyear". lightyear.one. Retrieved 2023-01-29.

[237] "Original Avion Specifications - 1986". 100 mpg plus. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-11-20. vehicle set the 1986 Guinness World Record for fuel efficiency at 103.7 mpg

[238] Ihrig, Ron (2004-12-03). "Part 3: Production, Physics, Politics – Only the Strong Survive". Car Design News. German Design History. Archived from the original on 2005-01-11. Retrieved 2016-03-25.

[239] Volvo Car Corporation (2005-03-01). "Volvo ECC – the car that gave the world a preview of Volvo's future already back in 1992". media.volvocars.com (Press release). Retrieved 2017-12-15.

[240] "Pininfarina's dream: the PFX". Italian Ways. 2015-04-14. Retrieved 2022-01-04.

[241] "50 000 km avec une Citroën Ax diesel, mon avis d'utilisateur ainsi que son coût kilométrique réel". Generationsfutures.chez-alice.fr. Archived from the original on 2010-10-28. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[242] "Aerodinamica automobilelor si inventia inginerului roman Aurel Persu | Headline, Practic, Utile". 2014-10-09.

[243] "Opel 2002 Eco-Speedster". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-09-30.

[244] "1954 Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7". conceptcarz.com. Retrieved 2019-11-15.

[245] Frank Giovinazzi (2005-06-14). "Mercedes Bionic Concept Car". Carbuyersnotebook.com. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[246] Motor Life-1958

[247] "VISION EQXX – taking electric range and efficiency to an entirely new level". group-media.mercedes-benz.com. Retrieved 2022-04-21.

[248] "Daihatsu UFE-III | Concept Cars". Diseno-art.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[249] "GM Unveils Concept Car That Gets 108 Miles A Gallon". Electrifying Times. US. 2000-01-11. Archived from the original on 2000-05-19.

[250] Annoy as little air as possible, Edison2 blog

[251] "Li-ion Motors Wave II". Li-ionmotors.com. Archived from the original on 2010-12-18. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[252] "The Bizarre German Car That Was Ultra-Aerodynamic—And Totally Impractical". Wired. 2014-09-04. Retrieved 2014-10-15.

[253] Bargmann, Joe (2013-11-04). "Urbee 2, the 3D-Printed Car That Will Drive Across the Country". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 2014-02-10.

[hemmings.com-254] Ludvigsen, Karl. "Turbine Speed with Style". Hemmings Daily. Retrieved 2019-03-12.

[255] "Aptera.us FAQ Section". Retrieved 2021-09-19.

[256] "D & H Enterprises, composites and fibreglass technology". Dhenterprises.com.au. Archived from the original on 2020-03-12. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[257] "Sunchaser 4". South Africa: Tshwane University of Technology. 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-16.

[258] "Australian solar-powered race car nets Guinness World Record after nail-biting finish". ABC News. 2022-12-19. Retrieved 2023-04-29.

[259] z3525182 (2022-12-19). "EV record breakers! Sunswift 7 goes 1000km on a single charge in world's best time". UNSW Newsroom. Retrieved 2023-11-12.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[260] "TU Delft students build a car with the lowest air resistance in the world". Delft University of Technology. 2015-04-20. Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2023-04-29.

[261] "(a bicycle's lower frontal area is offset by a higher drag coefficient)". Lafn.org. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-06-28.

[262] "The Mayfield Company Homepage - Coefficient of Drag Tables and Curves". Mayfco.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[263] "World record defended: The new A-Class Sedan: none is more aerodynamic" (Press release). Stuttgart, Germany: Daimler AG. 2018-07-23. Archived from the original on 2019-05-19. Retrieved 2019-05-18.

[264] Birch, Stuart (2013-03-18). "Mercedes' 2014 CLA is the new low-Cd king". SAE International. Archived from the original on 2018-02-01. Retrieved 2018-01-31.

[265] "Technical Specifications BMW 520d EfficientDynamics Edition, valid from 03/2017" (Press release). BMW. 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-28.

[autospeed.com-266] "AutoSpeed - Aero Testing - Part 5".

[267] "Mazda Xedos 6 1992 Presskit" (PDF). 2023-07-23.

[268] "The All-new Renault Clio: The icon of a new generation fully revealed at Geneva Motor Show" (Press release). 2019-03-05. Retrieved 2019-10-21.

[2018BMWX1-269] "Specifications of the BMW X1, valid from 09/2018" (Press release). BMW Group. 2018-05-11. Retrieved 2019-03-29.

[270] "Renault Zoe Technical Specifications" (Press release). Renault Press. 2016-11-30. Archived from the original on 2018-02-19.

[271] Brooke, Lindsay (2016-01-11). "2017 Pacifica is first hybrid minivan, rides on all-new FCA platform - SAE International". articles.sae.org. SAE International. Retrieved 2019-01-23.

[272] "2019 Ram 1500 – More Space. More Storage. More Technology". www.ramtrucks.com. Archived from the original on 2018-01-16. Retrieved 2018-02-24.

[273] "2022 Wagoneer / Grand Wagoneer Specifications" (Press release). Stellantis. 2021-03-11. Retrieved 2021-06-21.

[274] "Taking the drag out of aerodynamics: Aerodynamics world champion in almost all vehicle classes" (Press release). Daimler. 2013-10-05. Retrieved 2021-03-02.

[275] Santin, J. J.; Onder, C.H.; Bernard, J.; Isler, D.; Kobler, P.; Kolb, F.; Weidmann, N.; Guzzella, L. (2007). The world's most fuel efficient vehicle : design and development of Pac Car II. Zürich: vdf, Hochschulverlag AG and der ETH. p. 113. ISBN 978-3-7281-3134-8.

[276] "Power Consumption - IGSS'13". Retrieved 2015-09-30.

[277] McLeod, Mike (2013-05-26). "The Future of Automotive Design?". Design Engineering. Retrieved 2015-09-25.

[278] "Program: hpvplot (updated 11/12/07)". Ent.ohiou.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved 2010-12-07.

[279] "Opel 2002 Eco-Speedster". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-09-30.

[280] "350 MPGe at $20,000?". Retrieved 2015-09-30.

[281] Maroselli, Yves (2014-09-18). "Renault : la Vesta 2 plus performante en 1987 que l'Eolab en 2015". Le Point (in French). Retrieved 2018-02-08.

[282] "VW reveals 197bhp XL Sport". TopGear.com. October 2014. Retrieved 2020-01-21.

[283] "Specs of Mercedes-Benz Bionic Car Concept (2005)". engineact. Archived from the original on 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2013-05-11.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

Revision as of 11:02, 26 November 2024

The importance of drag reduction

Drag area

Typical drag coefficients

Typical drag coefficients

Drag area

See also

Notes

References

External links