Nambudiri

Namboothiri Brahmin

File:Sankara.jpg Adi Shankaracharya (centre) was a Namboothiri Brahmin who introduced Advaita Vedanta
Total population
approx. 250,000
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Malayalam, knowledge of Sanskrit
Religion
Hinduism
Related ethnic groups
Panch-Dravida Brahmins, Pushpaka Brahmins, Nair, Iyer, Iyengar

The Nambudiri Brahmins (Malayalam: nambũdiri, also transliterated Namputiri, Namboothiri) are the upper class Brahmins of Kerala, who are considered the most orthodox Brahmins in India. They perform rituals in temples of Kerala based on Tantra Vidhi, a complex and ancient branch of Tantric traditions found only in Kerala. Namboothiris follow the conservative and ritualistic Śrauta traditions and the ancient Purva Mimamsa, unlike the majority of other Brahmins in India who follow the Vedanta.

Etymology

Malayalam nambũdiri, Tamil nambũri is derived from Dravidian nambuka "to trust" and tiri (from Sanskrit śrī) "blessed". Popular etymology derives the name from Malayalam nambu "the Veda", ōthu "to teach" and tiri "holy".

Origins

According to modern Keralite Historians the period of the first arrival of Namboothiris in Kerala happened around 5th-7th century AD after the fall of the first Chera Kingdom.the Kadambha King of present day Karnataka Mayoora sharman brought this brahmins from "Arichritham'. The ancient few Brahmins of Chera Kingdom (which became Kerala) were never called Namboothiris in Sangam literature and they were not a significent force also. However, despite these theories there is no concrete evidence to suggest migration of Namboothiri Brahmins to Kerala. The only evidence of Brahmin migration to Kerala is the Embranthiris who were originally Tulu Brahmins.

Myth of origin

The Namboothiris' own tradition holds that Parashuraaman used his Parashu (Axe), to create new land for the Brahmins. Parashuraaman legend is first mentioned in Keralolpathy written in relatively modern period in 1600s (and also Kerala Mahatmiyam).

The legend of Parasurama also exists amongst Brahmins throughout India. He is worshipped in UP and Bihar by Bhumihar Brahmins, Chitpawan Brahmins in Maharashtra and Saraswat Brahmins in Goa. These Brahmin subcastes also hold that they are those Brahmins who were the followers of Bhagwan Parashuram or Parashuraaman or they were created by him. Hence it has to be seen as a myth not exclusive to Namboothiris and Kerala alone. This legend is also present in KeralaMahatmyam (a Sanskrit text which is a part of Brahmanda Purana) as also in Keralaolpathy in Malayalam.

According to this, the land area that Kerala Lord Parashurama created was of 160 "Katams" (a measure of area) in size. The land from Gokarna in the north to the River Chandragiri Puzha in modern Kasargod District of north Kerala is Tulu Nad where Lord Parasurama established 32 villages. South of Chandragiri river he established another 32 villages which are normally referred to as Namboothiri Gramams or villages. Although there are 32 Namboothiri villages spanning from Kasargod in north Kerala to the south, all the important Namboothiri villages both in number of Namboothiri population and importance with respect to Veda prominence and the like are located between river ChandragiriPuzha (Kasargod District) and River Karivannoor Puzha just south of Cherpu in Thrissur District. The Namboothiri Gramams between these two rivers are ten in number. They are Perinchellur(Taliparamba), Payyannur, Alathur, Panniyur (Anakkara, Palghat District), Karikatt(Manjery) and Sukapuram(Edappal); both in Malappuram District, Perumanam or Peruvanam(Cherpu) in Thrissur District and three more. The other 22 Gramams are located in southern parts of Thrissur District and Southern Districts of Kerala. Malayalam was not developed at the time of Adhi Shakaracharya. Hence the etymology could be taken from Tamil language which he know. There are two aspects in finding the etymology. Oneis that in Tamil'nam'means'our' and puthiri is from putham which means something of immensity. Namputhiri simply means our 'great people'. The other aspect is that the ancient Tamil Grammar of Tholkappiyam was from Kerala. In the section of Marabial, mention is made of the five elements of earth, water, fire, skies and space. These are even now called the five puthams or buhthams. These learned Namputhiris incorporated it from theGreek source. Hence they are alled namputhiris.but the Shavite Tamil Brahmins considering Namputhiris as fishermen,whom Parasurama elevated to brahmana position.

Classes of Namboothiri

There are five subdivisions within the Nambudiri caste: The Tampurakkal are the highest in status, the Adhyas, who are temple priests and who form an endogamous subcaste with the Tampurakkal, the Visistas, the Samanyas and the Jatimatras, who practice Ayurveda.

The original Namboothiris are classified into ten sects: These ten classes and their rights and duties are

1. Aadu: They are specialised in Yaagam, and have Yaagaadhikaaram or the right to perform Yaagam.

2. Edu (a page in a book, symbolising knowledge): They have the right to acquire knowledge and teach Sanskrit, Vedam, Linguistics, Astronomy, Astrology, Architecture and so on.

3. Bhiksha (alms, symbolising a saint or a samnyaasi): They have the right to become a saint (or samnyaasi).

4. Picha (also means alms, in crude form): They are Othikkans, helping other Namboothiris to perform rituals.

5. Othu (Spiritual hymns): This class of Namboothiris was basically teachers of Othu (Vedam).

6. Saanthi (temple priesthood): These Namboothiris are priests in temples.

7. Adukkala (kitchen, symbolising cooking): These Namboothiri families were specialists in large-scale cooking and catering. A family belonging to this group has to be consulted on all catering-related issues including for Yaagam.

8. Arangu (stage): This special group of Namboothiris, called Chaathira Namboothiris, was a military group. Their evening entertainment was Panemkali (Sanghakkali).

9. Panthi (dining structure): Namboothiris like Graamani, Thangal, Vaal-Nambi and Ashtavaidyans (all Mooss families except Vaidhyamadham) belong to this category. Vaidhyamadham, though an Ashtavaidyan, belongs to Aadu class, as they are the Vaidyans in the Yaagasaala (the hall where Yaagam is performed). Mooss families are not included in the above eight classes as these physicians perform surgery. Graamani Namboothiris, Thangal Namboothiris and Vaal Nambis are Namboothiris performing village administration and hence excluded from the above eight classes.

10. Kadavu (bathing points in the pond): Elayathu and Adikal are Namboothiris belonging to this category. In elite sub-class of Aadu class above, is a special group of Namboothiris known as "Ashtagrihathil Aadhyanmaar" (eight elite families). They, along with Mezhathol Agnihothri, did 99 yaagas (Yajnas. It could be believed that by conducting 99 Yaagas, members of these eight Namboothiri families have become experts in almost all the aspects of Veda. Looking from that angle, the efforts of Mezhathol Agnihothri and seven other families to preserve the Vedic tradition of Namboothiris are to be appreciated. Agnihotri , who did 99 Agnihotras was stopped by Indra the Sata Kratu (Doer of 100 Yagas) himself from doing the 100th yaga. Agnihotri asked a boon from Indra and uplifted the Ritwiks who helped him. The eight families like Kadamboor Mana, Kulikkalloor Family, ThiruvillaKattil Mana and others became the eight Aristocrats or Ashta Grihathile Aadhyans by the grace of the King of gods' Indra.

The Bhatta title

Bhattathiripad and Bhattathiri are surnames of some Namboothiri families. They are titles gained due to their scholarship. The three types of bhattathiris are Saasthra Bhattathiris, Smaartha Bhattathiris and Bhaagavatha Bhattathiris. The Saasthra Bhattathiris are Namboothiris who were honoured by this title after receiving the "Bhatta" title from the Zamorin raja of Kozhikode after passing various examinations conducted during the famous "Pattathaanam", on their scholarship in Sanskrit, Vedam, Linguistics, Astronomy, Astrology, Architecture, Meemaamsa, Tharkam (logic) and so on. Many elite Namboothiris became Bhattathiripad in this way. The Smaartha Bhattathiris specialised in conducting trials and bringing out the evidences from the mouth of the culprit, if a Namboothiri (man or woman) committed sins in social life. Bhaagavatha Bhattathiris specialize in oratory and recitation of "Puraanams" (epics) like Bhaagavatham. Many Namboothiris became Bhattathiris in this manner.

The Azhvanchery Thamprakkal

The Azhvanchery Thamprakkal is considered the highest authority among the Namboothiris and for any important matter on caste, religion, society etc within Kerala his opinion was final.

Embranthiri

At present, the only known migration of Brahmins to Kerala is that of Tulu Brahmins, The Tulu Brahmins brought to North Kerala (today's Kasaragod & Kannur Districts) during the 17th century, many of whom were resettled between today's Kottayam & Trivandrum Districts, and the later immigrants from Tulu and Chola regions constitute the Saagara, Samudra, Thonnoorukaar, and Thukalasseri Bhattathiris. Many of them were known as Embraanthiris. Many of them have, for practical purposes assimilated into the original Namboothiri community - practising rituals in the Namboothiri style, considered as equals, and even called Namboothiris, especially after the Temple-Entry Proclamation of the Travancore king in early 1900s.

However, neither they nor those who retained the Embraanthiri surnames may participate in rituals along with original namboothiris. There is no ritual to convert others into Namboothiri community. So, practically, original namboothiris do not accept these namboothiris to participate in their ritual. Those Tulu Brahmins who are called Embranthiries still speak Tulu and are considered as Tulu Brahmins. The Malayalam speaking Embranthiries who have the namboothiri surnames of "Namboothiri" and "Potty" are now considered Namboothiries but as secondary citizens. However there are very few Embranthiries who have assimilated to Namboothiri community fully and are now considered equal to original Namboothiries. In south kerala, many old namboothiri families keep the surname of Potty. (E.g the Thanthri family of Taazhman).In earlier times, males of there families were used to affix 'ru' to the end of their names (E.g Kantharu Sankararu). This practice is still continued by some families. The ending 'ru' is a honorific suffix in the Dravidian languages.

Gothras and Pravaras

Each Namboothiri male (or unmarried female) is identified by his/her respective paternal family name. A married female adopts her husband's family name. Each family is affiliated to a Gothra and Pravara. The Gothra name demonstrates the family's traditional style of knowledge acquisition and expertise in ancient theories. Based on the fact that cross-breeding of excellent but different species yields better quality, marriage from a family belonging to the same Gothra was and is still banned for Namboothiris. Looking from another angle, Namboothiris believe that marriage from the same Gothra has a better chance of generating mentally retarded or physically handicapped children or at least children of less intellectual capacity. Each Gothra has several sub-classes known as Pravara. If by mistake, a boy marries a girl of same Gothra, he is not allowed to have sex with her. He has to treat her like he treats his mother.

Common gothra (and their pravara in brackets) among Namboothiris are Bharadwaajam (Amgirasam, Bhaarhaspathyam, Bharadwaajam), Kousikam (Viswaamithram, Akhamarshanam, Kousikam ), Vaatsam ( Bhaargavam, Chyavanam, Aapthavaanam, Ourvam, Jaamadagnyam ), Koundinyam (Vaasishtam, Maithraavarunam, Koundinyam), Kaasyapam (Kaasyapam, Aavatsaaram, Naidruvam), Vaasishtam (Vaasishtam, Indrapradamam, Aabharaswath), Jaamadagnyam (Bhaargavam, Chyavanam, Aapthavaanam, Ourvam, Jaamadagnyam), Viswaamithram (Viswaamithram, Devaraatha Oudalam), Gouthamam (Amgirasam, Aayasyam, Gouthamam ), Athri (Aathreyam, Archanaanasam, Syavaaswam). Eight more Gothras also exist among Namboothiris, as branches of the Gothras listed above. They are Kutsam, Mudgalam, Aamgirasam, Gaargyam, Naidruvam, Saandilyam, Dhaananjayam, and Samkhyaayanam.

Vedic Tradition

Namboothiries belong to three different Vedic groups, those who follow Yajur Veda, those who follow Rig Veda and those who follow the Sama Veda. However there are Namboothiries who are barred from chanting of Vedas. These Veda-less Brahmins lost their right to chant Vedas due to some violations of the Dharma sootra rules at some point of time. The Yajur Vedic Namboothiries follow the Krishna Yajur Veda (Prose and Poetry combined Yajur Veda) and not the Sukla Yajur Veda (Yajur Veda with metre-poetry). The Yajur Veda is divided in to Samhita (literally means collection of Mantras) , Bramhana part (Philosophy) and Aranyaka part. The Namboothiries follow the Tythireeya Samhita. Namboothiries divides the Black (Krishna) Yajur Veda in to Samhita and Sakha (Bramhana and Aranyaka part). Samhita consists of about 48 modules known as Parchams. Sakha consists of 36 Parchams. Each Parchams have sub-modules known as Anuvakam (Sanskrit) or Oath (Malayalam). Hence the Namboothiri name Oath for Vedas.

Sree Rudram is a parcham with eleven Anuvakas(Oaths) dedicated to Lord Rudra (Shiva). Another important Parchams are Chama koottam(Chamakam), Arunam and Aswamedham. All these Parchams are important to Namboothiri Yajur Vedi Bramhanas. The collection of the last three Anuvakas(Oaths) of the last Parcham (named Valli) of Sakha is known as the Tythireeya Upanishad. All the ten major Upanishads belongs to the three Vedas mentioned above. Majority of Namboothiries are Rig Vedic and are spread throughout Kerala. Then comes the Yajur Vedic ones, whose prime settlements are Perinchellur or Taliparamba of Kannur district and Perumanam (Cherpu) of Thrissur district. Less important ones are Irinjalakuda (Thrissur Dt) and Karikatt (Malappuram Dt). Samavedic Namboothiries form a minority and are located in pockets of Kottayam District and in Panjaal near Wadakkancherry division of Thrissur District.

Vedic chanting

Namboothiris, who are entitled to recite Vedams, have evolved a rich and diversified culture of Vedam recitation, following the Seeksha rules while chanting the Vedas. Most of Yajur Vedic Namboothiris (especially Boudhaayanas) follows the Seeksha of Vasishtha (Sage Vasishtha). The Veda chanting way divides all words in to Udatha (High Pitch), Anudatha (Low Pitch) and Swarita. Their recitation is quite different from traditional vedam recitations in other parts of India. This is due to a variety of features, such as the pronunciation of Sanskrit in Kerala. An Important feature is nasalization, a feature of Malayalam in general which seems to be relatively ancient (In Sanskrit it was called "anunaasika athiprasaram"). The methods of chanting by Namboothiris is thought to be one of the oldest forms in existence, and this has been confirmed by various linguists and scholars. The reason for the uncorrupted Vedic chanting by Namboothiris may also be connected with the isolated development of the Namboothiri tradition, which was not exposed to contact with other traditions.

Some Vedic scholars are called "ghanapaathins". It means they have learnt the chanting of the scripture up to the advanced stage called "ghana". "Paathin" means one who has learnt the "paatha". Ghanapaathins chant the ghana by intoning a few words of a mantra in different ways, back and forth. The sonority natural to Vedic chanting is enhanced in ghana. Similarly, in the other methods of chanting like karma, jata, sikha, mala, and so on the intonation is nothing less than stately. The chief purpose of such methods is to ensure that even not even a syllable of Vedic chanting is altered to the slightest extent.

There two special schools for the teaching of Rigvedam, one at Thrissur and the other at Thirunavaya, in Malappuram district. The Thirunavaya School was formed by several Namboothiris and financed by Saamoothiri Raja (King Zamorin) of Malabar. The Thrissur school was supported by the Raja of Cochin. There are differences in the style of recitation of the two Rigvedic schools. The Thrissur school (Brahmaswam Madhom) has a few students even now, while the Thirunavaya school is not fully functioning. Fortunately, a few of its students are being taught at home. The Thrissur school recently started admitting children of families, which originally followed Thirunavaya style. In the Yajurvedam, there are also two traditions that differ slightly in style of recitation, the Peruvanam School tradition and the Irinjalakuda School tradition. Now mostly, the Yajurvedam and Saamavedam are being taught in homes.

Yaaga

Being Śrauta Brahmins, Namboothiris perform mostly two types of yaagas: Agnishtomam, generally known as Somayaagam, and Athiraathra (Agnichayana), popularly known as Agni. While performing of Somayaagam makes a Namboothiri a complete (Nithyam) Braahmanan, Athiraathram is only optional.

The three types of Athiraathra altars constructed by Namboothiris are six-tipped, five-tipped and Peetthan. The six-tipped Agnichayanam and five-tipped are the most common and Namboothiris still practice them. The Peetthan (square bird) has not been constructed for some 150 years. The Yajamaanan (master / leader) is the person who actually performs Yaagam. Not all Namboothiris are permitted to perform Yaagam. Only Namboothiris of Aadu class can perform Yaagam. The Yajamaanan has to be a male Namboothiri having several pre-requisites and qualifications. After yaaga, the Threthaagnis (the three spiritual fires attained through Yaagam) are shown (Kaachi) at and invoked back to the Arani. Once the Threthaagni is invoked back to Arani, the remaining fire in the Yaagasala has conceptually become forest fire with no spiritual content. Also, the Yaagasala has lost its divine nature. The Yaagasaala is set fire to with this fire. The Threthaagni is taken to the Yajamaanan's residence (Illam) and placed in an appropriate location like Vadukkini or Padinjaatti (two rooms in a Namboothiri Illam). The Somayaaga (or Athiraathra) is now over and the Yajamaanan now becomes a Somayaaji (or Akkithiri) and his wife (wives), Paththanaadi. It is using this Threthaagni that the Somayaaji (or Akkithiri) and Paththanaadi perform the rituals, viz., Agnihothram, twice daily, and other rituals through out their married life.

Temple rituals

Namboothiris follow vedic tradition for their spiritual life and Smartha tradition for their social life. They follow the concept of "Sankaranarayanan" (combination of Shaivism and Vaishnavism), unlike other brahmins. Namboothiris do poojas in temples based on Tantra Vidhi. Tantra Vidhi clearly describes the Moola (Basic) mantra of the Gods and Goddesses and their form, and weapons they hold on their arms etc. It begins with chanting of Punyaha Mantra which is in the Samhita part of Vedas. Many Mantras from Tythireeya Samhita of Yajur Veda , Rig Veda and Sama Veda Mantras are used in special poojas and Kalasam, Panchagavyam, Sreebhootavali and Navakam rituals done by Namboothiris in Temples.

Tantram

Tantra Vidhi forbids use of utensils made of iron/steel in temples. Only utensils made of earthen pot, bronze, silver and gold are used. Also Namboothiris perform poojas in a very Satwik way consisting of Jala, Gandhah , Pushpa, Deepa, Dhoopa tradition. Use of meat and alcohol is strictly forbidden. Offerings to God are mostly payasams, rice, puffed rice, coconut and Kadali Banana fruit. Flowers used for Pooja are different for different Gods and Goddesses. The clothing used for many Gods' and Goddesses' are: Satwik Durga - Green, White. Flower- Tulasi, Sandalpaste. Kali- Red. Flower- Red Flowers. Vishnu/Krishna -Yellow. Sastha (Ayyappa) -Black, Blue. Shiva - None.

The daily rituals in Kerala temples are traditionally performed by Namboothiris, and often by Embranthiri migrants from the neighbouring Karnataka, but not by Tamil Brahmins. Even among Namboothiris, only certain designated families deserve to become "Thanthris". Thanthris have to perform the incredible task of transferring ("Aavaahanam") the aura ("Chaithanyam") of God and energizing the idol. There have been numerous books on this topics, written by Namboothiris. The treatises may be divided into three categories - Aagamams (Shaivam), Samhithas (Vaishnavam) and Thanthrams (Saaktheyam). Aagamams include Nigamam versions too. The former are Shivan's advice to Parvathy, while Nigamams are spoken by Parvathy to Sivan. Other classifications are regional, like Vishnukraanthaa, Rathhakraanthaa and Aswaakraanthaa, and also like Yaamalams and Daamarams. Usually, all branches of knowledge are dealt with in Thanthra Granthams.

In Shiva temples Namboothiris perform Abhishekam chanting the Sree Rudram which is one of the forty eight modules of Tythireeya Samhita of Yajur Veda. In other temples Bhagya Sooktam, Purusha Sooktam, Narayana Sooktam are chanted. Namboothiries also perform Othoottu in temples were entire Samhita part of Vedas are chanted.

Marriage

The Namboothiri women are called Antherjanam, the literal meaning being "people inside the house." The travel of Namboothiri girls were limited to the temples or to the house of their immediate relatives, but that too had to be accompanied by a maid servant.

The Namboothiri believed that the girl, during infancy, childhood and youth, is under the wings of gods Soman, Gandharvan and Agni respectively. God Viswavasa protects her virginity. Hence the bridegroom has to thank Viswavasa for protecting her till marriage and then marry her in the presence of Agni. Namboothiri marriage is a four day long ritual.

Sambandham

Main article: Sambandham

Sambandham was the system of marriage amongst Nair and Ambalavasi communities in Kerala. Namboothiris, in order to have a greater influence in the politics of Kerala, entered into Sambandhams with Nair girls (since the system of inheritance was matrilinear for Nairs, the offspring were considered Nairs). The rituals in Sambandham are not sanctified according to Vedic rites, since Sambandham is not supported by blessings from God through Mantrams and advices to the bride, through "Veli Othu", a part of Rigveda. This is why Sambandham was considered a casual relationship. Intermarriage with the Nair caste had been mostly discontinued by the 1920s.

Till the early ages of the common era there was no practise of Sambandham and the practise might have started and encouraged by the Malayala Kshatriyas of Kerala in the later ages when Kshatriyas of Kerala who fought amongst themselves found it difficult to establish marriage relationships among themselves. This was the practice of the members of the Cochin royal family till recently. The female members of Cochin Royal Family were married to Namboothiris (Sambandham) and male members generally marry Nair girls preferably from Paliam house who were the hereditary ministers of Cochin state. Also the Kshatriyas of Kerala followed the matriarchal system (Marumakkathayam) as different from other Kshatriyas of other parts of India. The King of Cochin normally would be a Kshatriya his wife would be Nair lady, son also considered as a Nair and if the Kings' son belonged to the Paliam house, he would be most probably the Prime Minister of the state. Also the father of the Cochin Rajah would be a Namboothiri and mother a Princess of the royal family. Kings' sister also will be considered member of royal family, her husband would be a Namboothiri and her son , who is the nephew of the King would be a Kshatriya and heir to the throne. Therefore the two major communities of Kerala were able to form stronger links with each other through marriage.

Until 1933, only the eldest brother was entitled to marry within the Namboothiri caste. His younger brothers were supposed to practice pure "Brahmacharyam" by being unmarried and to dedicate themselves to preserve Vedams and rituals. Apart from this, those younger brothers, who opted to marry within the caste were excommunicated from the family. Except for a few intelligent and studious ones, most younger brothers turned to more lucrative and worldly affairs like Sambandham.

The practise of Sambandham badly affected the community . Though it avoided partition of property and Temples administered, it prevented the family size from increasing. Newer Namboothiri families also didn't rise due to this practise. Namboothiri population became dependent on the number of houses(Illams). While the population of Nair and other savarna castes steadily increased, Namboothiri population remained stagnant due to Sambandham. This led to a steady decrease in the percentage of Namboothiri population in Kerala. Today there are only an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Namboothiries world wide.

Namboothiri spinsters remained abandoned in the community.

Caste system

The caste system enforced by Namboothiris in Kerala was one of the most rigid in whole India. The rules of untouchability across various levels of castes, and sub castes also. They considered all other castes as shudra, and they practiced untouchability and "aiyitham" with their own lower subsects and with Tamil, Konkani and other brahmins and their own blood related Nair cousins. the regulation on the language used, the regulations on the dress, the regulations on the place of dwelling and also on the construction of the houses were either extreme form of caste rules or unheard of in other parts of India.

Vivekananda, a Hindu monk, famously declared Kerala "a lunatic asylum of castes" after observing the strange caste practices in the society.

Social reforms

The influence of Communism during the start of 20th century made drastic effects on this otherwise orthodox community. The Land Reforms Act, also caused a heavy blow on this community along with their Nair cousins, as large ancestral estates were taken away from them.

Namboothiri Yogakshema Mahaasabha, an association of Namboothiris founded in 1908, took a decision in 1919 and agitated for marriage of all Namboothiris within the community. Sabha declared the marriages of younger brothers from within the community as official, irrespective of whether the elder brothers were married or not. The aim was embodied in the Madras Namboothiri Act of 1933. In the same year, the Madras Marumakkathayam Act was passed, by which Sambandham was considered as a regular marriage, conferring on the children the same rights of inheritance and property as held by children whose parents were both Namboothiris. The declaration and these Acts led to a sudden decline in the number of Sambandham marriages, and this unethical practice ended shortly (in about ten years). Following these acts, Namboothiri land was increasingly partitioned and property dispersed.

The stoppage of Sambandham led to a liberation of Namboothiri wives and girls. They were the major sufferers due to unavailability of Namboothiri boys for marriage because of the above mentioned social taboos, and lot of this girls were married to the same Namboothiri and polygamy was the norm of the day

References

• Marjatta Parpola, Kerala Brahmins in Transition: A Study of a Namputiri Family, Studia Orientalia, vol. 91. Helsinki, Finnish Oriental Society (2000); review: Rich Freeman, American Oriental Society (2004).

See also

• List of Namboothiris
• Brahmins
• Pushpaka Brahmin
• Forward Castes
• Caste system in Kerala
• Nairs
• Kshatriya

External links

• Namboothiri Websites Trust
• Arena for Global Namboothiri's Interaction
• Yogakshema Sabha