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'''Persian empire''' may refer to the following:
{{Otheruses|Persia (disambiguation)}}
*[[Achaemenid empire]]
{{Cleanup|date=March 2009}}
*[[Sassanid empire]]
{{Original research|date=April 2009}}
*[[Historic Iran]], in general
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{{History of Greater Iran}}
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{{Split|Achaemenid Empire|History of Persia|Persia (disambiguation)|date=August 2009}}
The '''Persian Empire''' was a series of successive [[Iran]]ian or [[Persianization|Iraniate]] empires that ruled over the [[Iranian plateau]], the original Persian homeland, and beyond in [[Southwest Asia|Western Asia]], [[South Asia]], [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]].<ref>[[Iranians]], including [[Persians]], [[Medians]], [[Parthians]] and [[Bactrians]] and other Iranian ethnic groups. Iranians are [[Aryans]] of [[Iran]] (Iran means "Land of the Aryans"). [[Persian language]] is an [[Iranian language]] of [[Indo-Iranian]] branch.</ref> The first Persian Empire formed under the [[Median Empire]] (728–559 BC) after defeating and ending the [[Assyrian Empire]] with the help of [[Babylonians]].


==See also==
The [[Achaemenid Persian Empire]] (550&ndash;330 BC) was the [[List of largest empires|largest empire]] of the [[ancient world]] and it reached its greatest extent under [[Darius I of Persia|Darius the Great]] and [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes the Great]] — famous in antiquity as the foe of the classical Greek states (See [[Greco-Persian Wars]]). It was a united Persian kingdom that originated in the region now known as [[Fars Province|Pars province]] (Fars province) of [[Iran]].
*[[Persia (disambiguation)]]


{{disambig}}
It was formed under [[Cyrus the Great]], who took over the empire of the [[Medes]], and conquered much of the Middle East, including the territories of the [[Babylonians]], [[Athura|Assyrians]], the [[Phoenicians]], and the [[Lydians]]. [[Cambyses]], Son of Cyrus the Great, continued his conquests by conquering Egypt. The [[Achaemenid Persian Empire]] was ended during the [[Wars of Alexander the Great]], but Persian Empire arose again under the [[Parthian empire|Parthian]] and [[Sassanid empire|Sassanid]] Empires of [[Iran]], followed by [[Iran]]ian post-Islamic Empires like [[Tahirid]]s, [[Saffarid]]s, [[Buyid]]s, [[Samanid]]s, [[Ghaznavid]]s, [[Seljuk]]s, [[Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty|Khwarezmshahids]]<!-- , [[Ilkhanid]]s, [[Timurid]]s, --> and [[Safavid empire|Safavids]], up to the modern day [[Iran]].

Most of the successive states in [[Greater Iran]] prior to March 1935 are collectively called the ''Persian Empire'' by Western historians.

Virtually all the successor empires of [[Persia]] were major [[Regional powers|regional]] and some major [[international powers]] in their day.

==History==
=== Median Empire (728 BC-559 BC)===
{{Main|Medes}}
{{Infobox Former Country
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|image_map_caption = Median Empire, ca. 600 BC
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The Medes are credited with the foundation of the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified Iranian empire of the Medes and Persians, often referred to as the Achaemenid Persian Empire, by defeating his grandfather and overlord, Astyages the shah of Media. The Median capital was [[Ecbatana]], the modern day Iranian city of [[Hamedan]]. Ectbatana was preserved as one of the capital cities of the Achaemenid Empire, which succeeded the Median Empire.

[[File:Persepolis Apadana noerdliche Treppe Detail.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Iranian [[Median]] (left) and [[Persian people|Persian]] (right) soldiers, Carvings of [[Persepolis]].]]
According to [[Herodotus]], the conquests of [[Cyaxares|Cyaxares the Mede]] were preceded by a [[Scythian]] invasion and domination lasting twenty-eight years (under Madius the Scythian, 653-625 BC). The Mede tribes seem to have come into immediate conflict with a settled state to the West known as [[Mannai|Mannae]], allied with Assyria. Assyrian inscriptions state that the early Mede rulers, who had attempted rebellions against the Assyrians in the time of Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal, were allied with chieftains of the ''Ashguza'' (Scythians) and other tribes - who had come from the northern shore of the [[Black Sea]] and invaded [[Armenia]] and [[Asia Minor]]; and ''[[Jeremiah]]'' and ''[[Zephaniah]]'' in the Old Testament agree with Herodotus that a massive invasion of [[Syria]] and [[Philistia]] by northern barbarians took place in 626 BC. The state of Mannae was finally conquered and assimilated by the Medes in the year 616 BC.

In 612 BC, Cyaxares conquered [[Urartu]], and with the alliance of [[Nabopolassar]] the Chaldean, succeeded in destroying the Assyrian capital, [[Nineveh]]; and by 606 BC, the remaining vestiges of Assyrian control. From then on, the Mede king ruled over much of Iran, Assyria and northern Mesopotamia, Armenia and [[Cappadocia]]. His power was very dangerous to his neighbors, and the exiled [[Jew]]s expected the destruction of [[Babylonia]] by the Medes (Isaiah 13, 14m 21; Jerem. 1, 51.).

When Cyaxares attacked [[Lydia]], the kings of [[Cilicia]] and [[Babylon]] intervened and negotiated a peace in 585 BC, whereby the [[Halys]] was established as the Medes' frontier with Lydia. [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar]] of Babylon married a daughter of Cyaxares, and an equilibrium of the great powers was maintained until the rise of the Persians under [[Cyrus]].

Median Kings were:
*[[Deioces]] (Old Iranian *Dahyu-ka) 727-675 B.C.<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v7f2/v7f288.html R. Schmitt, DEIOCES in Encyclopedia Iranica]</ref>
*[[Phraortes]] (Old Iranian *Fravarti) 674-653
*[[Madius]] (Scythian Rule) 652-625
*[[Cyaxares]] (Old Iranian *Uvaxštra) 624-585<ref name="ReferenceA">I.M. Diakonoff, “Media” in Cambridge History of Iran 2 </ref>
*[[Astyages]] (Old Iranian *Ršti-vêga) 589-549<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Modern research by a professor of [[Assyriology]], Robert Rollinger, has questioned the Median empire and its sphere of influence, proposing for example that it did not control the Assyrian heartland.<ref>[http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/souspresse/annonces/Rollinger-Iran.pdf Robert Rollinger, The Median “Empire”, the End of Urartu and Cyrus’ the Great Campaign in 547 B.C. (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16)]</ref>

===The Achaemenid Empire (550 BC&ndash;330 BC)===
{{Main|Achaemenid Empire}}

[[File:Map achaemenid empire en.png|right|thumb|200px|Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent.]]
[[File:Parsa7.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Persepolis]], ceremonial capital of [[Achaemenid Persian Empire]].]]
[[File:Nowruz Zoroastrian.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[Bas-relief]] in [[Persepolis]] - a symbol [[Zoroastrism|Zoroastrian]] Nowruz - in day of a spring [[equinox]] power of eternally fighting bull (personifying the [[Earth]]), and a lion (personifying the [[Sun]]), are equal]]
[[File:Cyrus cilinder.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The [[Cyrus Cylinder]], deposited by Cyrus the Great in the foundations of [[Babylon]]]]
[[Image:Archers frieze Darius palace Louvre AOD487.jpg|thumb|left|Lancers, detail from the archers' frieze in Darius' palace in [[Susa]]. Silicious glazed bricks, c. 510 BC.]]
The earliest known record of the Persians comes from an [[Assyria]]n inscription from c. 844 BC that calls them the ''Parsu'' (Parsuaš, Parsumaš)<ref>{{Cite book
| edition = 2
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| isbn = 0521228042
| pages = 15
| last = Hammond
| first = N. G. L.
| coauthors = M. Ostwald
| others = John Boardman, D. M. Lewis (eds.)
| title = The Cambridge Ancient History Set: The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 4: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, c.525-479 BC: Persia, Greece and ... C.525-479 B.C. Ed.J.Boardman, Etc v. 4
| date = 1988-11-24
}}</ref> and mentions them in the region of [[Lake Urmia]] alongside another group, the ''Mādāyu'' ([[Mede]]s).<ref name="Mede">{{cite web
|first=
|last=
|authorlink=
|author=[[Simo Parpola|Parpola, Simo]]
|coauthors=
|title=Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today
|url=http://www.aina.org/articles/assyrianidentity.pdf
|format=PDF
|work=[[Assyriology]]
|publisher=[[Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]]
|id=
|pages=3
|page=
|date=
|accessdate=
|quote=Ethnonyms like Arbāyu "Arab", Mādāyu "Mede", Muşurāyu "Egyptian", and Urarţāyu "Urartian" are from the late eighth century on frequently borne by fully Assyrianized, affluent individuals in high positions. }}</ref> For the next two centuries, the Persians and Medes were at times tributary to the Assyrians. The region of Parsuash was annexed by Sargon of Assyria around 719 BC. Eventually the Medes came to rule an independent Median Empire, and the Persians were subject to them.

The Achaemenids were the first to create a centralized state in Persia, founded by [[Achaemenes]] (''Haxamaniš''), chieftain of the Persians around 700 BC.

Around 653 BC, the Medes came under the domination of the [[Scythians]], and [[Teispes]] (Cišpiš), the son of Achaemenes, seems to have led the nomadic Persians to settle in southern Iran around this time — eventually establishing the first organized Persian [[Sovereign state|state]] in the important region of [[Anshan (Persia)|Anšan]] as the [[Elam]]ite kingdom was permanently destroyed by the Assyrian ruler [[Ashurbanipal]] (640 BC). The kingdom of Anšan and its successors continued to use [[Elamite]] as an official language for quite some time after this, although the new dynasts spoke Persian, an [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] tongue.

Teispes' descendants may have branched off into two lines, one line ruling in Anshan, while the other ruled the rest of Persia. [[Cyrus II the Great]] (Kuruš) united the separate kingdoms around 559 BC. At this time, the Persians were still tributary to the [[Medes|Median Empire]] ruled by [[Astyages]]. Cyrus rallied the Persians together, and in 550 BC defeated the forces of Astyages, who was then captured by his own nobles and turned over to the triumphant Cyrus, now [[Shah]] of a unified Persian kingdom. As Persia assumed control over the rest of Media and their large empire, Cyrus led the united Medes and Persians to still more conquest. He took [[Lydia]] in [[Asia Minor]], and carried his arms eastward into [[central Asia]]. Finally in 539 BC, Cyrus marched triumphantly into the ancient city of [[Babylon]]. After this victory, he issued the declaration recorded in the [[Cyrus cylinder]], which portrayed him as a benevolent conqueror welcomed by the local inhabitants and their gods.<ref>Pierre Briant "Cyrus the Great" ''The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization''. Ed. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> Cyrus was killed in 530 BC during a battle against the [[Massagetae]] or [[Sakas]].

[[File:Sphinx Darius Louvre.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Winged [[sphinx]] from the palace of [[Darius the Great]] at Susa.]]
Cyrus's son, [[Cambyses II]] (Kambūjiya), annexed [[Egypt]] to the Achaemenid Empire. The empire then reached its greatest extent under [[Darius I of Persia|Darius I]] (Dāryavuš). He led conquering armies into the [[Indus River]] valley and into [[Thrace]] in Europe. A punitive raid against [[Greece]] was halted at the [[Battle of Marathon]]. A larger invasion by his son, [[Xerxes I]] (Xšayārša), would have initial success at the [[Battle of Thermopylae]]. Following the destruction of his navy at the [[Battle of Salamis]], Xerxes would withdraw most of his forces from Greece. The remnant of his army in Greece commanded by General [[Mardonius]] was ultimately defeated at the [[Battle of Plataea]] in 479 BC.

Darius improved the famous [[Royal Road]] and other ancient trade routes, thereby connecting far reaches of the empire. He may have moved the administration center from Fars itself to [[Susa]], near Babylon and closer to the center of the realm. The Persians allowed local cultures to survive, following the precedent set by Cyrus the Great. This was not only good for the empire's subjects, but ultimately benefited the Achaemenids, because the conquered peoples felt no need to revolt.

It may have been during the Achaemenid period that [[Zoroastrianism]] reached South-Western Iran, where it came to be accepted by the rulers and through them became a defining element of Persian culture. The religion was not only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts and divinities of the traditional (Indo-)Iranian pantheon, but also introduced several novel ideas, including that of [[Free will in theology|free will]], which is arguably [[Zoroaster|Zoroaster's]] greatest contribution to religious philosophy. Under the patronage of the Achaemenid kings, and later as the ''de-facto'' religion of the state, Zoroastrianism would reach all corners of the empire. In turn, Zoroastrianism would be subject to the first syncretic influences, in particular from the Semitic lands to the west, from which the divinities of the religion would gain astral and planetary aspects and from where the temple cult originates. It was also during the Achaemenid era that the sacerdotal [[Magi]] would exert their influence on the religion, introducing many of the practices that are today identified as typically Zoroastrian, but also introducing doctrinal modifications that are today considered to be revocations of the original teachings of the prophet.

The Achaemenid Empire united people and kingdoms from every major civilization in south West Asia and North East Africa. It was overthrown during the [[Wars of Alexander the Great]].

===The Seleucid Empire (312 BC&ndash;63 BC)===
{{Main|Seleucid Empire}}

[[File:Seleucid-Empire 200bc.jpg|thumb|200px|The Seleucid Empire in 200BC, (before Antiochus was defeated by the Romans).]]
The '''Seleucid Empire''' /sə'lusɪd/ ([[312 BC|312]] - [[63 BC]]) was a [[Hellenistic empire]], i.e. a successor state of [[Alexander the Great]]'s empire. The Seleucid Empire was centered in the [[near East]] and at the height of its power included central [[Anatolia]], the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], today's [[Turkmenistan]], [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] and parts of [[Pakistan]]. It was a major centre of Hellenistic culture which maintained the preeminence of [[Greeks|Greek]] customs and where a [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking Macedonian elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas. <ref name=Brit>'''Britannica''','' Seleucid kingdom'', 2008, O.Ed.</ref>

[[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] had conquered the [[Achaemenid Empire]] within a short time-frame and died young, leaving an expansive empire of partly Hellenised culture without an adult heir. The empire was put under the authority of a regent in the person of [[Perdiccas]] in 323 BC, and the territories were divided between Alexander's generals, who thereby became [[satrap]]s, at the [[Partition of Babylon]] in 323 BC.

Alexander's generals (the [[Diadochi]]) jostled for supremacy over parts of his empire, and [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], one of his generals and satrap of [[Egypt]], was the first to challenge the new rule, leading to the demise of Perdiccas. His revolt led to a new partition of the empire with the [[Partition of Triparadisus]] in 320 BC. [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]], who had been "Commander-in-Chief of the camp" under Perdiccas since 323 BC but helped to assassinate the latter, received [[Babylonia]], and from that point continued to expand his dominions ruthlessly. Seleucus established himself in [[Babylon]] in 312 BC, used as the foundation date of the Seleucid Empire.

===The Parthian Empire (250 BC&ndash;AD 226)===
{{Main|Arsacid Empire}}
[[File:LocationParthia.PNG|200px|right|thumb|'''The [[Parthian Empire]]'''.]]

The '''Parthian Empire''' or '''Arsacid Empire''' ({{lang-fa|اشکانیان}}),is the name used for the third imperial [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[dynasty]] (250 BCE - 226 CE).The Parthian dynasty was founded by [[Arsaces I]]({{lang-fa|اشک}} ''Ashk'') and ended when the last parthian [[Shahanshah]] (''King of Kings''), [[Artabanus IV]] defeated by [[Ardashir I]] who later founded The Sassanid Empire.

Its rulers, the [[Arsacid Empire|Arsacid dynasty]], belonged to an Iranian tribe that had settled there during the time of Alexander. They declared their independence from the Seleucids in 238 BC, but their attempts to unify Iran were thwarted until after the advent of [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] to the Parthian throne in about 170 BC.

[[File:SurenaImage.jpg|150px|thumb|Metallic statue of a [[Parthia]]n prince (thought to be [[Surena]]), AD 100, kept at The National Museum of Iran, [[Tehran]].]]
[[File:Parthian Queen Bust.jpg|left|thumb|150px|right|A bust from The [[National Museum of Iran]] of Queen [[Musa of Parthia|Musa]], wife of [[Phraates IV of Parthia]].]]
The Parthian Confederacy shared a border with Rome along the upper Euphrates River. The two polities became major rivals, especially over control of Armenia. Heavily-armoured Parthian cavalry ([[cataphract]]s) supported by mounted archers proved a match for Roman legions, as in the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in which the Parthian General [[Surena]] defeated [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] of Rome. Wars were very frequent, with [[Mesopotamia]] serving as the battleground.
During the Parthian period, Hellenistic customs partially gave way to a resurgence of Iranian culture. However, the area lacked political unity, and the vassalary structure that the Arsacids had adopted from the Seleucids left the Parthians in a constant state of war with one seceding vassal or the other. By the 1st century BC, Parthia was decentralized, ruled by [[feudal]] nobles. Wars with Romans to the west and the [[Kushan]] Empire to the northeast drained the country's resources.
Parthia, now impoverished and without any hope of recovering its lost territories, was demoralized. The kings had to give more concessions to the nobility, and the vassal kings sometimes refused to obey. Parthia's last ruler [[Artabanus IV of Parthia|Artabanus IV]] had an initial success in putting together the crumbling state. However, the fate of the Arsacid Dynasty was doomed when in AD 224, the Persian vassal king [[Ardashir I of Persia|Ardashir]] revolted. Two years later, he took [[Ctesiphon]], and this time, it meant the end of Parthia. It also meant the beginning of the second Persian Empire, ruled by the Sassanid kings. Sassanids were from the province of Persis, native to the first Persian Empire, the Achaemenids.

===The Sassanid Empire (226&ndash;651)===
{{Main|Sassanid Empire}}

[[File:Sassanid-empire-610CE.png|200px|thumb|'''The [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persian Empire]]''' at its greatest extent under Emperor [[Khosrau II]].]]

[[File:Persia 600ad.jpg|thumb|200px|Persia and its neighbors in AD 600.]]

The '''Sassanid Empire''' or '''Sassanian Dynasty''' ({{lang-fa|ساسانیان}}) is the name used for the fourth imperial [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[dynasty]], and the second Persian Empire (226–651). The Sassanid dynasty was founded by [[Ardashir I]] ({{lang-fa|اردشیر یکم}}) after defeating the last [[Parthian|Parthian (Arsacid)]] king, [[Artabanus V]] ({{lang-fa|اردوان پنجم}} Ardavan) and ended when the last Sassanid [[Shahanshah]] (''King of Kings''), [[Yazdegerd III]] (632&ndash;651), lost a 14-year struggle to drive out the early [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphate]], the first of the [[Islamic]] empires.

[[Ardashir I]] led a rebellion against the Parthian Confederacy in an attempt to revive the glory of the previous empire and to legitimize the Hellenized form of [[Zoroastrianism]] practised in southwestern Iran. In two years he was the [[Shah]] of a new Persian Empire.

The [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid dynasty]] (also Sassanian, named for Ardashir's grandfather) was the first dynasty native to the Pars province since the Achaemenids; thus they saw themselves as the successors of Darius and Cyrus. They pursued an aggressive expansionist policy. They recovered much of the eastern lands that the Kushans had taken in the Parthian period. The Sassanids continued to make war against Rome; a Persian army even captured the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] in 260.

The Sassanid Empire, unlike Parthia, was a highly centralized state. The people were rigidly organized into a caste system: Priests, Soldiers, Scribes, and Commoners. Zoroastrianism was finally made the official state religion, and spread outside Persia proper and out into the provinces. There was sporadic persecution of other religions. The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] was particularly persecuted, but this was in part due to its ties to the [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]]. The [[Assyrian Church of the East|Nestorian Christian church]] was tolerated and sometimes even favored by the Sassanids.

[[File:Bas relief nagsh-e-rostam al.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Rock-face relief at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] of Iranian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor Valerian (kneeing) and Philip the Arab (standing)]]
<!-- [[File:HumiliationValerianusHolbein.jpg|thumb|left|The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur ([[Hans Holbein the Younger]], 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, [[Kunstmuseum Basel]]).]] -->
The wars and religious control that had fueled the Sassanid Empire's early successes eventually contributed to its decline. The eastern regions were conquered by the [[White Huns]] in the late 5th century. Adherents of a radical religious sect, the [[Mazdak]]ites, revolted around the same time. [[Khosrau I of Persia|Khosrau I]] was able to recover his empire and expand into the Christian countries of [[Antioch]] and [[Yemen]]. Between 605 and 629, Sassanids successfully annexed Levant and [[Roman Egypt]] and pushed into Anatolia.

However, a subsequent war with the Romans utterly destroyed the empire. In the course of the protracted conflict, Sassinid armies reached [[Constantinople]], but could not defeat the Byzantines there. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] had successfully outflanked the Persian armies in Asia Minor and attacked the empire from the rear while the main Iranian army along with its top [[Eran Spahbod]]s were far from battlefields. This resulted in a crushing defeat for the Sassanids in Northern Mesopotamia. The Sassanids had to give up all their conquered lands and retreat.

Following the advent of Islam and collapse of the [[Sassanid Empire]], Persians came under the subjection of Arab rulers for almost two centuries before native Persian dynasties could gradually drive them out. In this period a number of small and numerically inferior Arab tribes migrated to inland Iran.<ref>Zarinkoob, pp. 355-357</ref>

Also some [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes settled in Persia between the 9th and 12th centuries.<ref>Zarinkoob, pp. 461, 519</ref>

In time these peoples were integrated into numerous Persian populations and adopted [[Persian culture]] and language while Persians retained their culture with minimal influence from outside.<ref>Zarinkoob, p. 899</ref>

===Conquest of Persia by Muslims===
{{Main|Islamic conquest of Persia}}
[[File:Age-of-caliphs.png|200px|thumb|Stages of Islamic conquest {{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under the Prophet Mohammad, 622-632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750}}]]
The explosive growth of the [[Arab]] [[Caliphate]] coincided with the chaos caused by the defeat of [[Sassanid]]s in wars with the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Most of the country was conquered between 643 and 650 with the [[Battle of Nihawand]] marking the total collapse of the Sassanids.<ref>A Short History of Syriac Literature By William Wright. pg 44</ref>
Arabs defeated Persians and other Iranians and introduced their religion.

[[Yazdgerd III]], the last Sassanid emperor, died ten years after he lost his empire to the newly-formed [[Muslim]] Caliphate. He tried to recover some of what he lost with the help of the [[Gok Turks|Turks]], but they were easily defeated by Muslim armies. Then he sought the aid of the Chinese [[Tang dynasty]]. However, the Chinese never intervened on behalf of the Sassanids and instead, appointed Peroz, son of Yazdgerd as the governor over his own territory which the Tang named the "protectorate of Persia". This territory was overrun by the Arabs around the early 660s and Peroz escaped to the Tang court. The Umayyads would rule Persia for a hundred years. The Arab conquest dramatically changed life in Persia. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] became the new [[lingua franca]], Islam eventually replaced [[Zoroastrianism]], and mosques were built.

In 750 the Umayyads were ousted from power by the [[Abbasid]] dynasty. By that time, Persians had come to play an important role in the bureaucracy of the empire.<ref>ISBN 1-84212-011-5</ref> The caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]], whose mother was [[Persian people|Persian]], moved his capital away from Arab lands into [[Merv]] in eastern [[Iran]].

===Tahirid Persian Empire(821–873)===
{{See|Tahirids}}

The [[Tahirid Persian empire]] ([[821]]-[[873]]) is considered to be the first independent Iranian empire from the Abbasid caliphate, established in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. The dynasty was founded by [[Tahir ibn Husayn]] and their capital was [[Nishapur]]. They ruled over the northeastern part of [[Iran]] ([[Persia]]), in the region of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] (parts that are presently in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]]). Tahir's military victories were rewarded with the gift of lands in the east of [[Persia]], which were subsequently extended by his successors as far as the borders of [[India]]. They were overthrown by the [[Saffarids]].

===Saffarid Persian Empire===
{{See|Saffarids}}
[[File:Saffarids 900ad.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Saffarid]] Persian Empire]]
[[Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar|Ya'qub]], the founder of Saffarid dynasty, seized control of the Seystan region, conquering all of modern-day eastern [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]]. Using their capital (Zaranj) as base for an aggressive expansion eastwards and westwards, they overthrew the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirid Persian dynasty]] and annexed [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] in 873.
By the time of Yaqub's death, he had conquered [[Kabulistan|Kabul Valley]], [[Sind]], [[Tocharistan]], [[Makran]] ([[Balochistan (region)|Baluchistan]]), [[Kerman]], [[Fars Province|Fars]], Khorasan, and nearly reached [[Baghdad]] but then suffered defeat.<ref>Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064714 Saffarid dynasty]</ref>

===Samanid Persian Empire===
{{See|Samanids}}
[[File:Asia 900ad.jpg|thumb|200px|Persia in AD 900 AD, divided between the [[Samanids]], [[Saffarids]], and [[Abbasids]].]]
In 819, [[Samanid]]s carved out a semi-independent state in eastern [[Persia]] to be among the first native [[Iranian people|Iranian]] rulers after the Arabic conquest. Despite having roots in Zoroastrianism theocratic nobility, they embraced [[Islam]] and propagated the religion deep into the heart of [[Central Asia]]. They made [[Samarqand]], [[Bukhara]] and [[Herat]] their capitals and revived the [[Persian language]] and culture. The Samanid rulers displayed tolerance toward religious minorities as [[Zoroastrian]] clerics compiled and authored major religious texts, such as the [[Denkard]], in [[Pahlavi literature|Pahlavi]]. It was approximately during this age, when the poet [[Firdawsi]] finished the [[Shahnameh]], an epic poem retelling the history of the Iranian kings. This epic was completed by AD 1009.

===Buwayhid Persian Empire===
{{See|Buwayhids}}

In 913, western [[Persia]] was conquered by the ''[[Buwayhid]]'', a [[Deylam]]ite [[Persian people|Persian]] tribal confederation from the shores of the [[Caspian Sea]]. [[Buyids]] were a [[Shia Islam|Shī‘ah]] [[Iranian people|Iranian]]<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v4f6/v4f6a015.html]</ref><ref>[http://www.iranica.com/articles/v7/v7f4/v7f408.html Encyclopedia Iranica: DEYLAMITES]</ref> dynasty which founded a confederation that controlled most of modern-day [[Iran]] and [[Iraq]] in the 10th and 11th centuries.

They made the city of [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] (In the [[Pars Province]] of Iran) their capital. The Buwayhids destroyed Islam's former territorial unity. Rather than a province of a united Muslim empire, [[Iran]] became one nation in an increasingly diverse and cultured Islamic world.

===Turco-Persian rule (1037&ndash;1219)===
{{Main|Ghaznavid dynasty|Seljuq dynasty|Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty}}

====Ghaznavid Empire(963–1187)====

[[File:Ghaznavid Empire 975 - 1187 (AD).PNG|right|200px|thumb|Ghaznavid Empire at its greatest extent.]]
[[File:Carafe Iran.JPG|thumb|left|100px|Ghaznavid era art: Free-blown, wheel-cut [[carafe]]s. First half of 11th century.]]
The '''Ghaznavids''' ({{lang-fa|غزنویان}}) were an [[Islamic]] and [[Persianate]] Empire of [[Turko-Persian Tradition|Turko-Persian]] ''[[mamluk]]''<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/531266/Sebuktigin "Encyclopedia Britannica - Ghaznavid Dynasty"]</ref> origin which existed from 975 to 1187 and ruled much of [[Persia]], [[Transoxania]], and the northern parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref name="EIr">C.E. Bosworth: The Ghaznavids. Edinburgh, 1963</ref><ref>[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]], ''"Ghaznavids"'', in [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], Online Edition 2006, ([http://www.iranica.com/articles/v10f6/v10f608.html LINK])</ref><ref name="EI">[[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C.E. Bosworth]], ''"Ghaznavids"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition; Brill, Leiden; 2006/2007</ref> The Ghaznavid state was centered in [[Ghazna|Ghazni]], a city in present [[Afghanistan]]. Due to the political and cultural influence of their predecessors - that of the [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Samanids|Samanid Empire]] - the originally Turkic Ghaznavids became thoroughly [[Persianization|Persianized]].<ref name="EIr" /><ref name="EI"/><ref name="Shahrbanu">M.A. Amir-Moezzi, ''"Shahrbanu"'', [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], Online Edition, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp7/ot_shahrbanu_20050131.html LINK]): ''"... here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints ..."''</ref><ref name="E.Yar.">[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f3/v13f3001b.html Encyclopaedia Iranica, Iran: Islamic Period - Ghaznavids, E. Yarshater]</ref><ref>B. Spuler, "The Disintegration of the Caliphate in the East", in the Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. IA: ''The Central islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War, ed. by P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). pg 147: ''One of the effects of the renaissance of the Persian spirit evoked by this work was that the Ghaznavids were also Persianized and thereby became a Persian dynasty.</ref><ref>Anatoly M Khazanov, André Wink, "Nomads in the Sedentary World", Routledge, 2padhte padhte to pagla jayega aadmi, "A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia", Blackwell Publishing, 1998. pg 370: "Though Turkic in origin and, apparently in speech, Alp Tegin, Sebuk Tegin and Mahmud were all thoroughly Persianized"</ref><ref>Robert L. Canfield, Turko-Persia in historical perspective, Cambridge University Press, 1991. pg 8: "The Ghaznavids (989-1149) were essentially Persianized Turks who in manner of the pre-Islamic Persians encouraged the development of high culture"</ref>

The dynasty was founded by [[Sebük Tigin|Sebuktigin]] upon his succession to rule of territories centered around the city of [[Ghazna|Ghazni]] from his father-in-law, [[Alp Tigin]], a break-away ex-general of the Samanid sultans.<ref name="EB">Encyclopedia Britannica, ''Ghaznavid Dynasty'', Online Edition 2007 ([http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036676/Ghaznavid-Dynasty LINK])</ref> Sebuktigin's son, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Shah Mahmoud]], expanded the empire in the region that stretched from the [[Oxus river]] to the [[Indus Valley]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]; and in the west it reached [[Rayy]] and [[Hamadan]]. Under the reign of [[Mas'ud I of Ghazni|Mas'ud I]] it experienced major territorial losses. It lost its western territories to the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuqs]] in the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]] resulting in a restriction of its holdings to [[Afghanistan]], [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] and the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. In 1151, Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni to Ala'uddin Hussain of [[Ghurids|Ghor]] and the capital was moved to [[Lahore]] until its subsequent capture by the [[Ghurids|Persian Ghurids]] in 1186.

Although the Ghaznavids were of Turkic origin and their military leaders were generally of the same stock, as a result of the original involvement of [[Sebük Tigin|Sebuktigin]] and [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] in Samanid affairs and in the Samanid cultural environment, the dynasty became thoroughly Persianized, so that in practice one cannot consider their rule over Iran one of foreign domination. In terms of cultural championship and the support of Persian poets, they were far more Persian than the ethnically Iranian [[Buyids]] rivals, whose support of Arabic letters in preference to Persian is well known.<ref name="Iranica2">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Iran'', EHSAN YARSHATER, Online Edition 2008, ([http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v13f3/v13f3001b.html])</ref>

In fact with the adoption of Persian administrative and cultural ways the Ghaznavids threw off their original Turkish steppe background and became largely integrated with the ''Perso-Islamic tradition''.<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth, ''The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual'', Edition: 2, Published by Edinburgh University Press, 2004, ISBN 0748621377, p. 297</ref>

====Seljuk Empire====

[[File:Seljuk Empire locator map.svg‎|right|200px|thumb|The [[Great Seljuq Empire]] in 1092, upon the death of [[Malik Shah I]]]]
The Seljuks created a very large Middle Eastern empire. The Seljuks built the Friday Mosque in the city of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]]. The famous Persian mathematician and poet, [[Omar Khayyám]], wrote his ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam|Rubaiyat]]'' during Seljuk times.

In the early 13th century the Seljuks lost control of Persia to another group of [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] from [[Khwarezmia]], near the [[Aral Sea]]. The [[Shah]]s of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]] later ruled.

===Mongols and their successors (1219&ndash;1500)===
{{Main|Ilkhanate|Timurid dynasty}}
[[File:Registan sunset.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Mosques with Persian names and designs in [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[India]] illustrate just how far east Persian culture extended due to their conquests. The actual architectural domed design of Mosques were borrowed from the [[Sassanid]] era, which then spilled into the Muslim world.]]
In 1218, [[Genghis Khan]] sent ambassadors and merchants to the city of [[Otrar]], on the northeastern confines of the Khwarizm shahdom. The governor of Otrar had these envoys executed. Genghis attacked Otrar, [[Samarkand]] and other cities of the northeast in 1219.

Genghis' grandson, [[Hulagu Khan]], finished the invasions that Genghis had begun when he defeated the Khwarzim Empire, Baghdad, and much of the rest of the [[Middle East]] from 1255 to 1258. Persia temporarily became the [[Ilkhanate]], a division of the vast [[Mongol Empire]].

In 1295, after Ilkhan [[Mahmud Ghazan]] converted to Islam, he forced Mongols in Persia to convert to Islam. The Ilkhans patronized the arts and learning in the great tradition of Iranian Islam; indeed, they helped to repair much of the damage of the Mongol conquests.

In 1335, the death of [[Abu Sa'id (Ilkhanid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id]], the last well-recognized Ilkhan, spelled the end of the Ilkhanate. Though [[Arpa Ke'un]] was declared Ilkhan his authority was disputed and the Ilkhanate was splintered into a number of small states. This left Persia vulnerable to conquest at the hands of [[Timur the Lame]] or Tamerlane, a Central Asian conqueror seeking to revive the Mongol Empire. He ordered the attack of Persia beginning around 1370 and robbed the region until his death in 1405. Timur is known for his brutality; in [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], for instance, he was responsible for the murder of 70,000 people so that he could build towers with their skulls{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}. He conquered a wide area and made his own city of Samarkand rich, but he failed to forge a lasting empire. The Persian Empire was essentially in ruins.

For the next hundred years Persia was not a unified state. It was ruled for a while by descendants of Timur, called the [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] [[emir]]s. Toward the end of the 15th century, Persia was taken over by the Emirate of the [[White Sheep Turkmen]] (''Ak Koyunlu''). But there was little unity and none of the sophistication that had defined Iran during the glory days of Islam.

===Safavid Persian Empire (1500&ndash;1722)===
{{Main|Safavid Dynasty}}
[[File:Esfahan Shah Sq2.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Naghsh-i Jahan Square]] is one of the many monuments built during the Safavid era.]]
[[File:Ali Qapu night.jpg|thumb|200px|Persian art and architecture reached an apex during the reign of the Safavid dynasty.]]

The [[Safavid Dynasty]] hailed from the town of [[Ardabil]] in the region of [[Iranian Azerbaijan|Azarbaijan]]. The Safavid Shah [[Ismail I]] overthrew the White Sheep (Akkoyunlu) Turkish rulers of Persia to found a new native Persian empire. Ismail expanded Persia to include all of present-day Azerbaijan, Iran, and Iraq, plus much of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]]. Ismail's expansion was halted by the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[Battle of Chaldiran]] in 1514, and war with the Ottomans became a fact of life in Safavid Iran.

Safavid Persia was a violent and chaotic state for the next seventy years, but in 1588 Shah [[Abbas I of Persia]] ascended to the throne and instituted a cultural and political renaissance. He moved his capital to Isfahan, which quickly became one of the most important cultural centers in the Islamic world. He made peace with the Ottomans. He reformed the army, drove the [[Uzbeks]] out of Iran and into modern-day [[Uzbekistan]], and (with English help) recaptured the island of [[Hormozgān Province|Hormuz]] from the [[Portugal|Portuguese]]. [[Abdur Razzaq (traveller)|Abdur Razzaq]] was the Persian ambassador to [[Calicut]], [[India]], and wrote vividly of his experiences there.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://india_resource.tripod.com/Europetrade.html
|title=European Domination of the Indian Ocean Trade
|publisher=
|accessdate=2007-01-10
}}</ref>

The Safavids were followers of [[Shi'a]] Islam, and under them Persia (Iran) became the largest [[Shi'a]] country in the Muslim world, a position Iran still holds today.

Under the Safavids Persia enjoyed its last period as a major imperial power. In 1639, a final border was agreed upon with the Ottoman Empire with the Treaty of Qasr-e Shirin; which delineates the border between the Republic of [[Turkey]] and Iran and also that of between Iraq and Iran, today.

===Persia and Europe (1722&ndash;1914)===
[[File:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An 18th century Persian [[astrolabe]]. Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], the [[natural philosophy]] and [[mathematics]] of [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] were furthered and preserved within the Muslim world. During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of [[Measuring instrument|scientific instrument]]s, retaining its reputation for quality well into the 19th century.]]

In 1722, the Safavid state collapsed. That year saw the first European invasion of Persia since the time of Heraclius: [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], [[List of Russian rulers|Emperor]] of [[Imperial Russia]], invaded from the northwest as part of a bid to dominate central Asia. Ottoman forces accompanied the Russians, successfully laying siege to Isfahan.

The Russians conquered the city of Baku and its surroundings. The Turks also gained territory. However, the Safavids were severely weakened, and that same year (1722), the [[Pashtuns|Afghans]] launched a bloody battle in response to the Safavids' attempts on trying to forcefully convert them from [[Sunni]] to [[Shi'a]] sect of Islam. The last Safavid shah was executed, and the dynasty came to an end.

The Persian empire experienced a temporary revival under [[Nader Shah]] in the 1730s and 1740s. Nadir checked the advances of the Russians and defeated the Afghans, later recapturing all of Afghanistan. He also launched successful campaigns against the nomadic khanates of Central Asia, and the Arabs of Oman. He also recaptured the territories lost to the Ottomans and invaded the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In 1739, he attacked and looted [[Delhi]], the capital of [[Moghul]] India. After Nadir Shah was assassinated, the empire was ruled by the [[Zand dynasty]]. Iran was left unprepared for the worldwide expansion of [[List of former European colonies|European colonial empires]] in the late 18th century and throughout the 19th century.

Persia found relative stability in the [[Qajar dynasty]], ruling from 1779 to 1925, but lost hope to compete with the new industrial powers of Europe; Persia found itself sandwiched between the growing Russian Empire in [[Central Asia]] and the expanding [[British Empire]] in [[India]]. Each carved out pieces from the Persian empire that became [[Bahrain]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Uzbekistan]] amongst other previous provinces.

Although Persia was never directly invaded, it gradually became economically dependent on [[Europe]]. The [[Anglo-Russian Entente|Anglo-Russian Convention]] of 1907 formalised Russian and British control over the north and south of the country, respectively, where Britain and Russia each created a "[[sphere of influence]]", wherein the colonial power had the final say on economic matters.

At the same time [[Mozzafar-al-Din]] shah had granted a concession to [[William Knox D'Arcy]], later the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, to explore and work the newly-discovered oil fields at [[Masjid Soleiman]] in southwest Persia, which started production in 1914. [[Winston Churchill]], as [[First Sea Lord]] to the British [[Admiralty]], oversaw the conversion of the [[Royal Navy]] to oil-fired battleships and partially nationalized it prior to the start of war. A small Anglo-Persian force was garrisoned there to protect the field from hostile tribal factions.
{{See also|The Great Game}}
{{See also|Anglo-Persian War}}

===World War I and the Interbellum (1914&ndash;1935)===
[[File:Baghe Eram Shiraz edit.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Eram Garden]], built in the [[Qajar]] era is an example of Persian architecture of that time.]]
[[File:Qajari relief.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Persian low relief from [[Qajar]] era in the style of [[Persepolis]], located at [[Tangeh Savashi]].]]
The [[Persian Campaign]] was waged on the Persian land during [[World War One]].<ref>William J. Olson "Anglo-Iranian Relations During World War I" Routledge, 1984, pp. 1–305</ref> Persia was drawn into the periphery of [[World War I]] because of its strategic position between [[Afghanistan]] and the warring [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], [[Imperial Russia|Russian]], and [[British Empire]]s. In 1914 Britain sent a military force to [[Mesopotamia]] to deny the Ottomans access to the Persian oilfields. The [[German Empire]] retaliated on behalf of its ally by spreading a rumour that Kaiser [[Wilhelm II of Germany]] had converted to [[Islam]], and sent agents through Iran to attack the oil fields and raise a [[Jihad]] against British rule in [[India]]. Most of those German agents were captured by Persian, British and Russian troops who were sent to patrol the Afghan border, and the rebellion faded away. This was followed by a German attempt to abduct [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] which was foiled at the last moment.

In 1916 the fighting between Russian and Ottoman forces to the north of the country had spilled down into Persia; Russia gained the advantage until most of her armies collapsed in the wake of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. This left the [[Caucasus]] unprotected, and the Caucasian and Persian civilians starving after years of war and deprivation. In 1918 a small force of 400 British troops under [[General Dunsterville]] moved into the Trans-Caucasus from Persia in a bid to encourage local resistance to German and Ottoman armies who were about to invade the [[Baku]] oilfields. Although they later withdrew back into Persia, they did succeed in delaying the Turks access to the oil almost until the [[Armistice]]. In addition, the expedition’s supplies were used to avert a major famine in the region, and a camp for 30,000 displaced refugees was created near the Mesopotamian frontier.

In 1919, northern Persia was occupied by the British General [[William Edmund Ironside]] to enforce the Turkish [[Armistice]] conditions and help General <!--Malleson? or-->[[Dunsterville]] and Colonel [[Bicherakhov]] to contain [[Bolshevik]] influence (of [[Mirza Kuchak Khan]]) in the north. Britain also took tighter control over the increasingly lucrative oil fields.

In 1925, [[Reza Shah Pahlavi]] seized power from the Qajars and established the new [[Pahlavi dynasty]], the last Persian monarchy before the establishment of the [[Islamic Republic]]. However, Britain and the [[Soviet Union]] remained the influential powers in Persia into the early years of the [[Cold War]].

On March 21, 1935, ''Iran'' was officially accepted as the new name of the country. After Persian scholars' protested this decision on the grounds that it represented a break with their classical past and seemed to be unduly influenced by the "Aryan" propaganda from Nazi Germany, in 1953 Mohammad Reza Shah announced both names "Iran" and "Persia" could be used.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}

==Legacy==
The role of Persia [[Iran|(Iran)]] in history is highly significant; In fact, the [[Germany|German]] philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] considered the ancient Persians to be ''the first historic people'' and stated: ''"In Persia first arises that light which shines itself and illuminates what is around... The principle of development begins with the history of Persia; this constitutes therefore the beginning of history"''.<ref>[[Georg Hegel]] in ''[[The Philosophy of History]]'', (trans.) J. Sibree, Buffalo, 1991, p. 173.</ref>

[[Richard Nelson Frye]]:

{{quote|Few nations in the world present more of a justification for the study of history than Iran.<ref>[[Richard Nelson Frye]] in ''The Golden Age of Persia''.</ref>}}

==Timeline==
{{History Timeline of Iran}}

==Persia in fiction==
* The Persian Empire is the seat of power for the [[sultan]] [[Shahryar]], husband of [[Scheherazade]] in the ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights|1001 Nights]]'' — though the tales themselves span from China to the Middle East and even parts of North Africa.
* ''[[Prince of Persia]]'' is a puzzle and action-based video game series set in a mythological version of Ancient Persia.
* The [[historical fantasy]] ''[[The Dragon of the Ishtar Gate]]'' by [[L. Sprague de Camp]] is set in Babylon during the last few years of [[Xerxes I]] reign.
* The [[historical novel]] ''[[Creation (novel)|Creation]]'' by [[Gore Vidal]], about a Persian diplomat who travels the known world studying religious beliefs on behalf of [[Darius the Great]].
* The ''[[Prince of Nothing]]'' books by [[R. Scott Bakker]], set in a fictional land that draws influence from Hellenistic [[Greece]], [[Scythia]], and the Persian Empire.
* ''[[Gates of Fire]]'', by [[Steven Pressfield]] and 300 by [[Frank Miller (comics)|Frank Miller]], about the Battle of Thermopylae.
* [[Mary Renault]]'s second book in her trilogy on [[Alexander the Great]]. ''[[The Persian Boy]]'', narrated by [[Bagoas (courtier)|Bagoas]] set during Alexander the Great's reign of Persia.
* [[Robert E. Howard]]'s short story ''[[The Shadow of the Vulture]]'', featuring [[Red Sonya]], is set in the [[Safavid Dynasty]], as she seeks vengeance on an [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan. It was published in ''[[Oriental Stories/The Magic Carpet (magazine)|The Magic Carpet Magazine]]'', a magazine that was known for their stories set in the Orient.
* ''[[Godless Man]]'', by [[P. C. Doherty|Paul Doherty]] - An historical mystery, set during the reign of Alexander the Great (who is also a major character). Telamon, friend and physician of Alexander, must unravel the threatening murders by a high-ranking Persian spy only known as "the Centaur". Second part of a trilogy.
* ''[[Hadassah: One Night with the King]]'' by [[Tommy Tenney]], tells the story of Esther, Queen of Persia.
* ''[[Gardens of Light]]'' by [[Amin Maalouf]]
* ''[[Persia: The Land of the Magi or the Home of the Wisemen]]'' by [[Samuel K. Nweeya]]
* The Sassanid Persian Empire was featured as the ally of [[Byzantium]] in the jointly written six book long [[Bellisarius Saga]] by [[David Drake]] and [[Eric Flint]].
* The [[Battle of Thermopylae]], part of the Persian invasion of [[Greece]] in 480 BC, is dramatically retold in [[Frank Miller (comics)|Frank Miller]]'s [[comic book]] (and subsequent film) [[300 (comics)|300]] and features such historical figures as Persian King [[Xerxes I]] and [[Sparta]]n King [[Leonidas I]].
* ''[[Jamshid and the Lost Mountain of Light]]'' by [[Howard Lee]] - A children's book which draws heavily from Persian mythology
* Historical fiction ''[[Roxana Romance]]'' by A. J. Cave chronicles the life of [[Roxana]], wife of [[Alexander the Great]], after the fall of the imperial [[Achaemenids]].
* ''[[The Phantom of the Opera]]'' by [[Gaston Leroux]] has a main character known only as "[[The Persian]]" or "Daroga".

== See also ==
{{portal|Iran|Coat_of_arms_of_Iran.svg}}
{{portal|Zoroastrianism|Faravahar.svg}}
* [[Iran]]
* [[Greater Iran]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[Geography of Iran]]
* [[Aryan]]
* [[Persian people]]
* [[Persian culture]]
* [[Persianization]]
* [[Science in Iran|Science in Persia]]
* [[List of kings of Persia]]
* [[List of Iranian scientists]]
* [[List of monarchies]]
* [[Capitals of Persia]]
* [[Prince of Persia]] (video game)
* [[Wildlife of Iran]]

== References ==
* Stronach, David "Darius at Pasargadae: A Neglected Source for the History of Early Persia," Topoi
* [[Abdolhossein Zarinkoob]], ''Ruzgaran: tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi'' Sukhan, 1999. ISBN 964-6961-11-8
* Ali Akbar Sarfaraz, Bahman Firuzmandi ''Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani'', Marlik, 1996. ISBN 964-90495-1-7
* Daniel, Elton, ''The History of Iran'', Greenwood Press, 2001
* [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/historic_periods.php Iran Chamber Society (History of Iran)]

== Notes==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*[[Harold Walter Bailey|Bailey, Harold]] (ed.) ''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Cambridge University Press 1993, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-45148-5
*Wiesehofer, Josef: ''Ancient Persia''
*J. E Curtis and N. Tallis: ''Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia''
* [[Pierre Briant]]: ''From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire'', Eisenbrauns: 2002, ISBN 978-1-57506-0310
* Richard N. Frye: ''The Heritage of Persia''
* A.T. Olmstead: ''History of the Persian Empire''
* Lindsay Allen: ''The Persian Empire''
* J.M. Cook: ''The Persian Empire''
* Tom Holland: ''Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West''
* Amini Sam: ''Pictorial History of Iran: Ancient Persia Before Islam 15000 B.C.-625 A.D.''
* ''Timelife Persians: Masters of the Empire (Lost Civilizations)''
* ''Houchang Nahavandi, The Last Shah of Iran - Fatal Countdown of a Great Patriot betrayed by the Free World, a Great Country whose fault was Success, Aquilion, 2005,'' ISBN 1-904997-03-1
* Farrokh, Kaveh: ''Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War'', Osprey: 2007, ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3
* Brosius, Maria: ''The Persians: An Introduction'', Routledge:2006, ISBN 978-0-41532-090-0
* Wiesehofer, Joseph ''Ancient Persia'' New York:1996 I.B. Tauris

==External links==
* [http://www.persian.asia/videos/the-persian-empire The Persian Empire]
* [http://www.farsmovie.com/eng/index.htm Iran, The Forgotten Glory - Documentary Film About Ancient Iran (achaemenids & Sassanids)]
* [http://www.persiandna.com/history.htm Iran before Iranians - Complete History of Persian Empire]
* [http://www.chnpress.com/ Iran’s Cultural Heritage News Agency (CHN)]
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS272xB4/ Persia], by S.G.W. Benjamin, 1891
* [http://www.ichodoc.ir/ Iran Cultural Heritage Organization Documentation Center] (Persian)
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook05.html Ancient History Sourcebook: Persia]
* [http://www.to-miras.ir/ Iran Cultural Heritage Organization Technical Office for Preservation and Restoration] (Persian)
* [http://www.rcccr.org/ Iran Research Center for Conservation of Cultural Relics]
* [http://www.persepolis.ir/ Persepolis Official website]
* [http://www.persianlanguage.ir Persian Language] (Persian)
* [http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI.html Oriental Institute Photographic Archives] (Nearly 1,000 archaeological photographs of Persepolis and Ancient Persia)
* Hamid-Reza Hosseini, ''Shush at the foot of [[Louvre]]'' (''Shush dar dāman-e Louvre''), in Persian, Jadid Online, 10 March 2009, [http://www.jadidonline.com/story/10032009/frnk/susa_shush].<br />Audio slideshow: [http://www.jadidonline.com/images/stories/flash_multimedia/Susa_shush_test/susa_high.html] (6 min 31 sec).

{{coord missing|Iran}}

[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Former empires]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Asia]]
[[Category:Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:Medes]]
[[Category:Pre Islamic history of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:History of Iraq]]
[[Category:Persian-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Ancient Persia]]
[[Category:Civilizations]]

[[als:Persien]]
[[ar:إمبراطورية فارسية]]
[[be:Персідская імперыя]]
[[bg:Персийска империя]]
[[ca:Imperi Persa]]
[[cv:Перси]]
[[ceb:Imperyong Persyano]]
[[cs:Perská říše]]
[[cy:Ymerodraeth Persia]]
[[da:Persien]]
[[de:Perserreich]]
[[el:Περσία]]
[[es:Persia]]
[[eo:Persio]]
[[fa:شاهنشاهی ایران]]
[[fr:Perse]]
[[fy:Perzyske Ryk]]
[[gl:Persia]]
[[ko:페르시아 제국]]
[[hi:फ़ारस]]
[[hr:Perzija]]
[[id:Kekaisaran Persia]]
[[is:Persía]]
[[it:Persia]]
[[he:ממלכת פרס]]
[[la:Imperium Persarum]]
[[lt:Senovės Persija]]
[[hu:Perzsa Birodalom]]
[[mk:Персија]]
[[ms:Empayar Parsi]]
[[fj:Na Matanitu ki Perisia]]
[[nl:Perzische Rijk]]
[[ja:ペルシア]]
[[no:Perserriket]]
[[nn:Persia]]
[[pt:Pérsia]]
[[ro:Imperiul Persan]]
[[ru:Персидская империя]]
[[sm:Le Malo o Peresia]]
[[sq:Perandoria e Persisë]]
[[sk:Perzská ríša]]
[[sl:Perzija]]
[[sr:Персијско царство]]
[[sh:Perzija]]
[[fi:Persia]]
[[sv:Persiska riket]]
[[th:จักรวรรดิเปอร์เชีย]]
[[tl:Imperyong Persiyano]]
[[ta:பாரசீகப் பேரரசு]]
[[tr:İran tarihi]]
[[uk:Персія]]
[[vi:Đế quốc Ba Tư]]
[[zh-classical:波斯]]
[[zh:波斯]]

Revision as of 16:03, 21 August 2009

Persian empire may refer to the following:

See also

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