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There are numerous initiatives and campaigns which have been used to curb the spread of HIV in Africa, such as the [[Abstinence, be faithful, use a condom]] or ABC campaign.
There are numerous initiatives and campaigns which have been used to curb the spread of HIV in Africa, such as the [[Abstinence, be faithful, use a condom]] or ABC campaign.


One of the greatest problems many African countries face, due to high prevalence rates, is "HIV fatigue", where populations are not interested in hearing more about a disease they hear about constantly. In order to address this, novel approaches are often required. In 2011, the [[Education in Botswana|Botswana Ministry of Education]] will be introducing new HIV/AIDS educational technology for schools. The [[TeachAIDS]] prevention software, developed at [[Stanford University]], will be distributed to every primary, secondary, and tertiary educational institution in the country, reaching all learners from 6 to 24 years of age nationwide.<ref>{{cite web |title=UNICEF funds TeachAIDS work in Botswana|url=http://teachaids.org/blog/unicef-funds-teachaids-work-in-botswana/|work=TeachAIDS|date=2 June 2010|accessdate=24 January 2011}}</ref>
One of the greatest problems many African is cool haha countries face, due to high prevalence rates, is "HIV fatigue", where populations are interested in hearing more about a disease they hear about constantly. In order to address this, novel approaches are often required. In 2011, the [[Education in Botswana|Botswana Ministry of Education]] will be introducing new HIV/AIDS educational technology for schools. The [[TeachAIDS]] prevention software, developed at [[Stanford University]], will be distributed to every primary, secondary, and tertiary educational institution in the country, reaching all learners from 50 to 24 years of age nationwide.<ref>{{cite web |title=UNICEF funds TeachAIDS work in Botswana|url=http://teachaids.org/blog/unicef-funds-teachaids-work-in-botswana/|work=TeachAIDS|date=2 June 2010|accessdate=24 January 2011}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 20:27, 30 November 2012

Estimated HIV infection in Africa in 2007.

HIV/AIDS is a major public health concern and cause of death in many parts of Africa. Although Africa is home to about 14.5% of the world's population, it is estimated to be home to 69% of all people living with HIV and to 72% of all AIDS deaths in 2009.[1]

Southern Africa is the worst affected region of Africa, as well as the worst affected region in the world, with the epidemic reaching very high levels in Swaziland, Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Namibia.[2] By contrast, North Africa has low HIV/AIDS rates.

Overview

World map of life expectancy
  +80
  +77.5
  +75
  +72.5
  +70
  +67.5
  +65
  +60
  +55
  +50
  +45
  +40
  - 40
.
Regional comparisons of HIV in 2009[1]
World region Adult HIV prevalence
(ages 15–49)		 Total HIV
cases		 AIDS deaths
in 2005
Sub-Saharan Africa 5.0% 22.5 million 1.3 million
Worldwide 0.8% 33.3 million 1.8 million
North America 0.5% 1.5 million 26,000
Western and Central Europe 0.2% 820,000 8,500

The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) has predicted outcomes for the region to the year 2025. These range from a plateau and eventual decline in deaths beginning around 2012 to a catastrophic continual growth in the death rate with potentially 95 million cases of infection.

Without the kind of health care and medicines (such as antiretrovirals) that are available in developed countries, large numbers of people in Africa will develop AIDS. They will not only be unable to work, but will also require significant medical care. This will likely cause a collapse of economies and societies.

In an article titled "Death Stalks A Continent", Johanna McGeary attempts to describe the severity of the issue. “Society's fittest, not its frailest, are the ones who die—adults spirited away, leaving the old and the children behind. You cannot define risk groups: everyone who is sexually active is at risk. Babies too, [are] unwittingly infected by mothers. Barely a single family remains untouched. Most do not know how or when they caught the virus, many never know they have it. Many who do know don't tell anyone as they lie dying”.[3]

Origins of AIDS in Africa

Main article: Origin of AIDS

Recent theories have linked the earliest known cases of AIDS to west Africa. The predominant feature of this first period was silence. Hypotheses include linking the disease to the preparation for consumption of bushmeat in Cameroon, or sexual contact with monkeys, with this last hypothesis being met with skepticism, as this is an extremely uncommon practice in African countries. Current hypotheses also include colonial medical practices of mid-20th-century which, once the virus made the jump from chimpanzees or other apes to humans, may have helped HIV become established in human populations around 1930.[4] It is highly probable that this is where the disease originated since early cases of it have been traced back to colonial Africa in the rubber plantations but no scientific evidence has been found.

History

Although many governments in Sub-Saharan Africa denied that there was a problem for years, they have now begun to work toward solutions.

One of the strongest and most effectives solutions has been the introduction of the ABC method of AIDS. This stands for Abstinence, Be faithful, and Condom use. This method promotes safer sexual behavior and emphasizes the need for fidelity, fewer sexual partners, and a later age of sexual debut. This method helped drop the AIDS percentage in Uganda 10% from 1990 to 2001.

Strong prevention programs are the cornerstone of effective national responses to AIDS, and the required changes in the health sector have presented huge challenges.

The global response to HIV and AIDS has improved considerably in recent years. Funding comes from many sources, the largest of which are the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, and the US initiative known as PEPFAR[citation needed].

Causes and spread

Cultural factors

It has been argued [5] that the practice of female circumcision has led to an increased incidence of AIDS in Africa, since intercourse with a circumcised female is conducive to an exchange of blood.

Political factors

Major African political leaders have denied the link between HIV and AIDS, favoring alternate theories.[6] The scientific community considers the evidence that HIV causes AIDS to be conclusive and rejects AIDS-denialist claims as pseudoscience based on conspiracy theories, faulty reasoning, cherry picking, and misrepresentation of mainly outdated scientific data. Despite its lack of scientific acceptance, AIDS denialism has had a significant political impact, especially in South Africa under the former presidency of Thabo Mbeki.

Medical suspicion

There are high levels of medical suspicion throughout Africa, and there is evidence that such distrust may have a significant impact on the use of medical services.[7][8] The distrust of modern medicine is sometimes linked to theories of a "Western Plot"[9] of mass sterilization or population reduction, perhaps a consequence of several high profile incidents involving Western medical practitioners.[10]

Economic factors

Lack of money is an obvious challenge, although a great deal of aid is distributed throughout developing countries with high HIV/AIDS rates. For African countries with advanced medical facilities, patents on many drugs have hindered the ability to make low cost alternatives.[11] VaxGen, a California company, has come up with the most advanced vaccine called AIDSVAX, but this has only been found effective in the Asian and black populations, thus[11][12] funding for further research for this has been lacking since money cannot be obtained from poor African governments, and once it is found, the vaccine would not be able to be made, the costs would be prohibitive to poor Asian and Africans[clarification needed].[11][12]

Natural disasters and conflict are also major challenges, as the resulting economic problems people face can drive many young women and girls into patterns of sex work in order to ensure their livelihood or that of their family, or else to obtain safe passage, food, shelter or other resources.[13] Emergencies can also lead to new patterns of sex work, for instance, in Mozambique the influx of humanitarian workers and transporters, such as truck drivers, can cause sex workers to move to the area.[13] In northern Kenya, for instance, drought has led to a decrease in clients for sex workers, and the result is that sex workers are less able to resist their clients' refusal to wear condoms.[13]

Pharmaceutical industry

African countries are also still fighting against what they perceive as unfair practices in the international pharmaceutical industry.[14] Medical experimentation occurs in Africa on many medications, but once approved, access to the drug is difficult.[14] Drug companies must make a return on the money they invest on research and work to obtain patents on their intellectual capital investments which restrict generic alternatives production. Patents on medications have prevented access to medications as well as the growth in research for more affordable alternatives. These pharmaceuticals insist that drugs should be purchased through them.[citation needed] South African scientists in a combined effort with American scientists from Gilead recently came up with an AIDS gel that is 40% effective in women as announced in a study conducted at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in Durban, South Africa. This is a groundbreaking drug and will soon be made available to Africans and people abroad.[citation needed] The South African government has indicated its willingness to make it widely available.[citation needed] The FDA in the US is in the process of reviewing the drug for approval for US use.[15][16] The AIDS/HIV epidemic has led to the rise in unethical medical Experimentation in Africa.[14] Since the epidemic is widespread, African governments relax their laws in order to get research conducted in their countries which they would otherwise not afford.[14] However, global organizations such as the Clinton Foundation, are working to reduce the cost of HIV/AIDS medications in Africa and elsewhere. For example, Inder Singh oversaw a program which reduced the cost of pediatric HIV/AIDS drugs by 80 to 92% by working with manufacturers to reduce production and distribution costs.[17] Manufacturers often cite distribution and production difficulties in developing markets, which create a substantial barrier to entry.

Health industry

When family members get sick with HIV or other sicknesses, family members often end up selling most of their belongings in order to provide health care for the individual. Medical facilities in many African countries are lacking. Many health care workers are also not available, in part due to lack of training by governments and in part due to the wooing of these workers by foreign medical organisations where there is a need for medical professionals.[18] This is done largely through immigration laws that encourage recruitment in professional fields (special skill categories) like doctors and nurses in countries like Australia, Canada, and the U.S.

Brain drain

Main article: Brain drain § Africa

The African health care industry has been hard hit by a brain drain. Many qualified doctors, nurses or other health care professionals emigrate to other countries creating low morale for developing countries. For example, in Malawi, the University of Malawi graduates medical doctors that end up working abroad. This is illustrated when at a certain point, there were more Malawian doctors in Manchester than in the entire country of Malawi.[19][20] According to Dr. Ken Sagoe, of the Ghana Health Service, 604 out of 871 medical officers who trained in the country between the years of 1993-2002 now practice overseas. Zimbabwe also having 1,200 doctors trained in the 1990s with only 360 remaining today and Zambie with only 50 out of 600 doctors trained doctors still there remaining during the last 40 years.[21]

Other reasons

Response to the epidemic is also hampered by lack of infrastructure, corruption within both donor agencies and government agencies, foreign donors not coordinating with local government, and misguided resources[citation needed].

Measurement

Prevalence measures include everyone living with HIV and AIDS, and present a delayed representation of the epidemic by aggregating the HIV infections of many years. Incidence, in contrast, measures the number of new infections, usually over the previous year. There is no practical, reliable way to assess incidence in sub-Saharan Africa. Prevalence in 15–24 year old pregnant women attending antenatal clinics is sometimes used as an approximation. The test done to measure prevalence is a serosurvey in which blood is tested for the presence of HIV.

Health units that conduct serosurveys rarely operate in remote rural communities, and the data collected also does not measure people who seek alternate healthcare. Extrapolating national data from antenatal surveys relies on assumptions which may not hold across all regions and at different stages in an epidemic.

Recent national population or household-based surveys collecting data from both sexes, pregnant and non-pregnant women, and rural and urban areas, have adjusted the recorded national prevalence levels for several countries in Africa and elsewhere[citation needed]. These, too, are not perfect: people may not participate in household surveys because they fear they may be HIV positive and do not want to know their test results. Household surveys also exclude migrant labourers, who are a high risk group.

Thus, there may be significant disparities between official figures and actual HIV prevalence in some countries.

A minority of scientists claim that as many as 40% of HIV infections in African adults may be caused by unsafe medical practices rather than by sexual activity.[22] The World Health Organization states that about 2.5% of AIDS infections in sub-Saharan Africa are caused by unsafe medical injection practices and the "overwhelming majority" by unprotected sex.[23]

Regional analysis

Graphs of life expectancy at birth for some sub-Saharan countries showing the fall in the 1990s primarily due to the AIDS pandemic.[24]

North Africa

The HIV prevalence rates in North Africa are among the lowest in the world. This is primarily attributed to the salient role of Islam in the region's societies, which has kept infection rates at a negligible level through the faith's strong influence on local mores, values and government policies. Extra-marital sexual relations are also fervently discouraged in the area's predominantly Muslim communities. Consequently, the HIV prevalence rates in 2009 were less than 0.1% in Egypt and Tunisia, 0.1% in Morocco and Algeria, 0.7% in Mauritania, and 1.1% in Sudan.[1]

Horn of Africa

As with North Africa, the HIV infection rates in the Horn of Africa are generally quite low. This has been attributed to the Muslim nature of many of the local communities and adherence to Islamic morals.[25] The HIV prevalence rates in 2009 were estimated at 0.3% in Somalia, 0.8% in Eritrea, and 2.5% in Djibouti.[1] Ethiopia's rate in 2003 was estimated at 4.4%.[25]

East and Central Africa

By contrast with the predominantly Muslim areas in North Africa and the Horn region, traditional cultures and religions in much of Sub-Saharan Africa have generally exhibited a more liberal attitude vis-a-vis female out-marriage sexual activity. The latter includes practices such as multiple sexual partners and unprotected sex, high-risk cultural patterns that have been implicated in the much greater spread of HIV in the region.[25]

HIV infection rates in East and Central Africa are generally moderate to high. Uganda has registered a gradual decrease in its HIV rates from 10.6% in 1997, to a stabilized 6.5%-7.0% since 2001.[1][25] This has been attributed to changing local behavioral patterns, with more respondents reporting greater use of contraceptives[citation needed] and a two-year delay in first sexual activity as well as fewer people reporting casual sexual encounters and multiple partners.[25] Similarly, the HIV infection rate in Kenya dropped from around 14% in the mid-1990s to 5% in 2006. Between 2004-2008, Tanzania had a prevalence rate of 3.4%, with Rwanda maintaining a regional low of about 3.0% since 2005.[1]

Country Adult prevalence[1] Total HIV Cases[1] Deaths in 2009[1]
Tanzania 5.6% 1,400,000 86,000
Kenya 6.3% 1,500,000 80,000
Congo 3.4% 77,000 5,100
Congo DR 1.2-1.6% 430,000-560,000 26,000-40,000
Uganda 6.5% 1,200,000 64,000

West Africa

Countries in Western Africa include Senegal, The Gambia, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, Nigeria, and the landlocked states of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger.

The region has generally moderate levels of infection of both HIV-1 and HIV-2. The onset of the HIV epidemic in west Africa began in 1985 with reported cases in Côte d'Ivoire, Benin and Mali[citation needed]. Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Cameroon, Senegal and Liberia followed in 1986. Sierra Leone, Togo and Niger in 1987; The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, and Guinea in 1989; and finally Cape Verde in 1990.

HIV prevalence in west Africa is lowest in Chad, Niger and Mali, and highest in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria. Nigeria has the second largest number of people living with HIV in Africa after South Africa, although the infection rate (number of patients relative to the entire population) based upon Nigeria's estimated population is much lower, generally believed to be well under 7%, as opposed to South Africa's which is well into the double-digits (nearer 30%).[citation needed]

The main driver of infection in the region is commercial sex. In the Ghanaian capital Accra, for example, 80% of HIV infections in young men had been acquired from women who sell sex[citation needed]. In Niger, the adult national HIV prevalence was 1% in 2003, yet surveys of sex workers in different regions found a HIV infection rate of between 9 and 38%[citation needed].

Country Adult prevalence[1] Total HIV cases[1] Deaths in 2009[1]
Benin 1.2% 60,000 2,700
Burkina Faso 1.2% 110,000 7,100
Cameroon 5.3% 610,000 37,000
Côte d'Ivoire 3.4% 450,000 36,000
Gambia 2.0% 18,000 <1000
Ghana 1.8% 260,000 18,000
Guinea 1.3% 79,000 4,700
Guinea-Bissau 2.5% 22,000 1,200
Liberia 1.5% 37,000 3,600
Mali 1.0% 76,000 4,400
Niger 0.8% 61,000 4,300
Nigeria 3.6% 3,300,000 220,000
Senegal 0.9% 59,000 2,600
Sierra Leone 1.6% 49,000 2,800
Togo 3.2% 120,000 8,700

Southern Africa

In the mid-1980s, HIV and AIDS were virtually unheard of in southern Africa; it is now the worst-affected region in the world. Of the eleven southern African countries (Angola, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Madagascar) at least seven are estimated to have an infection rate of over 15%.[26] Angola presents one of the lowest infection rates at 2.1%.[26] This is not the result of a successful national response to the threat of AIDS but of the long-running Angolan Civil War (1975–2002)[citation needed].

Aside from polygynous relationships, which can be quite prevalent in parts of Africa[citation needed], there are also widespread practices of sexual networking that involve multiple overlapping or concurrent sexual partners.[27] Men’s sexual networks, in particular, tend to be quite extensive, a fact that is tacitly accepted by many communities[citation needed]. Cultural or social norms often indicate that while women must remain faithful men are able and even expected to philander irrespective of their marital status. Along with the occurrence of multiple sexual partners, unemployment and population displacements that result from drought and conflict contribute to the spread of HIV/AIDS.

There are a few indicators of countrywide declines in infection. In its December 2005 report, UNAIDS reports that Zimbabwe has experienced a drop in infections[citation needed]; however, most independent observers find the confidence of UNAIDS in the Mugabe government's HIV figures to be misplaced, especially since infections have continued to increase in all other southern African countries (with the exception of a possible small drop in Botswana). Almost 30% of the global number of people living with HIV live in an area where only 2% of the world's population reside[citation needed].

Most HIV infections found in southern Africa are HIV-1, the world's most common HIV infection, which predominates everywhere except west Africa, home to HIV-2. The first cases of HIV in the region were reported in Zimbabwe in 1985[citation needed].

Swaziland

Main article: HIV/AIDS in Swaziland

The HIV infection rate in Swaziland is unprecedented and the highest in the world at 26.1% of all adults,[28] and at over 50% of adults in their 20s.[29] This has stopped possible economic and social progress, and is at a point where it endangers the existence of its society as a whole. The United Nations Development Program has written that if the expansion continues unabated, the "longer term existence of Swaziland as a country will be seriously threatened".[29]

Swaziland's HIV epidemic has reduced life expectancy to only 32 years as of 2009, which is the lowest in the world by six years. From another perspective, HIV/AIDS currently causes 61% of all deaths in the country. With an unmatched crude death rate of 30 per 1,000 people per year, about 2% of Swaziland's total population dies of HIV/AIDS every year.[30]

Tuberculosis

Much of the deadliness of the epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa has to do with a deadly synergy between HIV and tuberculosis,[31] though this synergy is by no means limited to Africa. In fact, tuberculosis is the world's greatest infectious killer of women of reproductive age and the leading cause of death among people with HIV/AIDS.[32]

Because HIV has destroyed the immune systems of at least a quarter of the population in some areas, far more people are not only developing tuberculosis but spreading it to otherwise healthy neighbours.[31]

Prevention efforts

There are numerous initiatives and campaigns which have been used to curb the spread of HIV in Africa, such as the Abstinence, be faithful, use a condom or ABC campaign.

One of the greatest problems many African is cool haha countries face, due to high prevalence rates, is "HIV fatigue", where populations are interested in hearing more about a disease they hear about constantly. In order to address this, novel approaches are often required. In 2011, the Botswana Ministry of Education will be introducing new HIV/AIDS educational technology for schools. The TeachAIDS prevention software, developed at Stanford University, will be distributed to every primary, secondary, and tertiary educational institution in the country, reaching all learners from 50 to 24 years of age nationwide.[33]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "UNAIDS Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic 2010" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-06-08.
  2. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2155rank.html
  3. ^ McGeary, Johanna (12 Feb 2001). "Death stalks a continent". Time Magazine.
  4. ^ "Origin of AIDS Linked to Colonial Practices in Africa". NPR. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
  5. ^ Linke, Uli (January 1986). "AIDS in Africa". Science. 231: 203. doi:10.1126/science.231.4735.203-b.
  6. ^ Mark Schoofs (2000-07-04). "Debating the Obvious — Page 1 - News — New York". Village Voice. Retrieved 2012-02-21.
  7. ^ Savelsberg PF, Ndonko FT, Schmidt-Ehry B. Sterilizing vaccines or the politics of the womb: Retrospective study of a rumor in the Cameroon. Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 2000;14:159-179.
  8. ^ Clements CJ, Greenough P, Shull D. How vaccine safety can become political — the example of polio in Nigeria. Current Drug Safety. 2006;1:117-119.
  9. ^ UNICEF "Combating anti-vaccination rumors: Lessons learned from case studies in Africa" http://www.path.org/vaccineresources/files/Combatting_Antivac_Rumors_UNICEF.pdf accessdate=2011-05-16
  10. ^ date=2007-07-31 accessdate=2011-05-16
  11. ^ a b c Susan Hunter, "Black Death: AIDS in Africa" , Palrave Macmillan 2003 chapter 2
  12. ^ a b Washington, Harriet. Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present , Anchor books, New York pp 300-330
  13. ^ a b c Samuels, Fiona (2009) HIV and emergencies: one size does not fit all, London: Overseas Development Institute
  14. ^ a b c d Meier,Benjamin Mason: International Protection of Persons Undergoing Medical Experimentation: Protecting the Right of Informed Consent, Berkeley journal of international law [1085-5718] Meier yr:2002 vol:20 iss:3 pg:513 -554
  15. ^ "New Aids gel could protect women from HIV". South Africa — The Good News — Sagoodnews.co.za. 2010-07-20. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
  16. ^ Fox, Maggie (2010-10-27). "Groups moving forward to develop AIDS gel". Reuters. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
  17. ^ "Inder Singh, Executive Vice President for the Clinton Foundation, on Expanding Access to Health Care". Wharton Magazine. 2011-03-29. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
  18. ^ "African Migration and the Brain Drain — David Shinn". Sites.google.com. 2008-06-20. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
  19. ^ "Health systems in Malawi". Ruder Finn blog. Retrieved 2 November 2010.
  20. ^ Robert L Broadhead and Adamson S Muula (2002, August). Creating a medical school for Malawi: problems and achievements. BMJ. 2002 August 17; 325(7360): 384–387 - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1123892/
  21. ^ Garrett, Laurie. 2007. The Challenge of Global Health. Foreign Affairs 86 (1):27
  22. ^ Africa: HIV/AIDS through Unsafe Medical Care. Africaaction.org. Retrieved on 2010-10-25.
  23. ^ WHO | Expert group stresses that unsafe sex is primary mode of transmission of HIV in Africa. Who.int (2003-03-14). Retrieved on 2010-10-25.
  24. ^ The World Bank - Life expectancy at birth, total (years)
  25. ^ a b c d e "Religious and cultural traits in HIV/AIDS epidemics in sub-Saharan Africa" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-06-27.
  26. ^ a b "HIV/AIDS — adult prevalence rate — Country Comparison". Indexmundi.com. Retrieved 2012-02-21.
  27. ^ Poku, N. K. and Whiteside, A. (2004) 'The Political Economy of AIDS in Africa', 235.
  28. ^ "The HIV/AIDS Epidemic in South Africa — Fact Sheet" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-03-29.
  29. ^ a b Country programme outline for Swaziland, 2006-2010. United Nations Development Program. http://www.undp.org.sz/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=19&Itemid=67. Retrieved November 22, 2009.
  30. ^ Swaziland, Mortality Country Fact Sheet 2006. WHO. Retrieved November 22, 2009.
  31. ^ a b "'Dual epidemic' threatens Africa". BBC News. 2007-11-02. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
  32. ^ Stop TB Partnership. London tuberculosis rates now at Third World proportions. PR Newswire Europe Ltd. 4 December 2002. Retrieved on 3 October 2006.
  33. ^ "UNICEF funds TeachAIDS work in Botswana". TeachAIDS. 2 June 2010. Retrieved 24 January 2011.

Further reading

  • Encyclopedia of AIDS: A Social, Political, Cultural, and Scientific Record of the HIV Epidemic, Raymond A. Smith (ed), Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051486-4.
  • John Iliffe, "The African AIDS Epidemic: A History," Jamedn s Currey, 2006, ISBN 0-85255-890-2
  • Pieter Fourie, "The Political Management of HIV and AIDS in South Africa: One burden too many?" Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, ISBN 0-230-00667-1
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