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{{merge into|Socialist state|date=September 2014|discuss=talk:Socialist state#Communist state should be merged into this article}}
{{about|sovereign states governed by Communist parties|the social movement and political ideology|Communism|the hypothetical system postulated in Marxism|Communist society}}
{{about|sovereign states governed by Communist parties|the social movement and political ideology|Communism|the hypothetical system postulated in Marxism|Communist society}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
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{{History of Communist Nations}}
{{History of Communist Nations}}
{{Forms of government}}
{{Forms of government}}
"'''Communist state'''" is a Western term<ref name="Steele 1992 45">{{cite book |last= Steele |first= David |title= From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation |publisher= Open Court Publishing Company |year= 1992|isbn= 978-0875484495|pages = 45|quote=Among Western journalists the term ‘Communist’ came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all}}</ref> for a [[State (polity)|state]] with a [[form of government]] characterized by [[Single-party state|single-party rule]] or [[dominant-party system]] by a party which claims to follow communism, usually with a professed allegiance to [[Marxism-Leninism]] as the guiding ideology of the state. None of these states achieved communism, and the term is used no matter to what degree that state or the movement associated with it actually follows [[communism]], if at all.<ref name="Steele 1992 45"></ref> The label is the source of controversy, especially among the left; according to many communist and Marxist tendencies, the system in use in the Soviet Union and the states modeled after it (i.e., "communist states") - which claimed to have reached socialism, not communism - was not socialism but rather [[state capitalism]].<ref>[http://www.hetsa.org.au/pdf/34-A-08.pdf "State capitalism" in the Soviet Union], M.C. Howard and J.E. King</ref> The term "Communist state" is an [[oxymoron]] (a contradiction on itself) as a [[communist society]] is stateless.<ref>"N.I. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky in ''The ABC of Communism'' write "In a communist society there will be no classes. But if there will be no classes, this implies that in communist society there will likewise be no State." See also ''State and Revolution'' by Lenin, chapter 5.4 "The Higher Phase of Communist Society"</ref> Usually, the term '''Marxist-Leninist state''' is more appropriate.
"'''Communist state'''" is a Western term<ref name="Steele 1992 45">{{cite book |last= Steele |first= David |title= From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation |publisher= Open Court Publishing Company |year= 1992|isbn= 978-0875484495|pages = 45|quote=Among Western journalists the term ‘Communist’ came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all}}</ref> for a [[State (polity)|state]] with a [[form of government]] characterized by [[Single-party state|single-party rule]] or [[dominant-party system]] by a party which claims to follow communism, usually with a professed allegiance to [[Marxism-Leninism]] as the guiding ideology of the state. None of these states achieved communism, and the term is used no matter to what degree that state or the movement associated with it actually follows [[communism]], if at all.<ref name="Steele 1992 45"/> The label is the source of controversy, especially among the left; according to many communist and Marxist tendencies, the system in use in the Soviet Union and the states modeled after it (i.e., "communist states") - which claimed to have reached socialism, not communism - was not socialism but rather [[state capitalism]].<ref name="hetsa.org.au">[http://www.hetsa.org.au/pdf/34-A-08.pdf "State capitalism" in the Soviet Union], M.C. Howard and J.E. King</ref> The term "Communist state" is an [[oxymoron]] (a contradiction on itself) as a [[communist society]] is stateless.<ref>"N.I. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky in ''The ABC of Communism'' write "In a communist society there will be no classes. But if there will be no classes, this implies that in communist society there will likewise be no State." See also ''State and Revolution'' by Lenin, chapter 5.4 "The Higher Phase of Communist Society"</ref> The term '''Marxist-Leninist state''' is appropriate to describe a USSR-style state.


In the [[Marxism|theories]] of [[German philosophy|German philosopher]] [[Karl Marx]], a state in any society is an instrument of oppression by one [[social class]] over another, historically a minority exploiter class ruling over a majority exploited class. Marx saw that in his contemporary time, the new [[nation state]]s were characterized by increasingly intensified class contradiction between the [[Bourgeoisie|capitalist class]] and the [[Proletariat|working class]] it ruled over. He predicted that if the class contradictions of the capitalist system continue to intensify, that the working class will ultimately become [[Class consciousness|conscious]] of itself as an exploited collective and will overthrow the capitalists and establish collective ownership over the [[means of production]], therein arriving at a [[Post-capitalism|new]] phase of development called [[Socialism (Marxism)|Socialism]]. The state ruled by the working class during the transition into classless society is called the [[Dictatorship of the Proletariat]]. [[Russian people|Russian]] theoretician [[Vladimir Lenin]] further expounded upon this concept with the understanding of the [[Vanguardism|revolutionary vanguard]]. Lenin saw that science is something that is initially practicable by only a minority of society who happen to be in a position free from distraction so that they may contemplate it, and believed that [[scientific socialism]] was no exception. He therefore advocated that the Communist party should be structured as a vanguard of those who have achieved full class consciousness to be at the forefront of the class struggle and lead the workers to expand class consciousness and replace the capitalist class as the ruling class, therein establishing the Communist state.
In the [[Marxism|theories]] of [[German philosophy|German philosopher]] [[Karl Marx]], a state in any society is an instrument of oppression by one [[social class]] over another, historically a minority exploiter class ruling over a majority exploited class. Marx saw that in his contemporary time, the new [[nation state]]s were characterized by increasingly intensified class contradiction between the [[Bourgeoisie|capitalist class]] and the [[Proletariat|working class]] it ruled over. He predicted that if the class contradictions of the capitalist system continue to intensify, that the working class will ultimately become [[Class consciousness|conscious]] of itself as an exploited collective and will overthrow the capitalists and establish collective ownership over the [[means of production]], therein arriving at a [[Post-capitalism|new]] phase of development called [[Socialism (Marxism)|Socialism]]. The state ruled by the working class during the transition into classless society is called the [[Dictatorship of the Proletariat]]. [[Russian people|Russian]] theoretician [[Vladimir Lenin]] further expounded upon this concept with the understanding of the [[Vanguardism|revolutionary vanguard]]. Lenin saw that science is something that is initially practicable by only a minority of society who happen to be in a position free from distraction so that they may contemplate it, and believed that [[scientific socialism]] was no exception. He therefore advocated that the Communist party should be structured as a vanguard of those who have achieved full class consciousness to be at the forefront of the class struggle and lead the workers to expand class consciousness and replace the capitalist class as the ruling class, therein establishing the socialist state.


== Marxist-Leninist state ==
In a Communist state, the Communist party is the nucleus of society. Other [[Political party|parties]] may function alongside the Communist party occasionally, but parties advocating the restoration of capitalism are typically prohibited. Using [[Marxism-Leninism]] as a method of understanding the material and social conditions of society, the Communist party claims to govern according to what the society's historical and national characteristics demand in order to unleash the productive forces and further advance towards communism. This has been done through a variety of methods in conforming to local circumstances. For example, in [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]] and the [[Soviet Union]] in the 1920s, a regulated [[market economy]] was initially implemented due to the country's lack of infrastructural development and to overcome the devastation of [[Russian Civil War|civil war]]. But into the 1930s, the [[economy of the Soviet Union]] was a [[Planned economy]], with heavy [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|industrialization]], and a centralized [[bureaucracy]] headquartered in [[Moscow]]. Similarly, the [[People's Republic of China]] operated almost entirely along plans of development until the 1980s when it opened its economy to foreign investment, allowing for market development alongside planned development. Reliance on markets and planning have varied in different Communist states, but most such states are characterized by state monopoly over land ownership, full union representation in the workforce, and social security systems to provide for those unable to work.
A '''Marxist-Leninist state''' is a state which officially upholds [[Marxism-Leninism]] as official ideology, and bases its government, politics and laws upon it. The term denotes a form of government<ref>The Poverty of Communism. Nicholas Eberstadt. Page 2.</ref> which existed in the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>Historical Dictionary of Socialism. James C. Docherty, Peter Lamb. Page 85. "The Soviet Union was a one-party Marxist-Leninist state.".</ref><ref>[http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/ruseur_wp_010.pdf Ideology, Interests, and Identity]. Stephen H. Hanson. Page 14. "the USSR was officially a Marxist-Leninist state"</ref><ref>[http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1078&context=ilr The Fine Line between the Enforcement of Human Rights Agreements and the Violation of National Sovereignity: The Case of Soviet Dissidents]. Jennifer Noe Pahre. Page 336. "[...]the Soviet Union, as a Marxist-Leninist state[...]". Page 348. "The Soviet Union is a Marxist-Leninist state."</ref><ref>[http://www.epa.hu/00000/00010/00020/pdf/HSR_1989_1-2_023-046.pdf Leninist National Policy: Solution to the "National Question"?]. Walker Connor. Page 31. "[...]four Marxist-Leninist states (the Soviet Union, China, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia)[...]"</ref> where it was first applied and later served as a model for other states associated with the [[Comintern]] and [[Cominform]], particularly these in the [[Eastern bloc]]. Only one political party is allowed to govern.<ref>Ian Adams. ''Political ideology today''. Manchester England, UK: Manchester University Press, 1993. p. 201.</ref><ref>Alexander Shtromas, Robert K. Faulkner, Daniel J. Mahoney. ''Totalitarianism and the prospects for world order: closing the door on the twentieth century''. Oxford, England, UK; Lanham, Maryland, USA: Lexington Books, 2003. p. 18.</ref> The Marxist-Leninist party is the supreme political institution of the state.<ref name="party_supreme">Michael Albert, Robin Hahnel. Socialism today and tomorrow. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: South End Press, 1981. pp. 24–25.</ref> Elections are held, but are not competitive.<ref>Pons, Silvo and Service, Robert (eds.). A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism. Princeton, New Jersey, USA; Oxfordshire, England, UK: Princeton University Press ISBN 0691154295. Page 306.</ref> The state claims to have developed socialism and is committed to the development of [[communism]]. The economy is fully controlled by the state, and follows [[Soviet-type economic planning]]. A significant portion of the communist and Marxist movement assert that socialism was not established in any of the Marxist-Leninist states; instead, [[state capitalism]] existed.<ref name="hetsa.org.au"/>


===History===
During the 20th century, the world's first constitutionally socialist state was in Russia in 1917. In 1922, it [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|joined]] other former territories of the [[Russian Empire|empire]] to become the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]. After the [[Second World War]], the [[Soviet Army]] occupied much of Eastern Europe and thus helped establish Communist states in these countries. Most Communist states in Eastern Europe were [[Warsaw Pact|allied]] with the USSR, except for [[SFR Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] which declared itself [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned]]. In 1949, after a [[Second Sino-Japanese War|war against Japanese occupation]] and a [[Chinese Civil War|civil war]] resulting in a [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] victory, the [[People's Republic of China]] was established. Communist states were also established in [[Cuba]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[People's Republic of Kampuchea|Cambodia]]. A Communist state was established in [[North Korea]], although it later withdrew from the Communist movement. In 1989, the Communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed under public pressure during a [[Revolutions of 1989|wave of non-violent movements]] which led to the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. Today, the existing Communist states in the world are in [[China]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Cuba]].
{{Main|Marxism-Leninism}}
The [[October Revolution]], led by Lenin and Trotsky, eventually led to the creation of the [[Soviet Union]], replacing the former [[Russian Empire]]. Lenin died. This led into a struggle for power between opposed factions, with the ''de facto'' leaders of each notable faction being Trotsky and Stalin; each claimed to be a more faithful follower of Marx and Lenin. Stalin eventually rose to power and termed his own ideology Marxism-Leninism, which encompasses the policies he implemented.<ref name="ib_diploma"/> Because of the influence of the Soviet Union and its international organizations, many communist parties world wide accepted Marxism-Leninism as an official ideology. Sources written after the rise to power of Stalin and application of his policies started labeling the state as a Marxist-Leninist state. The state relies on Stalin's "socialism in one country", which states that socialism can be built within one country, and contradicts other communist thought.<ref name="ib_diploma"/><ref name="sioc1"/><ref name="sioc2"/> As such, the Soviet Union nationalized most or all enterprises and started claiming that the stage of a "[[socialist state]]" had been reached. From then on, the economy functioned from a type of economic planning, known as [[Soviet-type economic planning]].


A Marxist-Leninist state was established in the [[German Democratic Republic]] (commonly referred to as East Germany) following the occupation of eastern Germany by the Soviet Union after the defeat of [[Nazi Germany]] in [[World War II]].
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== Types of socialist states ==

==== Stalinist ideological basis for socialism ====
{{Main|Marxism-Leninism#Socialism}}
Originally and for a long time the concept of a socialist society was regarded as equal to that of a communist society. However, it was Lenin who defined the difference between "socialism" and "communism", explaining that they are similar to what Marx described with the lower and upper stages of communist society. Marx explained that in a society immediately after the revolution, distribution must be based on the contribution of the individual, whereas in the upper stage of communism the [[from each according to his ability, to each according to his need]] concept would be applied.<ref>The Oxford Companion to Comparative Politics. Joel Krieger, Craig N. Murphy. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 218.</ref>

Stalin built his ideological core of socialism taking Lenin's definition as the base, but adding his own modifications, some of which started to be considered by critics of Marxism–Leninism as distortions which completely invalidated any origin in Marxism. Stalin, for instance, invented the concept of [[socialism in one country]], which according to these critics violates basic principles of Marxism.<ref name="sioc3">''History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976–89''. Allan Todd. Page 16. "The term Marxism–Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'. This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues." [...] "However, many Marxists (even members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said."</ref> Stalin derived this concept from an arbitrary Lenin quote, which in its own context was unlikely to support his argument<ref>Soviet Marxism-Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology. Alfred B. Evans. ABC-CLIO, 1993. p. 30-31.</ref> taken out of context, and, crucially, supplemented by his own words.<ref name="kane101">Terror, Force, and States: The Path from Modernity. Rosemary H. T. O'Kane. Page 101. "As illustration of how Marxism-Leninism was bent to Stalin's purpose, Daniels explains how Stalin's 'theory of socialism in one country', developed in the late 1920s, set the pattern. Derived from a single, old quotation from Lenin, taken out of context, and, crucially, supplemented by Stalin's own words, 'the method and machinery of doctrinal reinterpretation' was established (Daniels, 1993, p. 86) This was the method which was used to conjure Stalin's infallibility. First, any ad hoc decision taken by Stalin was legitimized by the use of some Marxist doctrine conveniently lifted from anywhere and given only one interpretation. Anyone later questioning the interpretation, attempting to restore the earlier context, would be accused of 'petty-bourgeois deviation' and eventually 'counter-revolutionary wrecking'."</ref> This concept was instrumental to claim that socialism was really being built in the USSR. In 1936, Stalin declared that the USSR had finished the transition to socialism, and that it had been established.<ref>Soviet Marxism-Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology. Alfred B. Evans. ABC-CLIO, 1993. p. 36.</ref>

For Marxism–Leninism, the USSR was a workers' state and thus any property under this State was a type of socialist property. However, the rest of Marxist tendencies based their theory of a non-socialist USSR based on disagreement with this, referencing among others the argument of the difference between socialization and nationalization.

=== Etymology ===
Marxism-Leninism was developed by [[Joseph Stalin]].<ref>Г. Лисичкин (G. Lisichkin), Мифы и реальность, Новый мир (''[[Novy Mir]]''), 1989, № 3, p. 59 {{ru icon}}</ref> It contains deviations from Marxism, such as "[[socialism in one country]]".<ref name="sioc1">Contemporary Marxism, Issues 4-5. Synthesis Publications, 1981. Page 151. "socialism in one country, a pragmatic deviation from classical Marxism."</ref><ref name="sioc2">North Korea Under Communism: Report of an Envoy to Paradise. Cornell Erik. Page 169. "Socialism in one country, a slogan that aroused protests as not only it implied a major deviation from Marxist internationalism, but was also strictly speaking incompatible with the basic tenets of Marxism".</ref> By portions of the communist movement which do not accept Marxism-Leninism, it is labelled as a distortion.<ref name="ib_diploma">History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976-89. Allan Todd. Page 16. "The term Marxism-Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'. This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues." [...] "However, many Marxists (even members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said.</ref>

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=== Types of Marxist-Leninist states ===
While historically almost all claim lineage to [[Marxism|Marxist]] thought, there are many varieties of socialist states, with indigenous adaptions.
While historically almost all claim lineage to [[Marxism|Marxist]] thought, there are many varieties of socialist states, with indigenous adaptions.


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Alternative names that states adhering to an officially communist ideology may assign themselves is [[socialist state]], socialist republic or "people's republic". This is because these nations have not yet transcended [[capitalism]] or [[state capitalism]] and progressed toward [[pure communism]] in the Marxist sense, which can only be achieved once capitalism exhausts itself.
Alternative names that states adhering to an officially communist ideology may assign themselves is [[socialist state]], socialist republic or "people's republic". This is because these nations have not yet transcended [[capitalism]] or [[state capitalism]] and progressed toward [[pure communism]] in the Marxist sense, which can only be achieved once capitalism exhausts itself.


== State institutions ==
=== State institutions ===
Marxist-Leninist states share similar institutions, which are organized on the premise that the communist party is a [[Vanguard party|vanguard of the proletariat]] and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of [[democratic centralism]], which was developed by [[Vladimir Lenin]] as a set of principles to be used in the internal affairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large.<ref name="Furtak, Robert K. 1986, pp. 8-9">Furtak, Robert K. ''The political systems of the socialist states'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, pp. 8-9.</ref>
Marxist-Leninist states share similar institutions, which are organized on the premise that the communist party is a [[Vanguard party|vanguard of the proletariat]] and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of [[democratic centralism]], which was developed by [[Vladimir Lenin]] as a set of principles to be used in the internal affairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large.<ref name="Furtak, Robert K. 1986, pp. 8-9">Furtak, Robert K. ''The political systems of the socialist states'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, pp. 8-9.</ref>


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When the national legislative body is not in session, its powers are transferred to a smaller council (often called a [[presidium]]) which combines legislative and executive power, and, in some socialist states (such as the [[Soviet Union]] before 1990), acts as a collective [[head of state]]. In some systems, the presidium is composed of important communist party members who vote the resolutions of the communist party into law.
When the national legislative body is not in session, its powers are transferred to a smaller council (often called a [[presidium]]) which combines legislative and executive power, and, in some socialist states (such as the [[Soviet Union]] before 1990), acts as a collective [[head of state]]. In some systems, the presidium is composed of important communist party members who vote the resolutions of the communist party into law.


=== State social institutions ===
==== State social institutions ====
Another feature of socialist states is the existence of numerous state-sponsored social organizations ([[trade union]]s, youth organizations, women's organizations, associations of teachers, writers, journalists and other professionals, consumer cooperatives, sports clubs, etc.) which are integrated into the political system.
Another feature of socialist states is the existence of numerous state-sponsored social organizations ([[trade union]]s, youth organizations, women's organizations, associations of teachers, writers, journalists and other professionals, consumer cooperatives, sports clubs, etc.) which are integrated into the political system.


In some socialist states,{{Which|date=March 2009}} representatives of these organizations are guaranteed a certain number of seats on the national legislative bodies. In socialist states, the social organizations are expected to promote social unity and cohesion, to serve as a link between the government and society, and to provide a forum for recruitment of new communist party members.<ref>Furtak, Robert K. ''The political systems of the socialist states'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 16-17.</ref>
In some socialist states,{{Which|date=March 2009}} representatives of these organizations are guaranteed a certain number of seats on the national legislative bodies. In socialist states, the social organizations are expected to promote social unity and cohesion, to serve as a link between the government and society, and to provide a forum for recruitment of new communist party members.<ref>Furtak, Robert K. ''The political systems of the socialist states'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 16-17.</ref>


=== Political power ===
==== Political power ====
Historically, the political organization of many socialist states has been dominated by a single-party monopoly. Some communist governments, such as [[North Korea]], [[East Germany]] or the [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]] have or had more than one political party, but all minor parties are or were required to follow the leadership of the communist party. In socialist states, the government may not tolerate criticism of policies that have already been implemented in the past or are being implemented in the present.<ref>Furtak, Robert K. ''The political systems of the socialist states'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 18-19.</ref>
Historically, the political organization of many socialist states has been dominated by a single-party monopoly. Some communist governments, such as [[North Korea]], [[East Germany]] or the [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]] have or had more than one political party, but all minor parties are or were required to follow the leadership of the communist party. In socialist states, the government may not tolerate criticism of policies that have already been implemented in the past or are being implemented in the present.<ref>Furtak, Robert K. ''The political systems of the socialist states'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 18-19.</ref>


Nevertheless, communist parties have won elections and governed in the context of [[Multi-party system|multi-party democracies]], without seeking to establish a one-party state. Examples include [[San Marino]], Republic of [[Nicaragua]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/15/world/nicaragua-s-communist-party-shifts-to-opposition.html | work=The New York Times | first=Stephen | last=Kinzer | title=NICARAGUA'S COMMUNIST PARTY SHIFTS TO OPPOSITION | date=15 January 1987}}</ref> [[Moldova]], [[Nepal]] (presently), [[Cyprus]],<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/25/cyprus.greece "Cyprus elects its first communist president"], ''The Guardian'', 25 February 2008.</ref> and the Indian states of [[Kerala]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Tripura]].<ref>[http://cyberjournalist.info/kerala/sumas.php4?year=2006 Kerala Assembly Elections-- 2006]</ref> However, for the purposes of this article, these entities do not fall under the definition of socialist state.
Nevertheless, communist parties have won elections and governed in the context of [[Multi-party system|multi-party democracies]], without seeking to establish a one-party state. Examples include [[San Marino]], Republic of [[Nicaragua]],<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/15/world/nicaragua-s-communist-party-shifts-to-opposition.html | work=The New York Times | first=Stephen | last=Kinzer | title=NICARAGUA'S COMMUNIST PARTY SHIFTS TO OPPOSITION | date=15 January 1987}}</ref> [[Moldova]], [[Nepal]] (presently), [[Cyprus]],<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/feb/25/cyprus.greece "Cyprus elects its first communist president"], ''The Guardian'', 25 February 2008.</ref> and the Indian states of [[Kerala]], [[West Bengal]] and [[Tripura]].<ref>[http://cyberjournalist.info/kerala/sumas.php4?year=2006 Kerala Assembly Elections-- 2006]</ref> However, for the purposes of this article, these entities do not fall under the definition of socialist state.


== Criticism ==
=== Criticism ===
{{Main|Criticisms of communist party rule}}
{{Main|Criticisms of communist party rule}}


=== From the liberal or conservative viewpoint ===
==== From the liberal or conservative viewpoint ====
Marxist-Leninist states are usually [[Single-party state|one-party]] dictatorships, with [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] control of the economy and society and repression of civil liberties,<ref>[http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta06/Eres1481.htm Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, Resolution 1481 (2006) Need for international condemnation of crimes of totalitarian communist regimes]</ref> economic focus on heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods, sometimes resulting in shortages of vital products or even famine,<ref>''The Economics of Soviet Agriculture'' by Leonard E. Hubbard, p. 117-18</ref> and militarism and propaganda to cover up the mistakes of the government .<ref>{{cite book |title=The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917-1929 |last=Kenez |first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1985 |isbn=0-521-31398-8}}</ref>
Marxist-Leninist states have been criticized for their [[Single-party state|one-party]] dictatorships, and what according to its critics is [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] control of the economy and society and repression of civil liberties by the [[Council of Europe]],<ref>[http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link=/Documents/AdoptedText/ta06/Eres1481.htm Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, Resolution 1481 (2006) Need for international condemnation of crimes of totalitarian communist regimes]</ref> economic focus on heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods, sometimes resulting in shortages of vital products or even famine,<ref>''The Economics of Soviet Agriculture'' by Leonard E. Hubbard, p. 117-18</ref> and militarism and propaganda to cover up the mistakes of the government .<ref>{{cite book |title=The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917-1929 |last=Kenez |first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1985 |isbn=0-521-31398-8}}</ref>

⚫
In his critique of states run under Marxist-Leninist ideology, economist [[Michael Ellman]] of the [[University of Amsterdam]] notes that in international comparisons, such states compared favorably with Western states in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy.<ref>[[Michael Ellman]]. ''Socialist Planning.'' [[Cambridge University Press]], 2014. ISBN 1107427320 [http://books.google.com/books?id=4L2ZBAAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA372#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 372.]</ref> Similarly, [[Amartya Sen|Amartya Sen's]] own analysis of international comparisons of life expectancy found that several Marxist-Leninist states made significant gains, and commented "one thought that is bound to occur is that communism is good for poverty removal."<ref>[[Richard G. Wilkinson]]. ''Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality.'' [[Routledge]], November 1996. ISBN 0415092353. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zo-JAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA122#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 122]</ref>


⚫
==== From the communist and socialist viewpoints ====
⚫
In his critique of states run under Marxist-Leninist ideology, economist [[Michael Ellman]] of the [[University of Amsterdam]] notes that such states compared favorably with Western states in some health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy.<ref>[[Michael Ellman]]. ''Socialist Planning.'' [[Cambridge University Press]], 2014. ISBN 1107427320 [http://books.google.com/books?id=4L2ZBAAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA372#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 372.]</ref> Similarly, [[Amartya Sen|Amartya Sen's]] own analysis of international comparisons of life expectancy found that several Marxist-Leninist states made significant gains, and commented "one thought that is bound to occur is that communism is good for poverty removal."<ref>[[Richard G. Wilkinson]]. ''Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality.'' [[Routledge]], November 1996. ISBN 0415092353. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zo-JAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA122#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 122]</ref>


⚫
Within the socialist and communist movements themselves, there are a number of criticisms of self-declared "socialist states". Many communist tendencies argue that their economic system actually was [[state capitalism]].<ref name="hetsa.org.au"/>
⚫
=== From the communist and socialist viewpoints ===
⚫
Within the socialist and communist movements themselves, there are a number of criticisms of self-declared "socialist states". Many communist tendencies argue that their economic system actually was [[state capitalism]].<ref>[http://www.hetsa.org.au/pdf/34-A-08.pdf "State capitalism" in the Soviet Union], M.C. Howard and J.E. King</ref>


== Modern period ==
=== Modern period ===
[[File:Communist States.svg|thumb|left|300px|A map showing the current states (as of 2012) having a single-party political system and ruled by self-declared Marxist-Leninist governments. They are [[China]], [[Cuba]], [[Laos]], and [[Vietnam]]. [[North Korea]] has disavowed [[Marxism–Leninism]], but is otherwise still regarded in the same respect.]]
[[File:Communist States.svg|thumb|left|300px|A map showing the current states (as of 2012) having a single-party political system and ruled by self-declared Marxist-Leninist governments. They are [[China]], [[Cuba]], [[Laos]], and [[Vietnam]]. [[North Korea]] has disavowed [[Marxism–Leninism]], but is otherwise still regarded in the same respect.]]


=== List of current socialist states ===
==== List of current Marxist-Leninist states ====
The following countries are one-party states in which the institutions of the ruling communist party and the state have become intertwined; hence they fall under the definition of ''Socialist states'' that officially support ''communism''. They are generally adherents of Marxism-Leninism in particular and as such represent a particular ideology that many communists may not share. They are listed here together with the year of their founding and their respective ruling parties:<ref>[[Central Intelligence Agency]] [[World Factbook]]: ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2128.html?countryName=Korea,%20North&countryCode=kn&regionCode=eas&#kn FIELD LISTING :: GOVERNMENT TYPE]''</ref>
The following countries are one-party states in which the institutions of the ruling communist party and the state have become intertwined; hence they fall under the definition of self-defined ''Socialist states'' that officially support ''communism''. They are generally adherents of Marxism-Leninism in particular and as such represent a particular ideology that many communists may not share. They are listed here together with the year of their founding and their respective ruling parties:<ref>[[Central Intelligence Agency]] [[World Factbook]]: ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2128.html?countryName=Korea,%20North&countryCode=kn&regionCode=eas&#kn FIELD LISTING :: GOVERNMENT TYPE]''</ref>


{| class="wikitable sortable" width=100%
{| class="wikitable sortable" width=100%
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|}
|}


===Disputed or mixed governments ===
==== Disputed or mixed governments ====
* {{flag|North Korea|name=Democratic People's Republic of Korea}} (since 1948); Many people, especially in the west, would describe the [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (DPRK) as a Socialist state{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}. The DPRK asserts that its system is socialist. The government's official ideology, on the other hand, is now the ''[[Juche]]'' policy of [[Kim Il-sung]], as opposed to traditional [[Marxism–Leninism]]. In 2009, the [[Constitution of North Korea|constitution of the DPRK]] was quietly amended so that not only did it disavow all Marxist-Leninist references present in the first draft, but it also dropped all reference to 'Communism'.<ref>http://leonidpetrov.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/dprk-has-quietly-amended-its-constitution/</ref> Similar to officially Marxist-Leninist states, the [[Workers' Party of Korea|Workers' Party]] governs the country as a [[single-party state]].
* {{flag|North Korea|name=Democratic People's Republic of Korea}} (since 1948); Many people, especially in the west, would describe the [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (DPRK) as a Socialist state{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}. The DPRK asserts that its system is socialist. The government's official ideology, on the other hand, is now the ''[[Juche]]'' policy of [[Kim Il-sung]], as opposed to traditional [[Marxism–Leninism]]. In 2009, the [[Constitution of North Korea|constitution of the DPRK]] was quietly amended so that not only did it disavow all Marxist-Leninist references present in the first draft, but it also dropped all reference to 'Communism'.<ref>http://leonidpetrov.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/dprk-has-quietly-amended-its-constitution/</ref> Similar to officially Marxist-Leninist states, the [[Workers' Party of Korea|Workers' Party]] governs the country as a [[single-party state]].


=== Multi-party states with current governing communist parties in power ===
==== Multi-party states with current governing communist parties in power ====
These are multi-party states that currently have communist parties leading the government. Such states are not considered to be communist ''states'' as the countries themselves allow for multiple parties, and do not provide a constitutional role for their communist parties.
These are multi-party states that currently have communist parties leading the government. Such states are not considered to be communist ''states'' as the countries themselves allow for multiple parties, and do not provide a constitutional role for their communist parties.
* Currently none (The last state was [[Nepal]] (2008 - 2013). The [[Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] participated in a multi-party coalition government, an alliance of 22 parties that held 350 seats in the 601-member constituent assembly.)
* Currently none (The last state was [[Nepal]] (2008 - 2013). The [[Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)]] participated in a multi-party coalition government, an alliance of 22 parties that held 350 seats in the 601-member constituent assembly.)
Line 105: Line 120:
* The Guyanese democratically elected ruling party, the [[People's Progressive Party (Guyana)|People's Progressive Party]] is officially [[Marxist-Leninist]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Contribution of Peoples’ Progressive Party of Guyana|url=http://www.solidnet.org/guyana-peoples-progressive-party/13-imcwp-contribution-of-ppp-of-guyana-en|website=Solidnet.org|ref=In Guyana, our Party the PPP, in Government, has been working tirelessly to rebuild the shattered economy inherited from colonial rule followed by an authoritarian dictatorship during the first quarter of a century of our existence as an Independent Nation. As a Marxist-Leninist Party committed to a Socialist Future, we have embarked on the initial stage of National Democracy which seeks to strengthen the role and influence of the working class and reduce the influence of local and foreign capitalist forces. The newly elected President of our Country, our Party’s General secretary, Comrade Donald Ramotar, re-emphasised this commitment in his declaration to the electorate that: “Specific attention will equally be paid to workers who are the bedrock of our economic activities. We hope to work closely with the labour movement so as to protect and advance the interests of workers in an environment that guarantees the personal safety of every citizen. My objective is to work with stakeholders to promote unity of the labour movement.”}}</ref> but is actually [[Democratic Socialist]] and [[Left-wing nationalism|Left-wing Nationalist]].
* The Guyanese democratically elected ruling party, the [[People's Progressive Party (Guyana)|People's Progressive Party]] is officially [[Marxist-Leninist]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Contribution of Peoples’ Progressive Party of Guyana|url=http://www.solidnet.org/guyana-peoples-progressive-party/13-imcwp-contribution-of-ppp-of-guyana-en|website=Solidnet.org|ref=In Guyana, our Party the PPP, in Government, has been working tirelessly to rebuild the shattered economy inherited from colonial rule followed by an authoritarian dictatorship during the first quarter of a century of our existence as an Independent Nation. As a Marxist-Leninist Party committed to a Socialist Future, we have embarked on the initial stage of National Democracy which seeks to strengthen the role and influence of the working class and reduce the influence of local and foreign capitalist forces. The newly elected President of our Country, our Party’s General secretary, Comrade Donald Ramotar, re-emphasised this commitment in his declaration to the electorate that: “Specific attention will equally be paid to workers who are the bedrock of our economic activities. We hope to work closely with the labour movement so as to protect and advance the interests of workers in an environment that guarantees the personal safety of every citizen. My objective is to work with stakeholders to promote unity of the labour movement.”}}</ref> but is actually [[Democratic Socialist]] and [[Left-wing nationalism|Left-wing Nationalist]].


===Communist parties as part of a ruling coalition===
====Communist parties as part of a ruling coalition====
There are also some parties that participate as junior partners in ruling coalitions, as listed below.
There are also some parties that participate as junior partners in ruling coalitions, as listed below.


Revision as of 04:23, 24 February 2015

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"Communist state" is a Western term[1] for a state with a form of government characterized by single-party rule or dominant-party system by a party which claims to follow communism, usually with a professed allegiance to Marxism-Leninism as the guiding ideology of the state. None of these states achieved communism, and the term is used no matter to what degree that state or the movement associated with it actually follows communism, if at all.[1] The label is the source of controversy, especially among the left; according to many communist and Marxist tendencies, the system in use in the Soviet Union and the states modeled after it (i.e., "communist states") - which claimed to have reached socialism, not communism - was not socialism but rather state capitalism.[2] The term "Communist state" is an oxymoron (a contradiction on itself) as a communist society is stateless.[3] The term Marxist-Leninist state is appropriate to describe a USSR-style state.

In the theories of German philosopher Karl Marx, a state in any society is an instrument of oppression by one social class over another, historically a minority exploiter class ruling over a majority exploited class. Marx saw that in his contemporary time, the new nation states were characterized by increasingly intensified class contradiction between the capitalist class and the working class it ruled over. He predicted that if the class contradictions of the capitalist system continue to intensify, that the working class will ultimately become conscious of itself as an exploited collective and will overthrow the capitalists and establish collective ownership over the means of production, therein arriving at a new phase of development called Socialism. The state ruled by the working class during the transition into classless society is called the Dictatorship of the Proletariat. Russian theoretician Vladimir Lenin further expounded upon this concept with the understanding of the revolutionary vanguard. Lenin saw that science is something that is initially practicable by only a minority of society who happen to be in a position free from distraction so that they may contemplate it, and believed that scientific socialism was no exception. He therefore advocated that the Communist party should be structured as a vanguard of those who have achieved full class consciousness to be at the forefront of the class struggle and lead the workers to expand class consciousness and replace the capitalist class as the ruling class, therein establishing the socialist state.

Marxist-Leninist state

A Marxist-Leninist state is a state which officially upholds Marxism-Leninism as official ideology, and bases its government, politics and laws upon it. The term denotes a form of government[4] which existed in the Soviet Union,[5][6][7][8] where it was first applied and later served as a model for other states associated with the Comintern and Cominform, particularly these in the Eastern bloc. Only one political party is allowed to govern.[9][10] The Marxist-Leninist party is the supreme political institution of the state.[11] Elections are held, but are not competitive.[12] The state claims to have developed socialism and is committed to the development of communism. The economy is fully controlled by the state, and follows Soviet-type economic planning. A significant portion of the communist and Marxist movement assert that socialism was not established in any of the Marxist-Leninist states; instead, state capitalism existed.[2]

History

Main article: Marxism-Leninism

The October Revolution, led by Lenin and Trotsky, eventually led to the creation of the Soviet Union, replacing the former Russian Empire. Lenin died. This led into a struggle for power between opposed factions, with the de facto leaders of each notable faction being Trotsky and Stalin; each claimed to be a more faithful follower of Marx and Lenin. Stalin eventually rose to power and termed his own ideology Marxism-Leninism, which encompasses the policies he implemented.[13] Because of the influence of the Soviet Union and its international organizations, many communist parties world wide accepted Marxism-Leninism as an official ideology. Sources written after the rise to power of Stalin and application of his policies started labeling the state as a Marxist-Leninist state. The state relies on Stalin's "socialism in one country", which states that socialism can be built within one country, and contradicts other communist thought.[13][14][15] As such, the Soviet Union nationalized most or all enterprises and started claiming that the stage of a "socialist state" had been reached. From then on, the economy functioned from a type of economic planning, known as Soviet-type economic planning.

A Marxist-Leninist state was established in the German Democratic Republic (commonly referred to as East Germany) following the occupation of eastern Germany by the Soviet Union after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II.

Stalinist ideological basis for socialism

Main article: Marxism-Leninism § Socialism

Originally and for a long time the concept of a socialist society was regarded as equal to that of a communist society. However, it was Lenin who defined the difference between "socialism" and "communism", explaining that they are similar to what Marx described with the lower and upper stages of communist society. Marx explained that in a society immediately after the revolution, distribution must be based on the contribution of the individual, whereas in the upper stage of communism the from each according to his ability, to each according to his need concept would be applied.[16]

Stalin built his ideological core of socialism taking Lenin's definition as the base, but adding his own modifications, some of which started to be considered by critics of Marxism–Leninism as distortions which completely invalidated any origin in Marxism. Stalin, for instance, invented the concept of socialism in one country, which according to these critics violates basic principles of Marxism.[17] Stalin derived this concept from an arbitrary Lenin quote, which in its own context was unlikely to support his argument[18] taken out of context, and, crucially, supplemented by his own words.[19] This concept was instrumental to claim that socialism was really being built in the USSR. In 1936, Stalin declared that the USSR had finished the transition to socialism, and that it had been established.[20]

For Marxism–Leninism, the USSR was a workers' state and thus any property under this State was a type of socialist property. However, the rest of Marxist tendencies based their theory of a non-socialist USSR based on disagreement with this, referencing among others the argument of the difference between socialization and nationalization.

Etymology

Marxism-Leninism was developed by Joseph Stalin.[21] It contains deviations from Marxism, such as "socialism in one country".[14][15] By portions of the communist movement which do not accept Marxism-Leninism, it is labelled as a distortion.[13]

Types of Marxist-Leninist states

While historically almost all claim lineage to Marxist thought, there are many varieties of socialist states, with indigenous adaptions.

These Socialist states often do not claim to have achieved socialism or communism in their countries; rather, they claim to be building and working toward the establishment of socialism in their countries. For example, the preamble to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam's constitution states that Vietnam only entered a transition stage between capitalism and socialism after the country was re-unified under the Communist party in 1976,[22] and the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Cuba states that the role of the Communist Party is to "guide the common effort toward the goals and construction of socialism".[23]

Alternative names that states adhering to an officially communist ideology may assign themselves is socialist state, socialist republic or "people's republic". This is because these nations have not yet transcended capitalism or state capitalism and progressed toward pure communism in the Marxist sense, which can only be achieved once capitalism exhausts itself.

State institutions

Marxist-Leninist states share similar institutions, which are organized on the premise that the communist party is a vanguard of the proletariat and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of democratic centralism, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin as a set of principles to be used in the internal affairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large.[24]

According to democratic centralism, all leaders must be elected by the people and all proposals must be debated openly, but, once a decision has been reached, all people have a duty to obey that decision and all debate should end. When used within a political party, democratic centralism is meant to prevent factionalism and splits. When applied to an entire state, democratic centralism creates a one-party system.[24]

The constitutions of most socialist states describe their political system as a form of democracy.[25] Thus, they recognize the sovereignty of the people as embodied in a series of representative parliamentary institutions. Such states do not have a separation of powers; instead, they have one national legislative body (such as the Supreme Soviet in the Soviet Union) which is considered the highest organ of state power and which is legally superior to the executive and judicial branches of government.[26]

Such national legislative politics in socialist states often have a similar structure to the parliaments that exist in liberal republics, with two significant differences: first, the deputies elected to these national legislative bodies are not expected to represent the interests of any particular constituency, but the long-term interests of the people as a whole; second, against Marx's advice, the legislative bodies of socialist states are not in permanent session. Rather, they convene once or several times per year in sessions which usually last only a few days.[27]

When the national legislative body is not in session, its powers are transferred to a smaller council (often called a presidium) which combines legislative and executive power, and, in some socialist states (such as the Soviet Union before 1990), acts as a collective head of state. In some systems, the presidium is composed of important communist party members who vote the resolutions of the communist party into law.

State social institutions

Another feature of socialist states is the existence of numerous state-sponsored social organizations (trade unions, youth organizations, women's organizations, associations of teachers, writers, journalists and other professionals, consumer cooperatives, sports clubs, etc.) which are integrated into the political system.

In some socialist states,[which?] representatives of these organizations are guaranteed a certain number of seats on the national legislative bodies. In socialist states, the social organizations are expected to promote social unity and cohesion, to serve as a link between the government and society, and to provide a forum for recruitment of new communist party members.[28]

Political power

Historically, the political organization of many socialist states has been dominated by a single-party monopoly. Some communist governments, such as North Korea, East Germany or the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic have or had more than one political party, but all minor parties are or were required to follow the leadership of the communist party. In socialist states, the government may not tolerate criticism of policies that have already been implemented in the past or are being implemented in the present.[29]

Nevertheless, communist parties have won elections and governed in the context of multi-party democracies, without seeking to establish a one-party state. Examples include San Marino, Republic of Nicaragua,[30] Moldova, Nepal (presently), Cyprus,[31] and the Indian states of Kerala, West Bengal and Tripura.[32] However, for the purposes of this article, these entities do not fall under the definition of socialist state.

Criticism

Main article: Criticisms of communist party rule

From the liberal or conservative viewpoint

Marxist-Leninist states have been criticized for their one-party dictatorships, and what according to its critics is totalitarian control of the economy and society and repression of civil liberties by the Council of Europe,[33] economic focus on heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods, sometimes resulting in shortages of vital products or even famine,[34] and militarism and propaganda to cover up the mistakes of the government .[35]

In his critique of states run under Marxist-Leninist ideology, economist Michael Ellman of the University of Amsterdam notes that in international comparisons, such states compared favorably with Western states in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy.[36] Similarly, Amartya Sen's own analysis of international comparisons of life expectancy found that several Marxist-Leninist states made significant gains, and commented "one thought that is bound to occur is that communism is good for poverty removal."[37]

From the communist and socialist viewpoints

Within the socialist and communist movements themselves, there are a number of criticisms of self-declared "socialist states". Many communist tendencies argue that their economic system actually was state capitalism.[2]

Modern period

A map showing the current states (as of 2012) having a single-party political system and ruled by self-declared Marxist-Leninist governments. They are China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam. North Korea has disavowed Marxism–Leninism, but is otherwise still regarded in the same respect.

List of current Marxist-Leninist states

The following countries are one-party states in which the institutions of the ruling communist party and the state have become intertwined; hence they fall under the definition of self-defined Socialist states that officially support communism. They are generally adherents of Marxism-Leninism in particular and as such represent a particular ideology that many communists may not share. They are listed here together with the year of their founding and their respective ruling parties:[38]

Country Since Party Leader(s)
 People's Republic of China 1 October 1949 Communist Party of China Xi–Li Administration:
 Republic of Cuba 1 July 1961 Communist Party of Cuba Raúl Castro
 Lao People's Democratic Republic 2 December 1975 Lao People's Revolutionary Party Choummaly Sayasone
 Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2 September 1945 (in the north)

2 July 1976 (unified)

Communist Party of Vietnam Tetrarchy:

Disputed or mixed governments

Multi-party states with current governing communist parties in power

These are multi-party states that currently have communist parties leading the government. Such states are not considered to be communist states as the countries themselves allow for multiple parties, and do not provide a constitutional role for their communist parties.

  • Currently none (The last state was Nepal (2008 - 2013). The Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) participated in a multi-party coalition government, an alliance of 22 parties that held 350 seats in the 601-member constituent assembly.)

Communist parties as part of a ruling coalition

There are also some parties that participate as junior partners in ruling coalitions, as listed below.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Steele, David (1992). From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. Open Court Publishing Company. p. 45. ISBN 978-0875484495. Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all
  2. ^ a b c "State capitalism" in the Soviet Union, M.C. Howard and J.E. King
  3. ^ "N.I. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhensky in The ABC of Communism write "In a communist society there will be no classes. But if there will be no classes, this implies that in communist society there will likewise be no State." See also State and Revolution by Lenin, chapter 5.4 "The Higher Phase of Communist Society"
  4. ^ The Poverty of Communism. Nicholas Eberstadt. Page 2.
  5. ^ Historical Dictionary of Socialism. James C. Docherty, Peter Lamb. Page 85. "The Soviet Union was a one-party Marxist-Leninist state.".
  6. ^ Ideology, Interests, and Identity. Stephen H. Hanson. Page 14. "the USSR was officially a Marxist-Leninist state"
  7. ^ The Fine Line between the Enforcement of Human Rights Agreements and the Violation of National Sovereignity: The Case of Soviet Dissidents. Jennifer Noe Pahre. Page 336. "[...]the Soviet Union, as a Marxist-Leninist state[...]". Page 348. "The Soviet Union is a Marxist-Leninist state."
  8. ^ Leninist National Policy: Solution to the "National Question"?. Walker Connor. Page 31. "[...]four Marxist-Leninist states (the Soviet Union, China, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia)[...]"
  9. ^ Ian Adams. Political ideology today. Manchester England, UK: Manchester University Press, 1993. p. 201.
  10. ^ Alexander Shtromas, Robert K. Faulkner, Daniel J. Mahoney. Totalitarianism and the prospects for world order: closing the door on the twentieth century. Oxford, England, UK; Lanham, Maryland, USA: Lexington Books, 2003. p. 18.
  11. ^ Michael Albert, Robin Hahnel. Socialism today and tomorrow. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: South End Press, 1981. pp. 24–25.
  12. ^ Pons, Silvo and Service, Robert (eds.). A Dictionary of 20th Century Communism. Princeton, New Jersey, USA; Oxfordshire, England, UK: Princeton University Press ISBN 0691154295. Page 306.
  13. ^ a b c History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976-89. Allan Todd. Page 16. "The term Marxism-Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'. This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues." [...] "However, many Marxists (even members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said.
  14. ^ a b Contemporary Marxism, Issues 4-5. Synthesis Publications, 1981. Page 151. "socialism in one country, a pragmatic deviation from classical Marxism."
  15. ^ a b North Korea Under Communism: Report of an Envoy to Paradise. Cornell Erik. Page 169. "Socialism in one country, a slogan that aroused protests as not only it implied a major deviation from Marxist internationalism, but was also strictly speaking incompatible with the basic tenets of Marxism".
  16. ^ The Oxford Companion to Comparative Politics. Joel Krieger, Craig N. Murphy. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 218.
  17. ^ History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976–89. Allan Todd. Page 16. "The term Marxism–Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'. This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues." [...] "However, many Marxists (even members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said."
  18. ^ Soviet Marxism-Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology. Alfred B. Evans. ABC-CLIO, 1993. p. 30-31.
  19. ^ Terror, Force, and States: The Path from Modernity. Rosemary H. T. O'Kane. Page 101. "As illustration of how Marxism-Leninism was bent to Stalin's purpose, Daniels explains how Stalin's 'theory of socialism in one country', developed in the late 1920s, set the pattern. Derived from a single, old quotation from Lenin, taken out of context, and, crucially, supplemented by Stalin's own words, 'the method and machinery of doctrinal reinterpretation' was established (Daniels, 1993, p. 86) This was the method which was used to conjure Stalin's infallibility. First, any ad hoc decision taken by Stalin was legitimized by the use of some Marxist doctrine conveniently lifted from anywhere and given only one interpretation. Anyone later questioning the interpretation, attempting to restore the earlier context, would be accused of 'petty-bourgeois deviation' and eventually 'counter-revolutionary wrecking'."
  20. ^ Soviet Marxism-Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology. Alfred B. Evans. ABC-CLIO, 1993. p. 36.
  21. ^ Г. Лисичкин (G. Lisichkin), Мифы и реальность, Новый мир (Novy Mir), 1989, № 3, p. 59 Template:Ru icon
  22. ^ VN Embassy - Constitution of 1992 Full Text. From the Preamble: "On 2 July 1976, the National Assembly of reunified Vietnam decided to change the country's name to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam; the country entered a period of transition to socialism, strove for national construction, and unyieldingly defended its frontiers while fulfilling its internationalist duty."
  23. ^ Cubanet - Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1992 Full Text. From Article 5: "The Communist Party of Cuba, a follower of Martí’s ideas and of Marxism-Leninism, and the organized vanguard of the Cuban nation, is the highest leading force of society and of the state, which organizes and guides the common effort toward the goals of the construction of socialism and the progress toward a communist society,"
  24. ^ a b Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, pp. 8-9.
  25. ^ Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 12.
  26. ^ Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1987, p. 13.
  27. ^ Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 14.
  28. ^ Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 16-17.
  29. ^ Furtak, Robert K. The political systems of the socialist states, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 18-19.
  30. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (15 January 1987). "NICARAGUA'S COMMUNIST PARTY SHIFTS TO OPPOSITION". The New York Times.
  31. ^ "Cyprus elects its first communist president", The Guardian, 25 February 2008.
  32. ^ Kerala Assembly Elections-- 2006
  33. ^ Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, Resolution 1481 (2006) Need for international condemnation of crimes of totalitarian communist regimes
  34. ^ The Economics of Soviet Agriculture by Leonard E. Hubbard, p. 117-18
  35. ^ Kenez, Peter (1985). The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917-1929. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31398-8.
  36. ^ Michael Ellman. Socialist Planning. Cambridge University Press, 2014. ISBN 1107427320 p. 372.
  37. ^ Richard G. Wilkinson. Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. Routledge, November 1996. ISBN 0415092353. p. 122
  38. ^ Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook: FIELD LISTING :: GOVERNMENT TYPE
  39. ^ http://leonidpetrov.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/dprk-has-quietly-amended-its-constitution/
  40. ^ "Contribution of Peoples' Progressive Party of Guyana". Solidnet.org.
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