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Centre pivot irrigation near Euberta in the Riverina region of New South Wales

Irrigation is a widespread practice required in many areas of Australia, the driest inhabited continent, to supplement low rainfall with water from other sources to assist in growing crops and pasture.^[1] Overuse or poor management of irrigation is held responsible by some for environmental problems such as soil salinity and loss of habitat for native flora and fauna.^[2]

Irrigation differs from dryland farming (farming relying on rainfall) in Australia in its level of intensity and production. It is a far more economically productive land use than dryland farming.^[3] Common crops produced using irrigation include rice, cotton, canola, sugar, various fruits, and other tree crops, and pasture, hay, and grain for beef and dairy production. Surface irrigation is Australia's most common irrigation method, with drip and center pivots also utilised. All rights to use and control water are vested in the state, which issues conditional entitlements for water use.

The first large-scale irrigation schemes in Australia were introduced during the 1880s, partially in response to drought. In 1915, the River Murray Waters Agreement was signed, setting out basic conditions for the river's water use which remain in force today. Towards the end of the 20th century, environmental problems in the basin became serious as diversions for irrigation approached or exceeded the capacity of natural flows. Following negotiations beginning in 1985, the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was signed in 1987. The more comprehensive National Water Initiative was adopted in 2004.

Water sources

In general, water for irrigation comes from two main sources: river systems and underground aquifers. Major river systems used for irrigation in Australia include the Murray-Darling system, the Ord River in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, and many rivers along the east coast of Australia, including the Burdekin River Irrigation Area in North Queensland, where irrigation is used during the dry season for double-cropping.^[4] A major source of groundwater in Australia is the Great Artesian Basin.

Although the Murray-Darling Basin receives only 6% of Australia's annual rainfall, over 70% of Australia's irrigation resources are concentrated there, which makes up around 90% of the resources in the basin. It contains 42% of the nation's farmland and produces 40% of its food.^{[citation needed]}

History

The first schemes for irrigation commenced in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Goulburn Weir, constructed from 1887 to 1891, was the first major diversion structure built for irrigation development in Australia.^[5]

Memorial marking the site of the first commercial rice crop in the Murray valley at Tullakool, New South Wales

A major drought in Victoria from 1877 to 1884 prompted Alfred Deakin, then a minister in the State Government and chairman of a Royal Commission on water supply to visit the irrigation areas of California. There, he met the Canadian brothers George and William Chaffey, who had worked on irrigation schemes in California.^[6] In 1886, the Chaffey brothers came to Australia and selected a derelict sheep station covering 250,000 acres (1,000 km²) at Mildura as the site for their first irrigation settlement.^[6] They signed an agreement with the Victorian government to spend at least A£300,000 on permanent improvements at Mildura in the next twenty years. Also in 1886/87, the Chaffey brothers were invited by John Downer, the Premier of South Australia, to commence a settlement at Renmark, South Australia.^[7]

The Dethridge wheel, used for measuring the flow of water delivered to individual farms was developed in 1910.^[8]

Irrigation in the Murrumbidgee valley began with the irrigation experiments of agricultural pioneer, Samuel McCaughey at North Yanco station in 1900. This private scheme involved the construction of around 320 kilometres of channels in irrigating about 162 square kilometres (63 sq mi) of land.^[9] McCaughey's success appeared to have encouraged the New South Wales government to commence large-scale irrigation. This process began in 1906 with the Barren Jack and Murrumbidgee Canals Construction Act 1906 (Cth) proclamation. Burrinjuck Dam on the Murrumbidgee River near Tumut was commenced in 1907, work commenced on the channels and the first farms were established soon after.

In 1907, the Victorian government invited American Elwood Mead to become chairman of the newly formed State Rivers and Water Supply Commission of Victoria. The high hopes for government-controlled irrigation in Victoria owed much to Deakin's earlier efforts, who now as Prime Minister, expected Mead to advise at both national and state levels. Mead was not content with proposing only higher water rates in attempting to recover maintenance, management, and construction costs. He also insisted on the logical extension, which demanded higher-yielding uses of water and land. The Water Act of 1909 was passed despite the fierce opposition of large landowners, and Mead's influence on rural development was greatly increased by his assumption of overriding control in the planning of closer settlement in Victoria's irrigation districts. Mead claimed much credit for the hierarchical arrangement of allotment sizes which characterized these designs, but his impact was rather in the very scale and complexity of the commission's operations, in Mead's salesmanship, and in the bureaucratic web in which the new settlers became enmeshed. Mead worked in Australia full-time for four years, but his involvement would continue until his resignation became effective in May 1915; this professional experience consolidated Mead's international reputation. In 1923, Mead's four-month Australia advisory tour was punctuated by disputes with Joseph Carruthers and leading irrigation authorities in New South Wales over the selection and use of land in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. Mead rejected plans for further fruit planting, advocating larger dairy farms and improved co-ordination of grazing and irrigation enterprises, which would favour stock fattening and the intensive production of lucerne.^[10]

In Western Australia, the state's first controlled irrigation scheme, the Harvey Irrigation Scheme, was officially started in 1916. It was further developed during the latter part of the 1930s depression to take unemployed workers to dig and build the extensive irrigation channels in the district.^[11]

Policy

The management of irrigation, particularly with relation to the problems of the Murray-Darling Basin has long been a politically contentious issue in Australia.

The River Murray Waters Agreement

Regulation of the Murray River system was one of the first issues addressed after Federation. A period of drought beginning in 1895 culminated in the 'Federation drought' of 1901–2. One result was a non-government conference held in Corowa in 1902, which called for government action to manage the waters of the Murray River.^[12] A prolonged period of negotiation followed, during which the states claimed property rights over the waters of the Murray and its tributaries.

The upstream states, Victoria and New South Wales, favoured the riparian doctrine, under which landowners are free to take water from streams flowing through their property. As the 'Premier State', New South Wales, claimed riparian rights not only over its own rivers, but over the entire main stream of the Murray. South Australia relied on provisions of the newly enacted Constitution under which the Commonwealth government had authority over navigation along the Murray River and an implied obligation to preserve flows in the South Australian section of the river.

Negotiations were finally concluded in 1915.^[12] The River Murray Waters Agreement, to which the Commonwealth and the states of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia were parties, set out the basic conditions which remain in force today:

flow at Albury is shared equally between New South Wales and Victoria
Victoria and New South Wales retain control of their tributaries below Albury
Victoria and New South Wales supply South Australia with a guaranteed minimum quantity of water or "entitlement".

The agreement also provided for construction of dams, weirs and locks on the main stream of the Murray to be managed by the River Murray Commission, which was established in 1917.

Although it was an important example of cooperative federalism, the River Murray Waters Agreement was limited to the management of water for irrigation and navigation.

The Murray–Darling Basin Agreement

As diversions for irrigation approached or exceeded the capacity of the Murray–Darling river system, and environmental problems became more serious, the need for a coordinated approach to management of the Basin as a whole became more evident. Following negotiations beginning in 1985 the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was signed in 1987. In its initial form, it was as an amendment to the River Murray Waters Agreement. Five years later, in 1992, a totally new Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was signed, replacing the River Murray Waters Agreement. The Agreement was given full legal status by the Murray–Darling Basin Act 1993 which was passed by all the contracting governments. Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory later joined the agreement.

The stated purpose of the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was 'to promote and coordinate effective planning and management for the equitable, efficient and sustainable use of the water, land and other environmental resources of the Murray–Darling Basin'

To achieve this, the Agreement established new institutions at the political, bureaucratic and community levels. These were:

the Murray–Darling Basin Ministerial Council (MDBMC);
the Murray–Darling Basin Commission (MDBC); and
the Community Advisory Committee (CAC).

The National Water Initiative

The lack of satisfactory progress under the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement and the emergence of a variety of water policy problems elsewhere in Australia led to the adoption of the National Water Initiative in 2004. Key elements of the Initiative included promotion of water trading and a commitment to restore at least 500 gigalitres of environmental flows to the Murray Darling Basin

Production

Close up of an Impact (Knocker) Sprinkler in use on a fodder crop

Water consumption by the agriculture industry was 12,780 gigalitres (2,810×10^⁹ imp gal; 3,380×10^⁹ US gal) in 2012-13, accounting for 65% of total water consumption in Australia during that period. Irrigation/rural water providers were the main suppliers of distributed water in 2004-05 accounting for 6,637 gigalitres (1,460×10^⁹ imp gal; 1,753×10^⁹ US gal) or 59% of Australia's total distributed water supply.^[13] Since 2005 climatic conditions and reduced allocations have caused the total water consumed to decline by 30% from the 2004-2005 figure down to 8,521 gigalitres (1,874×10^⁹ imp gal; 2,251×10^⁹ US gal) in 2006-2007^[14] and further to 7,286 gigalitres (1,603×10^⁹ imp gal; 1,925×10^⁹ US gal) in 2008-2009.^[15] The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in 2012-13 was A$13,431 million^[16] up from A$9,076 million in 2004-05 and A$9,618 million in 2000-01.^[13] The gross value of irrigated agricultural production represents around a quarter (23%) of the gross value of agricultural commodities produced in Australia in 2004-05, on less than 1% of agricultural land.^[17]

Common crops produced using irrigation include rice, cotton, canola, sugar, various fruits and other tree crops and pasture, hay and grain for use in beef and dairy production.

Gross value of irrigated agricultural production^[13]^[16]	2000-01 A$M	2004-05 A$M	2012-13 A$M
Dairy farming	1,499	1,632	1,908
Vegetables	1,817	1,761	2,746
Sugar	284	477	599
Fruit	1,590	1,777	2,801
Grapes	1,355	1,314	1,074
Cotton	1,222	908	1,789
Rice	350	102	302
Nurseries, cut flowers & turf	763	737	845
Livestock, pasture, grains & other	737	367
Total	9,618	9,076	13,431

Cotton

Major cotton growing areas in Australia are:

New South Wales - Mungindi, Gwydir River, Walgett, Bourke, the Lower and Upper Namoi River, Macquarie River, Menindee, Lachlan River and Murrumbidgee River
Queensland - Central Highlands, Dawson Valley, Biloela, Darling Downs, Dirranbandi, St George, Macintyre Valley^[18]

In 2001/02 crop size was 420,170 hectares (1,038,300 acres) producing 3,041,000 bales. Estimates for 2006/07 were for 142,032 hectares (350,970 acres) producing cotton, a 66% reduction, producing a forecast crop of 1,171,765 bales, a 61% reduction.^[18] The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in the cotton industry in 2004-05 was A$908 million compared to A$1,222 million in 2000-01. While demand skyrocketed, actual water use by the cotton industry fell by 37% between 2000/01 and 2004/05, due mainly to drought.^[13]^[19] The cotton industry used 2,896 gigalitres (637×10^⁹ imp gal; 765×10^⁹ US gal) in 2000/01, 1,822 gigalitres (401×10^⁹ imp gal; 481×10^⁹ US gal) in 2004/05^[17] and 793 gigalitres (174×10^⁹ imp gal; 209×10^⁹ US gal) in 2008/09.^[15]

Rice

Irrigated areas in the Riverina produces the vast majority of rice grown in Australia, particularly in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (MIA), but also the Murray Irrigation Area around Finley, Coleambally and Deniliquin areas.^[20]

Today, more than one million tonnes of Australian rice is produced each year and exported to over 70 countries, generating A$500 million in export income and supporting 63 towns in the Riverina and northern Victoria.^[21] Major rice mills are located in Leeton, Coleambally and the largest rice mill in the southern hemisphere in Deniliquin.^[22]

The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in the rice industry in 2004-05 was A$102 million compared to A$350 million in 2000-01. Water use by the rice industry fell between 2000/01 and 2004/05, due mainly to smaller planted areas during the drought; the rice industry used 2,223 gigalitres (489×10^⁹ imp gal; 587×10^⁹ US gal) in 2000/01, 631 gigalitres (139×10^⁹ imp gal; 167×10^⁹ US gal) in 2004/05^[13]^[17] and 101 gigalitres (22×10^⁹ imp gal; 27×10^⁹ US gal) in 2008/09.^[15]

Grapes

Wine, dried and table grapes are grown commercially in all states and territories. Grape production is now the largest fruit industry in Australia.^[23] Of that production wine grape production at over 1 million tonnes (980,000 long tons; 1,100,000 short tons) per annum is almost nine times the production of dried grapes and 14 times the production of table grapes.

A comparison with other grape producing countries throughout the world shows that Australia was the fourteenth largest producer of grapes in 1997.

Towards sustaining that production much of Australia’s viticulture is located in irrigable areas where water supply is reliable and well managed, with many new vineyards relying upon the availability of water pumped from rivers and streams.

The Australian grape industry used a total of 439 gigalitres (97×10^⁹ imp gal; 116×10^⁹ US gal) in 2006/07, equating to approximately 4.3 ML/ha.^[15]

Major grape growing areas of Australia are:

Western Australia – Carnarvon, Swan Valley, and Margaret River, Western Australia
Northern Territory – Ti-Tree
South Australia – Clare Valley, Barossa Valley, the Riverland, the Adelaide Hills and the South East area of the State
Queensland – Mareeba, Rockhampton, Charters Towers, Mundubbera, Stanthorpe, Emerald, and St George
New South Wales – Hunter Region and Riverina
Victoria – Sunraysia, Swan Hill and Yarra Valley
Tasmania – Launceston^[24]

Water trading

In Australia, all rights to use and control water are vested in the states. Users are then issued various conditional entitlements to use water and some of these entitlements can, in limited circumstances, be traded.

Entitlements vary state by state and according to the use, source, legal form, level of devolution, security and transferability among others. There has been a move across all states in recent years to move from older forms of water entitlement to more secure and transferable entitlements. Key parts of this move has been the separation of water entitlements from ties to particular parcels of land and the specification of entitlements with specific volumes and reliability.

Where an entitlement is able to be traded, the transaction may take several forms including temporary transfer of a seasonal water assignment, a permanent transfer of all or part of a water entitlement or a lease over a set period of years. All transfers require approval from the various regulatory bodies to ensure it complies with trading rules designed to meet environmental and in some cases socio-economic objectives. Such rules may include approving trades only within a set zone or the exchange rate of trades between zones to reflect water losses in delivery or differences in reliability.^[25]

Methods

Irrigation methods in Australia have improved over many years allowing for more efficient production per megalitre of water used. Current methods include systems such as centre pivot irrigation, impact (knocker) sprinklers, butterfly sprinklers, drip and surface irrigation. Surface irrigation remains the most common irrigation technique accounting for 58.6% of the total area irrigated in 2013/14 compared to 10.8% for drip, 13.2% for centre pivot and lateral move machines and 4.4% for microspray systems.^[26] These values may change from season to season due to water availability and commodity prices.

Furrow irrigation is the typical choice for row crops such as cotton, sugar-cane and grains. Border-Check irrigation is the dominant technique for irrigating pasture. Centre pivots and lateral move machines are also used within row cropping and pasture/fodder crops and offer higher levels of control than furrow irrigation. Smaller scale sprinkler systems such as solid set systems with impact sprinklers are commonly used to grow vegetables and turf. Drip systems are found within most of the high value perennial horticultural crops such as grapes and fruit trees.

Centre pivot irrigation is often used for crops where the water can be distributed over a considerable period of time. In other crops where moisture stress is a complex concern, for example during the growing of cauliflower, water is required to be distributed quickly two or three specific times per day at a rate of about 140% the evaporation replacement rate and for this impact sprinklers set every 12 square metres or butterfly sprinklers set every 6 square metres are required.^[27] Drip sprinklers can be used on many spaced planting locations but typically will be found as gravity fed systems on vineyards.

Most if not all farms employ earthworks such as laser levelling to facilitate drainage and improve water use efficiency and uniformity.

Environment

Overuse and poor irrigation practices have led to increased salt content in the soil, reducing the productivity of the land. Irrigation salinity is caused by water soaking through the soil level adding to the ground water below. This causes the water table to rise, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. As the irrigated area dries, the salt remains.^[2] At Wakool in the Riverina region of New South Wales, irrigation salinity is mitigated through a salt interception scheme that pumps saline ground water into evaporation basins, protecting approximately 50,000 hectares of farmland in the area from high water tables and salinity. The subsequent salt has various uses including as an animal feed supplement. The program has returned to production over 2,000 hectares of previously barren farmland and encouraged the regeneration of native eucalypts.^[28]

References

^ "Living with drought". Bureau of Meteorology (Australia). Archived from the original on 18 February 2007. Retrieved 20 February 2007.
^ ^a ^b "Australia's Salinity Problem". National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality. Commonwealth of Australia. 2001. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 23 February 2007.
^ C. Radcliffe, John (10 February 2022). "Current status of recycled water for agricultural irrigation in Australia, potential opportunities and areas of emerging concern". Science of the Total Environment. 807, Part 2 (Pt 2). Bibcode:2022ScTEn.807o1676R. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151676. PMID 34798087.
^ "Burdekin Haughton". SunWater. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
^ Green, K. D. (1988). "Chapter 3: Irrigation Development". Channels, weirs and barrages. Parkville, Victoria: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. p. 155. ISBN 0-908029-49-7. Retrieved 21 February 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b Munns, Cec F.; McLay, A.; Sparkes, J.; Logue, W.; Paul, S.; Short, B. (1987). The way we were. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Victoria: Brooks Waterlook Publicaters. p. 266. ISBN 0-85568-507-7.
^ Westcott, Peter (1979). "William Benjamin Chaffey (1856–1926)". Chaffey, William Benjamin (1856 - 1926). Australian National University / Melbourne University Press. Retrieved 22 February 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ Green, K. D. (1988). "Chapter 3: Irrigation Development". Measuring farm supplies - the Dethridge wheel. Parkville, Victoria: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. p. 157. ISBN 0-908029-49-7. Retrieved 21 February 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ Hohnen, Peter (1974). "Sir Samuel McCaughey (1835–1919)". McCaughey, Sir Samuel (1835 - 1919). Melbourne University Press. Retrieved 12 March 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ J. M. Powell, Mead, Elwood (1858–1936), Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 10, (MUP), 1986
^ totaltravel.com aerticle on Harvey
^ ^a ^b "Drowned towns". Ergo. State Library of Victoria. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2004-05". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Retrieved 5 March 2007.
^ "4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2006-07". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government. 27 August 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2009.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2008-09". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government. 19 May 2010. Retrieved 13 May 2010.
^ ^a ^b "4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2012-13". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c ABS Media Release November 2006 "Drought drives down water consumption"
^ ^a ^b "Water and Cotton Fact Sheet". Cotton Australia. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2007.
^ "Water and Cotton Fact Sheet". Cotton Australia. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2007. From ABS Water Account Australia 2004/05 figures
^ "The Australian Rice Growing Region". SunRice. Archived from the original on 31 December 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
^ "Rice Facts". Ricegrowers Association of Australia Inc. Archived from the original on 30 December 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
^ "SunRice Deniliquin". Ricegrowers Ltd. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
^ "The table grape industry". Australian Table Grape Association. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
^ Oag, David (July 2001). Papademetriou, Minas K.; Dent, Frank J. (eds.). "Grape Production in Australia". Grape Production in the Asia-Pacific Region. FAO.
^ "Water Trading in Australia Current & Prospective Products" (PDF). ACIL Tasman. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2007.
^ "4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2013-14". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government. 29 April 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015.
^ WA Agriculture Bulletin Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Wakool Tullakool Sub Surface Drainage Scheme" (PDF). Murray Irrigation Ltd. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2007. Retrieved 23 February 2007.

External links

"Irrigation in Australia - Facts and Figures" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2011.
"Irrigation in Australia - Facts About Garden".

[BOMDrought-1] "Living with drought". Bureau of Meteorology (Australia). Archived from the original on 18 February 2007. Retrieved 20 February 2007.

[NationalActionPlan-2] "Australia's Salinity Problem". National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality. Commonwealth of Australia. 2001. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 23 February 2007.

[cso-3] C. Radcliffe, John (10 February 2022). "Current status of recycled water for agricultural irrigation in Australia, potential opportunities and areas of emerging concern". Science of the Total Environment. 807, Part 2 (Pt 2). Bibcode:2022ScTEn.807o1676R. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151676. PMID 34798087.

[buha-4] "Burdekin Haughton". SunWater. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

[TiApage155-5] Green, K. D. (1988). "Chapter 3: Irrigation Development". Channels, weirs and barrages. Parkville, Victoria: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. p. 155. ISBN 0-908029-49-7. Retrieved 21 February 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)

[waywewere-6] Munns, Cec F.; McLay, A.; Sparkes, J.; Logue, W.; Paul, S.; Short, B. (1987). The way we were. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Victoria: Brooks Waterlook Publicaters. p. 266. ISBN 0-85568-507-7.

[WChaffeyADB-7] Westcott, Peter (1979). "William Benjamin Chaffey (1856–1926)". Chaffey, William Benjamin (1856 - 1926). Australian National University / Melbourne University Press. Retrieved 22 February 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)

[TiApage157-8] Green, K. D. (1988). "Chapter 3: Irrigation Development". Measuring farm supplies - the Dethridge wheel. Parkville, Victoria: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. p. 157. ISBN 0-908029-49-7. Retrieved 21 February 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)

[SamuelMcCaughey-9] Hohnen, Peter (1974). "Sir Samuel McCaughey (1835–1919)". McCaughey, Sir Samuel (1835 - 1919). Melbourne University Press. Retrieved 12 March 2007. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)

[10] J. M. Powell, Mead, Elwood (1858–1936), Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 10, (MUP), 1986

[11] totaltravel.com aerticle on Harvey

[drto-12] "Drowned towns". Ergo. State Library of Victoria. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

[ABS4610in_2004-05-13] "4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2004-05". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Retrieved 5 March 2007.

[ABS4618_2006-07-14] "4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2006-07". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government. 27 August 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2009.

[ABS4618_2008-09-15] "4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2008-09". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government. 19 May 2010. Retrieved 13 May 2010.

[ABS4610in_2013-13-16] "4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2012-13". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2015.

[ABSMRNov06-17] ABS Media Release November 2006 "Drought drives down water consumption"

[cottonfactFeb07-18] "Water and Cotton Fact Sheet". Cotton Australia. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2007.

[19] "Water and Cotton Fact Sheet". Cotton Australia. 13 February 2007. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2007. From ABS Water Account Australia 2004/05 figures

[20] "The Australian Rice Growing Region". SunRice. Archived from the original on 31 December 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.

[21] "Rice Facts". Ricegrowers Association of Australia Inc. Archived from the original on 30 December 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.

[22] "SunRice Deniliquin". Ricegrowers Ltd. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved 28 January 2007.

[ttgi-23] "The table grape industry". Australian Table Grape Association. Retrieved 17 November 2023.

[24] Oag, David (July 2001). Papademetriou, Minas K.; Dent, Frank J. (eds.). "Grape Production in Australia". Grape Production in the Asia-Pacific Region. FAO.

[WaterTradingAust-25] "Water Trading in Australia Current & Prospective Products" (PDF). ACIL Tasman. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2007.

[ABS4618_2013-14-26] "4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2013-14". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Government. 29 April 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015.

[27] WA Agriculture Bulletin Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine

[WakoolSalt-28] "Wakool Tullakool Sub Surface Drainage Scheme" (PDF). Murray Irrigation Ltd. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 August 2007. Retrieved 23 February 2007.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{short description|none}}
-[[File:EubertaCentrePivotIrrigation.jpg|thumb|[[Centre pivot irrigation]] near  [[Euberta, New South Wales|Euberta]] in the [[Riverina]] region of New South Wales]]
+{{Distinguish|Water supply and sanitation in Australia}}
+{{Use Australian English|date=January 2018}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
+[[File:EubertaCentrePivotIrrigation.jpg|thumb|[[Centre pivot irrigation]] near [[Euberta, New South Wales|Euberta]] in the [[Riverina]] region of New South Wales]]
 '''Irrigation''' is a widespread practice required in many areas of Australia, the driest inhabited continent, to supplement low [[rainfall]] with water from other sources to assist in growing [[crops]] and [[pasture]].<ref name="BOMDrought">{{cite web
- | url = http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml
+ |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml
- | title = Living with drought
+ |title=Living with drought
- | publisher = [[Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)]]
+ |publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)]]
- | accessdate = 2007-02-20
+ |access-date=2007-02-20
+ |url-status=dead
-}}</ref>  Overuse or poor management of irrigation is held responsible by some for [[Environment of Australia|environmental problems]] such as [[soil salinity]] and loss of habitat for native flora and fauna.<ref name="NationalActionPlan">{{cite web
+ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml
- | year = 2001
+ |archive-date=18 February 2007
- | url = http://www.napswq.gov.au/publications/salinity.html
+}}</ref> Overuse or poor management of irrigation is held responsible by some for [[Environment of Australia|environmental problems]] such as [[soil salinity]] and loss of habitat for native flora and fauna.<ref name="NationalActionPlan">{{cite web|date=2001 |url=http://www.napswq.gov.au/publications/salinity.html |title=Australia's Salinity Problem |work=National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |access-date=2007-02-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210154134/http://www.napswq.gov.au/publications/salinity.html |archive-date=10 February 2007 }}</ref>
- | title = Australia's Salinity Problem
- | work = National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality
- | publisher = Commonwealth of Australia
- | accessdate = 2007-02-23
-}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
-Irrigation differs from [[dryland farming]] (farming relying on rainfall) in Australia in its level of [[Intensive farming|intensity]] and [[Agricultural productivity|production]]. Common crops produced using irrigation include rice, cotton, [[canola]], sugar, various fruits and other tree crops and pasture, hay and grain for use in beef and dairy production. Surface irrigation is the most common irrigation method in Australia, with drip and center pivot also utilised. All rights to use and control water are vested in the state, which issues conditional entitlements for water use.
+Irrigation differs from [[dryland farming]] (farming relying on rainfall) in Australia in its level of [[Intensive farming|intensity]] and [[Agricultural productivity|production]].  It is a far more economically productive [[land use]] than dryland farming.<ref name="cso">{{cite journal |last1=C. Radcliffe |first1=John |date=10 February 2022 |title=Current status of recycled water for agricultural irrigation in Australia, potential opportunities and areas of emerging concern |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=807, Part 2 |issue=Pt 2 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151676 |pmid=34798087 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.807o1676R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Common crops produced using irrigation include rice, cotton, [[canola]], sugar, various fruits, and other tree crops, and pasture, hay, and grain for beef and dairy production. Surface irrigation is Australia's most common irrigation method, with drip and center pivots also utilised. All rights to use and control water are vested in the state, which issues conditional entitlements for water use.
-The first large-scale irrigation schemes in Australia were introduced during the 1880s, partially in response to drought.  In 1915 the [[River Murray]] Waters Agreement was signed, setting out basic conditions for the river's water use which remain in force today. Towards the end of the 20th century, environmental problems in the basin became serious as diversions for irrigation approached or exceeded the capacity of natural flows.  Following negotiations beginning in 1985, the [[Murray–Darling Basin]] Agreement was signed in 1987. The more comprehensive [[#The National Water Initiative|National Water Initiative]] was adopted in 2004.
+The first large-scale irrigation schemes in Australia were introduced during the 1880s, partially in response to drought. In 1915, the [[River Murray]] Waters Agreement was signed, setting out basic conditions for the river's water use which remain in force today. Towards the end of the 20th century, environmental problems in the basin became serious as diversions for irrigation approached or exceeded the capacity of natural flows.  Following negotiations beginning in 1985, the [[Murray–Darling Basin]] Agreement was signed in 1987. The more comprehensive [[#The National Water Initiative|National Water Initiative]] was adopted in 2004.
 ==Water sources==
 [[File:Diesel pump irrigation.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Diesel engine|diesel]] irrigation pump in [[Mildura, Victoria]].]]
-In general, water for irrigation comes from two main sources, [[river]] systems and underground [[aquifer]]s. Major river systems used for irrigation in Australia include the [[Murray-Darling Basin|Murray-Darling]] system, the [[Ord River]] in the [[Kimberley region of Western Australia]] and many rivers along the east coast of Australia. This includes the [[Burdekin River]] Irrigation Area in [[North Queensland]] where irrigation is used during the dry season for [[double-cropping]].<ref name="buha">{{cite web |url=http://www.sunwater.com.au/schemes/burdekin-haughton |title=Burdekin Haughton |publisher=SunWater |accessdate=18 November 2011 }}</ref> A major source of [[ground water]] in Australia is the [[Great Artesian Basin]].
+In general, water for irrigation comes from two main sources: [[river]] systems and underground [[aquifer]]s. Major river systems used for irrigation in Australia include the [[Murray-Darling Basin|Murray-Darling]] system, the [[Ord River]] in the [[Kimberley region of Western Australia]], and many rivers along the east coast of Australia, including the [[Burdekin River]] Irrigation Area in [[North Queensland]], where irrigation is used during the dry season for [[double-cropping]].<ref name="buha">{{cite web |url=http://www.sunwater.com.au/schemes/burdekin-haughton |title=Burdekin Haughton |publisher=SunWater |access-date=18 November 2011 }}</ref> A major source of [[ground water|groundwater]] in Australia is the [[Great Artesian Basin]].
-Although the [[Murray-Darling Basin]] receives only 6% of Australia's annual rainfall, over 70% of Australia's irrigation resources are concentrated there, which makes up around 90% of the resources in the basin. It contains 42% of the nation's farmland and produces 40% of the nation's food.{{fact|date=March 2015}}
+Although the [[Murray-Darling Basin]] receives only 6% of Australia's annual rainfall, over 70% of Australia's irrigation resources are concentrated there, which makes up around 90% of the resources in the basin. It contains 42% of the nation's farmland and produces 40% of its food.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}
 == History ==
 [[File:SLNSW 920634 Series 09 Irrigation ca 19211924.jpg|thumb|Irrigation in New South Wales during the 1920s]]
-The first schemes for irrigation commenced in the latter half of the nineteenth century.  [[Goulburn Weir]], constructed from 1887 to 1891, was the first major diversion structure built for irrigation development in Australia.<ref name="TiApage155">{{cite book|last=Green|first=K. D.|authorlink=|origyear=1988|year=2000 online|url=http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/tia/155.html|title=Channels, weirs and barrages|chapter=Chapter 3: Irrigation Development|work=Technology in Australia|publisher=Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering|location={{VICcity|Parkville}}, Victoria|isbn=0-908029-49-7|page= page 155|accessdate=21 February 2007}}</ref>
+The first schemes for irrigation commenced in the latter half of the nineteenth century.  [[Goulburn Weir]], constructed from 1887 to 1891, was the first major diversion structure built for irrigation development in Australia.<ref name="TiApage155">{{cite book|last=Green|first=K. D.|date=1988|url=http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/tia/155.html|title=Channels, weirs and barrages|chapter=Chapter 3: Irrigation Development|work=Technology in Australia|publisher=Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering|location={{VICcity|Parkville}}, Victoria|isbn=0-908029-49-7|page= 155|access-date=21 February 2007}}</ref>
 [[File:TullakoolMemorial.JPG|thumb|Memorial marking the site of the first commercial rice crop in the Murray valley at [[Tullakool, New South Wales]]]]
-A major [[Drought in Australia|drought]] in Victoria from 1877 to 1884 prompted [[Alfred Deakin]], then a minister in the [[Parliament of Victoria|State Government]] and chairman of a [[Royal Commission]] on water supply to visit the irrigation areas of California. There he met the Canadian brothers [[George Chaffey|George]] and [[William Chaffey]] who had worked on irrigation schemes in California.<ref name="waywewere">{{cite book|title=The way we were|volume=Volume 3|author1=Munns, Cec F.|authors2=McLay, A.|author3=Sparkes, J.|author4=Logue, W.|author5=Paul, S.|author6=Short, B.|year=1987|edition=2nd |publisher=Brooks Waterlook Publicaters|location={{VICcity|South Melbourne}}, Victoria|isbn=0-85568-507-7|page=266 }}</ref> In 1886 the Chaffey brothers came to Australia and selected a derelict sheep station covering {{convert|250000|acre|km2}} at [[Mildura, Victoria|Mildura]] as the site for their first irrigation settlement.<ref name="waywewere"/> They signed an agreement with the Victorian government to spend at least [[Australian pound|A£]]300,000 on permanent improvements at Mildura in the next twenty years. Also in 1886/87, the Chaffey brothers were invited by [[John Downer]], the [[Premiers of South Australia|Premier of South Australia]], to commence a settlement at [[Renmark, South Australia]].<ref name="WChaffeyADB">{{cite web|last=Westcott|first=Peter|year=1979|url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A070687b.htm|title=Chaffey, William Benjamin (1856 - 1926)|work=[[Australian Dictionary of Biography]]|publisher=Australian National University / Melbourne University Press|accessdate=22 February 2007}}</ref>
+A major [[Drought in Australia|drought]] in Victoria from 1877 to 1884 prompted [[Alfred Deakin]], then a minister in the [[Parliament of Victoria|State Government]] and chairman of a [[Royal Commission]] on water supply to visit the irrigation areas of California. There, he met the Canadian brothers [[George Chaffey|George]] and [[William Chaffey]], who had worked on irrigation schemes in California.<ref name="waywewere">{{cite book|title=The way we were|volume=3|author1=Munns, Cec F.|author2=McLay, A.|author3=Sparkes, J.|author4=Logue, W.|author5=Paul, S.|author6=Short, B.|date=1987|edition=2nd |publisher=Brooks Waterlook Publicaters|location={{VICcity|South Melbourne}}, Victoria|isbn=0-85568-507-7|page=266 }}</ref> In 1886, the Chaffey brothers came to Australia and selected a derelict sheep station covering {{convert|250000|acre|km2}} at [[Mildura, Victoria|Mildura]] as the site for their first irrigation settlement.<ref name="waywewere"/> They signed an agreement with the Victorian government to spend at least [[Australian pound|A£]]300,000 on permanent improvements at Mildura in the next twenty years. Also in 1886/87, the Chaffey brothers were invited by [[John Downer]], the [[Premiers of South Australia|Premier of South Australia]], to commence a settlement at [[Renmark, South Australia]].<ref name="WChaffeyADB">{{cite book|last=Westcott|first=Peter|date=1979|chapter-url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A070687b.htm|title=Chaffey, William Benjamin (1856 - 1926)|chapter=William Benjamin Chaffey (1856–1926) |work=[[Australian Dictionary of Biography]]|publisher=Australian National University / Melbourne University Press|access-date=22 February 2007}}</ref>
-The [[Dethridge wheel]], used for measuring flow of water delivered to individual farms was developed in 1910.<ref name="TiApage157">{{cite book| last = Green | first = K. D.|origyear=1988|year=2000 online |url= http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/tia/157.html|title=Measuring farm supplies - the Dethridge wheel|chapter=Chapter 3: Irrigation Development| work = Technology in Australia|publisher=Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering|location=Parkville, Victoria|isbn=0-908029-49-7|page=page 157|accessdate=21 February 2007}}</ref>
+The [[Dethridge wheel]], used for measuring the flow of water delivered to individual farms was developed in 1910.<ref name="TiApage157">{{cite book| last = Green | first = K. D.|date=1988|url= http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/tia/157.html|title=Measuring farm supplies - the Dethridge wheel|chapter=Chapter 3: Irrigation Development| work = Technology in Australia|publisher=Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering|location=Parkville, Victoria|isbn=0-908029-49-7|page=157|access-date=21 February 2007}}</ref>
 [[File:StateLibQld 2 212324 Artesian bore near Barcaldine, Queensland, 1924.jpg|thumb|Artesian bore near [[Barcaldine, Queensland|Barcaldine]] in Queensland, 1924]]
-Irrigation in the Murrumbidgee valley began in with the irrigation experiments of agricultural pioneer, [[Samuel McCaughey]] at North Yanco station in 1900. This private scheme involved the construction of around 320 kilometres of channels to irrigate about {{convert|162|km2}} of land.<ref name="SamuelMcCaughey">{{cite web|last = Hohnen|first=Peter|year=1974|url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A050152b.htm|title=McCaughey, Sir Samuel (1835 - 1919)|work=[[Australian Dictionary of Biography]]|publisher=[[Melbourne University Press]]|accessdate=12 March 2007}}</ref>  McCaughey's success appeared to have encouraged the New South Wales government to commence large scale irrigation. This process began in 1906 with the proclamation of the ''[[Barren Jack and Murrumbidgee Canals Construction Act 1906]]'' (Cth). [[Burrinjuck Dam]] on the Murrumbidgee River near Tumut was commenced in 1907, work commenced on the channels and the first farms were established soon after.
+Irrigation in the Murrumbidgee valley began with the irrigation experiments of agricultural pioneer, [[Samuel McCaughey]] at North Yanco station in 1900. This private scheme involved the construction of around 320 kilometres of channels in irrigating about {{convert|162|km2}} of land.<ref name="SamuelMcCaughey">{{cite book|last = Hohnen|first=Peter|date=1974|chapter-url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A050152b.htm|title=McCaughey, Sir Samuel (1835 - 1919)|chapter=Sir Samuel McCaughey (1835–1919) |work=[[Australian Dictionary of Biography]]|publisher=[[Melbourne University Press]]|access-date=12 March 2007}}</ref> McCaughey's success appeared to have encouraged the New South Wales government to commence large-scale irrigation. This process began in 1906 with the ''[[Barren Jack and Murrumbidgee Canals Construction Act 1906]]'' (Cth) proclamation. [[Burrinjuck Dam]] on the Murrumbidgee River near Tumut was commenced in 1907, work commenced on the channels and the first farms were established soon after.
-In 1907, the Victorian government invited American [[Elwood Mead]] to become chairman of the newly formed [[State Rivers and Water Supply Commission of Victoria]]. The high hopes for government-controlled irrigation in Victoria owed much to Deakin's earlier efforts, who now as Prime Minister, expected Mead to advise at both national and state levels. Mead was not content with proposing only higher water-rates in attempting to recover maintenance, management and construction costs, he also insisted on the logical extension which demanded higher-yielding uses of water and land. The Water Act of 1909 was passed despite the fierce opposition of large landowners, and Mead's influence on rural development was greatly increased by his assumption of overriding control in the planning of closer settlement in Victoria's irrigation districts. Mead claimed much credit for the hierarchical arrangement of allotment sizes which characterized these designs, but his impact was rather in the very scale and complexity of the commission's operations, in Mead's salesmanship, and in the bureaucratic web in which the new settlers became enmeshed. Mead worked in Australia full time for four years, but his involvement would continue until his resignation became effective in May 1915; this professional experience consolidated Mead's international reputation. In 1923, Mead's four-month  Australia advisory tour was punctuated by disputes with [[Joseph Carruthers]] and leading irrigation authorities in New South Wales over the selection and use of land in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. Mead rejected plans for further fruit planting, advocating larger dairy farms and an improved co-ordination of grazing and irrigation enterprises which would favour stock fattening and the intensive production of [[Alfalfa|lucerne]].<ref>J. M. Powell, [http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/mead-elwood-7543 Mead, Elwood (1858–1936)], Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 10, (MUP), 1986</ref>
+In 1907, the Victorian government invited American [[Elwood Mead]] to become chairman of the newly formed [[State Rivers and Water Supply Commission of Victoria]]. The high hopes for government-controlled irrigation in Victoria owed much to Deakin's earlier efforts, who now as Prime Minister, expected Mead to advise at both national and state levels. Mead was not content with proposing only higher water rates in attempting to recover maintenance, management, and construction costs. He also insisted on the logical extension, which demanded higher-yielding uses of water and land. The Water Act of 1909 was passed despite the fierce opposition of large landowners, and Mead's influence on rural development was greatly increased by his assumption of overriding control in the planning of closer settlement in Victoria's irrigation districts. Mead claimed much credit for the hierarchical arrangement of allotment sizes which characterized these designs, but his impact was rather in the very scale and complexity of the commission's operations, in Mead's salesmanship, and in the bureaucratic web in which the new settlers became enmeshed. Mead worked in Australia full-time for four years, but his involvement would continue until his resignation became effective in May 1915; this professional experience consolidated Mead's international reputation. In 1923, Mead's four-month Australia advisory tour was punctuated by disputes with [[Joseph Carruthers]] and leading irrigation authorities in New South Wales over the selection and use of land in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. Mead rejected plans for further fruit planting, advocating larger dairy farms and improved co-ordination of grazing and irrigation enterprises, which would favour stock fattening and the intensive production of [[Alfalfa|lucerne]].<ref>J. M. Powell, [http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/mead-elwood-7543 Mead, Elwood (1858–1936)], Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 10, (MUP), 1986</ref>
-In Western Australia the state's first controlled irrigation scheme, the [[Harvey, Western Australia|Harvey]] Irrigation Scheme, was officially started in 1916. It was further developed during the latter part of the 1930s depression to take unemployed workers to dig and build the extensive irrigation channels in the district.<ref>[http://www.totaltravel.com.au/travel/wa/southwestwa/southwesttapestry/guide/swtapestry4 totaltravel.com aerticle on Harvey]</ref> <!-- from talk page, need better refs and wikilinks-->
+In Western Australia, the state's first controlled irrigation scheme, the [[Harvey, Western Australia|Harvey]] Irrigation Scheme, was officially started in 1916. It was further developed during the latter part of the 1930s depression to take unemployed workers to dig and build the extensive irrigation channels in the district.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051112225200/http://www.totaltravel.com.au/travel/wa/southwestwa/southwesttapestry/guide/swtapestry4 totaltravel.com aerticle on Harvey]</ref> <!-- from talk page, need better refs and wikilinks-->
 ==Policy==
@@ Line 44: / Line 45: @@
 === The River Murray Waters Agreement ===
-Regulation of the Murray River system was one of the first issues addressed after Federation. A period of drought beginning in 1895 culminated in the ‘Federation drought’ of 1901–2. One result was a non-government conference held in Corowa in 1902, which called for government action to manage the waters of the Murray River.<ref name="drto">{{cite web |url=http://ergo.slv.vic.gov.au/explore-history/land-exploration/environment/drowned-towns |title=Drowned towns |work=Ergo |publisher=State Library of Victoria |accessdate=18 November 2011 }}</ref> A prolonged period of negotiation followed, during which the states claimed property rights over the waters of the Murray and its tributaries.
+Regulation of the Murray River system was one of the first issues addressed after Federation. A period of drought beginning in 1895 culminated in the 'Federation drought' of 1901–2. One result was a non-government conference held in Corowa in 1902, which called for government action to manage the waters of the Murray River.<ref name="drto">{{cite web |url=http://ergo.slv.vic.gov.au/explore-history/land-exploration/environment/drowned-towns |title=Drowned towns |work=Ergo |publisher=State Library of Victoria |access-date=18 November 2011 }}</ref> A prolonged period of negotiation followed, during which the states claimed property rights over the waters of the Murray and its tributaries.
-The upstream states, Victoria and New South Wales, favoured the [[Riparian water rights|riparian doctrine]], under which landowners are free to take water from streams flowing through their property. As the ‘Premier State’, New South Wales, claimed riparian rights not only over its own rivers, but over the entire main stream of the Murray. South Australia relied on provisions of the newly enacted [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]] under which the Commonwealth government had authority over navigation along the Murray River and an implied obligation to preserve flows in the South Australian section of the river.
+The upstream states, Victoria and New South Wales, favoured the [[Riparian water rights|riparian doctrine]], under which landowners are free to take water from streams flowing through their property. As the 'Premier State', New South Wales, claimed riparian rights not only over its own rivers, but over the entire main stream of the Murray. South Australia relied on provisions of the newly enacted [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]] under which the Commonwealth government had authority over navigation along the Murray River and an implied obligation to preserve flows in the South Australian section of the river.
 Negotiations were finally concluded in 1915.<ref name="drto"/> The River Murray Waters Agreement, to which the Commonwealth and the states of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia were parties, set out the basic conditions which remain in force today:
@@ Line 59: / Line 60: @@
 As diversions for irrigation approached or exceeded the capacity of the Murray–Darling river system, and environmental problems became more serious, the need for a coordinated approach to management of the Basin as a whole became more evident. Following negotiations beginning in 1985 the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was signed in 1987. In its initial form, it was as an amendment to the River Murray Waters Agreement. Five years later, in 1992, a totally new Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was signed, replacing the River Murray Waters Agreement. The Agreement was given full legal status by the Murray–Darling Basin Act 1993 which was passed by all the contracting governments. Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory later joined the agreement.
-The stated purpose of the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was ‘to promote and coordinate effective planning and management for the equitable, efficient and sustainable use of the water, land and other environmental resources of the Murray–Darling Basin’
+The stated purpose of the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement was 'to promote and coordinate effective planning and management for the equitable, efficient and sustainable use of the water, land and other environmental resources of the Murray–Darling Basin'
 To achieve this, the Agreement established new institutions at the political, bureaucratic and community levels. These were:
@@ Line 67: / Line 68: @@
 === The National Water Initiative ===
-The lack of satisfactory progress under the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement and the emergence of a variety of water policy problems elsewhere in Australia led to the adoption of the National Water Initiative in 2004. Key elements of the Initiative included promotion of water trading and a commitment to restore at least 500 gigalitres of environmental flows to the Murray Darling Basin
+The lack of satisfactory progress under the Murray–Darling Basin Agreement and the emergence of a variety of water policy problems elsewhere in Australia led to the adoption of the National Water Initiative in 2004. Key elements of the Initiative included promotion of [[water trading]] and a commitment to restore at least 500 gigalitres of environmental flows to the Murray Darling Basin
 ==Production==
 [[File:Impact(Knocker)IrrigationCloseUp.jpg|thumb|right|Close up of an Impact (Knocker) Sprinkler in use on a fodder crop]]
-Water consumption by the [[Agriculture in Australia|agriculture industry]] was {{convert|12191|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2004-05, accounting for 65% of total water consumption in Australia during that period. Irrigation/rural water providers were the main suppliers of distributed water in 2004-05 accounting for {{convert|6637|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} or 59% of Australia's total distributed water supply.<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05">{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4610.0Main+Features12004-05?OpenDocument | title = 4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2004-05| work =  | publisher = [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] | accessdate = 2007-03-05}}</ref> Since 2005 climatic conditions and reduced allocations have caused the total water consumed to declined by 30% from the 2004-2005 figure down to {{convert|8521|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2006-2007 <ref name="ABS4618 2006-07">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4618.02006-07?OpenDocument|title= 4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2006-07|work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=27 August 2008|publisher=[[Australian Government]]|accessdate=31 March 2009}}</ref> and further to {{convert|7286|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2008-2009.<ref name="ABS4618 2008-09">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4618.02008-09?OpenDocument|title=4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2008-09|work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=19 May 2010|publisher=[[Australian Government]]|accessdate=13 May 2010}}</ref> The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in 2004-05 was {{AUD}}9,076&nbsp;million compared to {{AUD}}9,618&nbsp;million in 2000-01.<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/> The gross value of irrigated agricultural production represents around a quarter (23%) of the gross value of agricultural commodities produced in Australia in 2004-05, on less than 1% of agricultural land.<ref name = "ABSMRNov06">[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/4610.0Media%20Release12004-05?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=4610.0&issue=2004-05&num=&view= ABS Media Release November 2006 "Drought drives down water consumption"]{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref>
+Water consumption by the [[Agriculture in Australia|agriculture industry]] was {{convert|12780|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2012-13, accounting for 65% of total water consumption in Australia during that period. Irrigation/rural water providers were the main suppliers of distributed water in 2004-05 accounting for {{convert|6637|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} or 59% of Australia's total distributed water supply.<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05">{{cite web|date=2006|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4610.0Main+Features12004-05?OpenDocument | title = 4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2004-05| publisher = [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] | access-date = 2007-03-05}}</ref> Since 2005 climatic conditions and reduced allocations have caused the total water consumed to decline by 30% from the 2004-2005 figure down to {{convert|8521|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2006-2007<ref name="ABS4618 2006-07">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4618.02006-07?OpenDocument|title= 4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2006-07|work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=27 August 2008|publisher=[[Australian Government]]|access-date=31 March 2009}}</ref> and further to {{convert|7286|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2008-2009.<ref name="ABS4618 2008-09">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4618.02008-09?OpenDocument|title=4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2008-09|work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=19 May 2010|publisher=[[Australian Government]]|access-date=13 May 2010}}</ref> The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in 2012-13 was A$13,431&nbsp;million<ref name="ABS4610in 2013-13">{{cite web|date=2006|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/allprimarymainfeatures/EDD6DD693926BD37CA257AC2001DA500?opendocument | title = 4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2012-13| publisher = [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] | access-date = 2015-08-08}}</ref> up from A$9,076&nbsp;million in 2004-05 and A$9,618&nbsp;million in 2000-01.<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/> The gross value of irrigated agricultural production represents around a quarter (23%) of the gross value of agricultural commodities produced in Australia in 2004-05, on less than 1% of agricultural land.<ref name="ABSMRNov06">[https://web.archive.org/web/20071001070240/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/Latestproducts/4610.0Media%20Release12004-05?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=4610.0&issue=2004-05&num=&view= ABS Media Release November 2006 "Drought drives down water consumption"]</ref>
 Common crops produced using irrigation include [[rice]], [[cotton]], [[canola]], [[sugar]], various fruits and other tree crops and pasture, hay and grain for use in beef and dairy production.
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
-!Gross value of irrigated<br />agricultural production<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/>
+!Gross value of irrigated<br />agricultural production<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/><ref name="ABS4610in 2013-13"/>
 !2000-01<br />{{AUD}}M
 !2004-05<br />{{AUD}}M
+!2012-13<br />{{AUD}}M
 |-
-|Dairy farming ||1,499 ||1,632
+|Dairy farming ||1,499 ||1,632||1,908
 |-
-|Vegetables ||1,817 ||1,761
+|Vegetables ||1,817 ||1,761||2,746
 |-
-|Sugar ||284||477
+|Sugar ||284||477||599
 |-
-|Fruit 	||1,590||1,777
+|Fruit 	||1,590||1,777||2,801
 |-
-|Grapes || 1,355||1,314
+|Grapes || 1,355||1,314||1,074
 |-
-|Cotton ||1,222||908
+|Cotton ||1,222||908||1,789
 |-
-|Rice || 350||102
+|Rice || 350||102||302
 |-
-|Nurseries, cut flowers & turf || 763||737
+|Nurseries, cut flowers & turf || 763||737||845
 |-
-|Livestock, pasture, grains & other ||737|| 367
+|Livestock, pasture, grains & other ||737|| 367||
 |-
-|'''Total'''||'''9,618'''||'''9,076'''
+|'''Total'''||'''9,618'''||'''9,076'''||'''13,431'''
 |}
@@ Line 104: / Line 106: @@
 Major cotton growing areas in Australia are:
 *New South Wales - [[Mungindi, New South Wales|Mungindi]], [[Gwydir River]], [[Walgett, New South Wales|Walgett]], [[Bourke, New South Wales|Bourke]], the Lower and Upper [[Namoi River]], [[Macquarie River (New South Wales)|Macquarie River]], [[Menindee, New South Wales|Menindee]], [[Lachlan River]] and [[Murrumbidgee River]]
-*Queensland - [[Central Queensland|Central Highlands]], [[Dawson River (Queensland)|Dawson Valley]], [[Biloela, Queensland|Biloela]], [[Darling Downs]], [[Dirranbandi, Queensland|Dirranbandi]], [[St George, Queensland|St George]], [[MacIntyre River|Macintyre Valley]]<ref name = "cottonfactFeb07">{{cite web|title=Water and Cotton Fact Sheet|date=13 February 2007|accessdate=5 March 2007|url=http://www.cottonaustralia.com.au/news/DisplayNews.aspx?id=365&NewsCategoryID=1|publisher=Cotton Australia }}</ref>
+*Queensland - [[Central Queensland|Central Highlands]], [[Dawson River (Queensland)|Dawson Valley]], [[Biloela, Queensland|Biloela]], [[Darling Downs]], [[Dirranbandi, Queensland|Dirranbandi]], [[St George, Queensland|St George]], [[MacIntyre River|Macintyre Valley]]<ref name = "cottonfactFeb07">{{cite web|title=Water and Cotton Fact Sheet|date=13 February 2007|access-date=5 March 2007|url=http://www.cottonaustralia.com.au/news/DisplayNews.aspx?id=365&NewsCategoryID=1|publisher=Cotton Australia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228171507/http://cottonaustralia.com.au/news/DisplayNews.aspx?id=365&NewsCategoryID=1|archive-date=28 February 2007 }}</ref>
-In 2001/02 crop size was {{convert|420170|ha}} <!--(NSW 260,400 and Qld 159,770)--> producing 3,041,000 [[Wool bale|bales]]<!--(NSW 1,975,000 and Qld 1,066,000)-->. Estimates for 2006/07 were for {{convert|142032|ha}} producing cotton, a 66% reduction, <!--(NSW 100,150 a 62% reduction and Qld 41,882 a 74% reduction)--> producing a forecast crop of {{formatnum:1171765}} bales, a 61% reduction<!--(NSW 826,238 and Qld 345,527)-->.<ref name = "cottonfactFeb07"/> The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in the cotton industry in 2004-05 was {{AUD}}908&nbsp;million compared to {{AUD}}1,222&nbsp;million in 2000-01. While demand skyrocketed, actual water use by the cotton industry fell by 37% between 2000/01 and 2004/05, due mainly to [[Drought in Australia#Drought in the twenty first century|drought]].<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Water and Cotton Fact Sheet|date=13 February 2007|accessdate=5 March 2007|url=http://www.cottonaustralia.com.au/news/DisplayNews.aspx?id=365&NewsCategoryID=1|publisher=Cotton Australia|quote=From ABS Water Account Australia 2004/05 figures}}</ref> The cotton industry used {{convert|2896|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2000/01, {{convert|1822|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2004/05<ref name = "ABSMRNov06"/> and {{convert|793|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2008/09.<ref name = "ABS4618 2008-09"/>
+In 2001/02 crop size was {{convert|420170|ha}} <!--(NSW 260,400 and Qld 159,770)--> producing 3,041,000 [[Wool bale|bales]]<!--(NSW 1,975,000 and Qld 1,066,000)-->. Estimates for 2006/07 were for {{convert|142032|ha}} producing cotton, a 66% reduction, <!--(NSW 100,150 a 62% reduction and Qld 41,882 a 74% reduction)--> producing a forecast crop of {{formatnum:1171765}} bales, a 61% reduction<!--(NSW 826,238 and Qld 345,527)-->.<ref name = "cottonfactFeb07"/> The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in the cotton industry in 2004-05 was A$908&nbsp;million compared to A$1,222&nbsp;million in 2000-01. While demand skyrocketed, actual water use by the cotton industry fell by 37% between 2000/01 and 2004/05, due mainly to [[Drought in Australia#Drought in the twenty first century|drought]].<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Water and Cotton Fact Sheet|date=13 February 2007|access-date=5 March 2007|url=http://www.cottonaustralia.com.au/news/DisplayNews.aspx?id=365&NewsCategoryID=1|publisher=Cotton Australia|quote=From ABS Water Account Australia 2004/05 figures|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228171507/http://cottonaustralia.com.au/news/DisplayNews.aspx?id=365&NewsCategoryID=1|archive-date=28 February 2007}}</ref> The cotton industry used {{convert|2896|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2000/01, {{convert|1822|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2004/05<ref name = "ABSMRNov06"/> and {{convert|793|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2008/09.<ref name = "ABS4618 2008-09"/>
 ===Rice===
-Irrigated areas in the Riverina produces the vast majority of rice grown in Australia, particularly in the [[Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area]] (MIA), but also the [[Murray Irrigation Area]] around [[Finley, New South Wales|Finley]], [[Coleambally, New South Wales|Coleambally]] and [[Deniliquin, New South Wales|Deniliquin]] areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunrice.com.au/rice/industry-grown.asp|title=The Australian Rice Growing Region|publisher=SunRice|accessdate=28 January 2007|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061231100312/http://www.sunrice.com.au/rice/industry-grown.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate=31 December 2006}}</ref>
+Irrigated areas in the Riverina produces the vast majority of rice grown in Australia, particularly in the [[Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area]] (MIA), but also the [[Murray Irrigation Area]] around [[Finley, New South Wales|Finley]], [[Coleambally, New South Wales|Coleambally]] and [[Deniliquin, New South Wales|Deniliquin]] areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunrice.com.au/rice/industry-grown.asp |title=The Australian Rice Growing Region |publisher=SunRice |access-date=28 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061231100312/http://www.sunrice.com.au/rice/industry-grown.asp |archive-date=31 December 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
-Today, more than one million tonnes of Australian rice is produced each year and exported to over 70 countries, generating {{AUD}}500&nbsp;million in export income and supporting 63 towns in the Riverina and northern Victoria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rga.org.au/rice/facts.asp|title=Rice Facts|publisher=Ricegrowers Association of Australia Inc.|accessdate=28 January 2007}}{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref>  Major rice mills are located in Leeton, Coleambally and the largest rice mill in the southern hemisphere in Deniliquin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunrice.com.au/careers/deniliquin.asp|title=SunRice Deniliquin|publisher=Ricegrowers Ltd|accessdate=28 January 2007|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061008010416/http://www.sunrice.com.au/careers/deniliquin.asp<!-- Bot retrieved archive -->|archivedate=8 October 2006}}</ref>
+Today, more than one million tonnes of Australian rice is produced each year and exported to over 70 countries, generating A$500&nbsp;million in export income and supporting 63 towns in the Riverina and northern Victoria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rga.org.au/rice/facts.asp |title=Rice Facts |publisher=Ricegrowers Association of Australia Inc. |access-date=28 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230104235/http://www.rga.org.au/rice/facts.asp |archive-date=30 December 2006 }}</ref> Major rice mills are located in Leeton, Coleambally and the largest rice mill in the southern hemisphere in Deniliquin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunrice.com.au/careers/deniliquin.asp |title=SunRice Deniliquin |publisher=Ricegrowers Ltd |access-date=28 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008010416/http://www.sunrice.com.au/careers/deniliquin.asp |archive-date=8 October 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
-The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in the rice industry in 2004-05 was {{AUD}}102&nbsp;million compared to {{AUD}}350&nbsp;million in 2000-01. Water use by the rice industry fell between 2000/01 and 2004/05, due mainly to smaller planted areas during the drought; the rice industry used {{convert|2223|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2000/01, {{convert|631|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2004/05<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/><ref name = "ABSMRNov06"/> and {{convert|101|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2008/09.<ref name = "ABS4618 2008-09"/>
+The total gross value of irrigated agricultural production in the rice industry in 2004-05 was A$102&nbsp;million compared to A$350&nbsp;million in 2000-01. Water use by the rice industry fell between 2000/01 and 2004/05, due mainly to smaller planted areas during the drought; the rice industry used {{convert|2223|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2000/01, {{convert|631|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2004/05<ref name="ABS4610in 2004-05"/><ref name = "ABSMRNov06"/> and {{convert|101|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2008/09.<ref name = "ABS4618 2008-09"/>
 ===Grapes===
-{{refimprove|section|date=October 2014}}
+{{more citations needed section|date=October 2014}}
-Wine, dried and table grapes are grown commercially in all States and Territories. Grape production is the fifth largest fruit industry in Australia. Of that production wine grape production at over {{convert|1|e6t}} per annum is almost nine times the production of dried grapes and 14 times the production of table grapes.
+Wine, dried and table grapes are grown commercially in all states and territories. Grape production is now the largest fruit industry in Australia.<ref name="ttgi">{{cite web |url=https://australiangrapes.com.au/about/the-table-grape-industry/ |title=The table grape industry |publisher=Australian Table Grape Association |access-date=17 November 2023 }}</ref> Of that production wine grape production at over {{convert|1|e6t}} per annum is almost nine times the production of dried grapes and 14 times the production of table grapes.
 A comparison with other grape producing countries throughout the world shows that Australia was the fourteenth largest producer of grapes in 1997.
@@ Line 123: / Line 125: @@
 Towards sustaining that production much of Australia’s viticulture is located in irrigable areas where water supply is reliable and well managed, with many new vineyards relying upon the availability of water pumped from rivers and streams.
-The Australian grape industry used a total of {{convert|439|GL|e9impgal e9USgal}} in 2006/07, equating to approximately 4.3 ML/ha.<ref name = "ABS4618 2008-09"/>
+The Australian grape industry used a total of {{convert|439|GL|e9impgal+e9USgal}} in 2006/07, equating to approximately 4.3 ML/ha.<ref name = "ABS4618 2008-09"/>
 Major grape growing areas of Australia are:
 *Western Australia – [[Carnarvon, Western Australia|Carnarvon]], [[Swan Valley (Western Australia)|Swan Valley]], and [[Margaret River, Western Australia]]
-*Northern Territory – [[Ti Tree, Northern Territory|Ti Tree]]
+*Northern Territory – [[Ti-Tree, Northern Territory|Ti-Tree]]
 *South Australia – [[Clare Valley]], [[Barossa Valley]], the [[Riverland]], the [[Adelaide Hills]] and the South East area of the State
 *Queensland – [[Mareeba, Queensland|Mareeba]], [[Rockhampton, Queensland|Rockhampton]], [[Charters Towers, Queensland|Charters Towers]], [[Mundubbera, Queensland|Mundubbera]], [[Stanthorpe, Queensland|Stanthorpe]], [[Emerald, Queensland|Emerald]], and [[St George, Queensland|St George]]
 *New South Wales – [[Hunter Region]] and [[Riverina]]
 *Victoria – [[Sunraysia]], [[Swan Hill, Victoria|Swan Hill]] and [[Yarra Valley]]
-*Tasmania – [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]]<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6897e/x6897e04.htm#TopOfPage Grape Production in Australia - Department of Primary Industries]</ref>
+*Tasmania – [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]]<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6897e/x6897e04.htm#TopOfPage |title = Grape Production in Australia |last =Oag|first = David|work = Grape Production in the Asia-Pacific Region|editor1-last = Papademetriou|editor1-first=Minas K.|editor2-first = Frank J. |editor2-last = Dent|date = July 2001| publisher = FAO}}</ref>
 ==Water trading==
-In Australia, all rights to use and control water are vested in the state. Users are then issued various conditional entitlements to use water and some of these entitlements can, in limited circumstances, be traded.
+In Australia, all rights to use and control water are vested in the states. Users are then issued various conditional entitlements to use water and some of these entitlements can, in limited circumstances, be traded.
 Entitlements vary state by state and according to the use, source, legal form, level of devolution, security and transferability among others. There has been a move across all states in recent years to move from older forms of water entitlement to more secure and transferable entitlements. Key parts of this move has been the separation of water entitlements from ties to particular parcels of land and the specification of entitlements with specific volumes and reliability.
 Where an entitlement is able to be traded, the transaction may take several forms including temporary transfer of a seasonal water assignment, a permanent transfer of all or part of a water entitlement or a lease over a set period of years. All transfers require approval from the various regulatory bodies to ensure it complies with trading rules designed to meet environmental and in some cases socio-economic objectives. Such rules may include approving trades only within a set zone or the exchange rate of trades between zones to reflect water losses in delivery or differences in reliability.<ref name="WaterTradingAust">{{cite web
- | year = 2003
+ |date=2003
- | url = http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/trading/pdf/water_trading_aust_2.pdf
+ |url=http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/trading/pdf/water_trading_aust_2.pdf
- | title = Water Trading in Australia Current & Prospective Products
+ |title=Water Trading in Australia Current & Prospective Products
- | format = PDF
- | publisher = ACIL Tasman
+ |publisher=ACIL Tasman
- | accessdate = 2007-02-05
+ |access-date=2007-02-05
-|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061113040542/http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/trading/pdf/water_trading_aust_2.pdf <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2006-11-13}}</ref>
+ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113040542/http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/trading/pdf/water_trading_aust_2.pdf
+ |archive-date=13 November 2006
+ |url-status=dead
+}}</ref>
 ==Methods==
 [[File:Irrigation Channel in the MIA.jpg|thumb|The Riverina Irrigation Channel, 2010]]
-Irrigation methods in Australia have improved over many years allowing for more efficient production per [[megalitre]] of water used. Current methods include systems such as [[centre pivot irrigation]], [[Impact sprinkler|impact (knocker) sprinklers]], butterfly [[Irrigation sprinkler|sprinklers]], [[drip irrigation|drip]] and [[surface irrigation]]. Surface irrigation remains the most common irrigation technique accounting for 50.6% of the total area irrigated in 2006/07 compared to 13.4% for drip, 12.7% for centre pivot and lateral move machines and 4.5% for microspray systems.<ref name = "ABS4618 2006-07"/> These values may change from season to season due to water availability and commodity prices.
+Irrigation methods in Australia have improved over many years allowing for more efficient production per [[megalitre]] of water used. Current methods include systems such as [[centre pivot irrigation]], [[Impact sprinkler|impact (knocker) sprinklers]], butterfly [[Irrigation sprinkler|sprinklers]], [[drip irrigation|drip]] and [[surface irrigation]]. Surface irrigation remains the most common irrigation technique accounting for 58.6% of the total area irrigated in 2013/14 compared to 10.8% for drip, 13.2% for centre pivot and lateral move machines and 4.4% for microspray systems.<ref name="ABS4618 2013-14">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4618.02013-14?OpenDocument#Data|title= 4618.0 - Water Use on Australian Farms, 2013-14|work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=29 April 2015|publisher=[[Australian Government]]|access-date=8 August 2015}}</ref> These values may change from season to season due to water availability and commodity prices.
 [[Furrow irrigation]] is the typical choice for row crops such as cotton, sugar-cane and grains. [[surface irrigation|Border-Check irrigation]] is the dominant technique for irrigating pasture. [[Center pivot irrigation|Centre pivots]] and lateral move machines are also used within row cropping and pasture/fodder crops and offer higher levels of control than furrow irrigation. Smaller scale sprinkler systems such as solid set systems with impact sprinklers are commonly used to grow vegetables and turf. Drip systems are found within most of the high value perennial horticultural crops such as grapes and fruit trees.
-Centre pivot irrigation is often used for grass and fodder crops where the water can be distributed over a considerable period of time. In other crops where moisture stress is a complex concern, for example during the growing of cauliflower, water is required to be distributed quickly two or three specific times per day at a rate of about 140% the evaporation replacement rate and for this impact sprinklers set every 12 square metres or butterfly sprinklers set every 6 square metres are required.<ref>[http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/pls/portal30/docs/FOLDER/IKMP/HORT/VEG/BULLETIN4483.HTM#Irrigation WA Agriculture Bulletin]</ref> Drip sprinklers can be used on many spaced planting locations but typically will be found as gravity fed systems on vineyards.
+Centre pivot irrigation is often used for crops where the water can be distributed over a considerable period of time. In other crops where moisture stress is a complex concern, for example during the growing of cauliflower, water is required to be distributed quickly two or three specific times per day at a rate of about 140% the evaporation replacement rate and for this impact sprinklers set every 12 square metres or butterfly sprinklers set every 6 square metres are required.<ref>[http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/pls/portal30/docs/FOLDER/IKMP/HORT/VEG/BULLETIN4483.HTM#Irrigation WA Agriculture Bulletin] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005643/http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/pls/portal30/docs/FOLDER/IKMP/HORT/VEG/BULLETIN4483.HTM#Irrigation |date=27 September 2007 }}</ref> Drip sprinklers can be used on many spaced planting locations but typically will be found as gravity fed systems on vineyards.
 Most if not all farms employ earthworks such as [[laser levelling]] to facilitate drainage and improve water use efficiency and uniformity.
@@ Line 161: / Line 166: @@
 ==Environment==
 [[File:Salinity from irrigation.png|thumb|400px|A simplified depiction of the process of increased salinity from irrigation]]
-Overuse and poor irrigation practices have led to increased [[Salinity in Australia|salt content in the soil]], reducing the productivity of the land. Irrigation salinity is caused by water soaking through the soil level adding to the ground water below. This causes the [[water table]] to rise, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. As the irrigated area dries, the salt remains.<ref name="NationalActionPlan"/> At [[Wakool, New South Wales|Wakool]] in the [[Riverina]] region of [[New South Wales]], irrigation salinity is mitigated through a salt interception scheme that pumps saline ground water into [[evaporation]] basins, protecting approximately 50,000 [[hectare]]s of farmland in the area from high water tables and salinity. The subsequent salt has various uses including as an animal feed supplement. The program has returned to production over 2,000 hectares of previously barren farmland and encouraged the regeneration of native [[eucalypt]]s.<ref name="WakoolSalt">{{cite web
+Overuse and poor irrigation practices have led to increased [[Salinity in Australia|salt content in the soil]], reducing the productivity of the land. Irrigation salinity is caused by water soaking through the soil level adding to the ground water below. This causes the [[water table]] to rise, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. As the irrigated area dries, the salt remains.<ref name="NationalActionPlan"/> At [[Wakool, New South Wales|Wakool]] in the [[Riverina]] region of [[New South Wales]], irrigation salinity is mitigated through a salt interception scheme that pumps saline ground water into [[evaporation]] basins, protecting approximately 50,000 [[hectare]]s of farmland in the area from high water tables and salinity. The subsequent salt has various uses including as an animal feed supplement. The program has returned to production over 2,000 hectares of previously barren farmland and encouraged the regeneration of native [[eucalypt]]s.<ref name="WakoolSalt">{{cite web|date=2006 |url=http://www.murrayirrigation.com.au/files/3290786.pdf |title=Wakool Tullakool Sub Surface Drainage Scheme|publisher=Murray Irrigation Ltd |access-date=2007-02-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829154144/http://www.murrayirrigation.com.au/files/3290786.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2007 }}</ref>
- | year = 2006
- | url = http://www.murrayirrigation.com.au/files/3290786.pdf
- | title = Wakool Tullakool Sub Surface Drainage Scheme
- | format = PDF
- | publisher = Murray Irrigation Ltd
- | accessdate = 2007-02-23
-}}{{deadlink|date=March 2015}}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 178: / Line 176: @@
 ==References==
-{{reflist|2}}
+{{Reflist}}
 ==External links==
 {{commons}}
-*{{cite web|url=http://lwa.gov.au/files/products/national-program-sustainable-irrigation/pn22088/pn22088.pdf|title=Irrigation in Australia - Facts and Figures}}
+*{{cite web|url=http://lwa.gov.au/files/products/national-program-sustainable-irrigation/pn22088/pn22088.pdf|title=Irrigation in Australia - Facts and Figures|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602221416/http://lwa.gov.au/files/products/national-program-sustainable-irrigation/pn22088/pn22088.pdf|archive-date=2 June 2011}}
-*{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/228945871/Irrigation-Systems-for-Your-Garden|title=Irrigation in Australia - Facts About Garden}}
+*{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/228945871/Irrigation-Systems-for-Your-Garden|title=Irrigation in Australia - Facts About Garden}}
 {{Irrigation by country}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:Irrigation In Australia}}
+{{DEFAULTSORT:Irrigation in Australia}}
 [[Category:Irrigation in Australia| ]]
+[[Category:Irrigation by country|Australia]]

v t e Water resources management and irrigation by country
Africa	Burkina Faso Egypt Mali Morocco South Africa Sudan Tanzania
Asia	Afghanistan Bangladesh China India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Pakistan Philippines Saudi Arabia Sri Lanka Syria Turkey Turkmenistan Vietnam
Europe	Belgium Italy Russia United Kingdom
North America	Belize Canada Costa Rica Dominican Republic El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua United States
Oceania	Australia New Zealand
South America	Argentina Bolivia Brazil - supply Brazil - irrigation Chile Colombia Peru Uruguay
List of countries by irrigated land area