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=== Epithets and Greco-Roman equivalents {{anchor|Epithets|Greco-Roman equivalents}} ===
=== Epithets and Greco-Roman equivalents {{anchor|Epithets|Greco-Roman equivalents}} ===
Because of his multiple attributes, the Etruscan god bore many epithets/theonyms,{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} among them the infernal epithets '''[[Manth]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌈𐌍𐌀𐌌}}),{{sfn|Colonna|2006|p=141}}{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} '''[[Vejovis|Vetis]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌔𐌉𐌕𐌄𐌅}}){{sfn|Kenney|Clausen|1983}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} and '''[[Calu]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌖𐌋𐌀𐌂}}),{{sfn|Bouke van der Meer|2013|pages=323–341}}{{sfn|Rissanen|2013}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} {{lit|dark|darkness|underworld}},{{sfn|Zavaroni|1996}}{{sfn|Mc Callister|Mc Callister|1999}}{{efn|name="Tinia Calusna"}} as well as solar epithets like '''Rath''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌈𐌀𐌛}}){{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}}{{sfn|Bonfante|Bonfante|2002|p=204}} and '''[[Usil]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌋𐌉𐌔𐌖}}),{{sfn|Nonoss|2015}} {{lit|light|sun}}.{{sfn|Babelon|1963}}
Because of his multiple attributes, the Etruscan god Śuri bore many epithets,{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} among them the infernal theonyms '''[[Manth]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌈𐌍𐌀𐌌}}),{{sfn|Colonna|2006|p=141}}{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} '''[[Vejovis|Vetis]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌔𐌉𐌕𐌄𐌅}}){{sfn|Kenney|Clausen|1983}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} and '''[[Calu]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌖𐌋𐌀𐌂}}),{{sfn|Bouke van der Meer|2013|pages=323–341}}{{sfn|Rissanen|2013}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}} {{lit|dark|darkness|underworld}},{{sfn|Zavaroni|1996}}{{sfn|Mc Callister|Mc Callister|1999}}{{efn|name="Tinia Calusna"}} as well as solar theonyms like '''Rath''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌈𐌀𐌛}}){{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Maras|2010}}{{sfn|Bonfante|Bonfante|2002|p=204}} and '''[[Usil]]''' ({{lang-ett|label=none|rtl=1|𐌋𐌉𐌔𐌖}}),{{sfn|Nonoss|2015}} {{lit|light|sun}}.{{sfn|Babelon|1963}}


Śuri's multiple attributes were also associated with [[Greco-Roman mythology|Greco-Roman]] epithets.
Śuri's multiple attributes were also associated with [[Greco-Roman mythology|Greco-Roman]] epithets.
Line 52: Line 52:
== Worship ==
== Worship ==
=== Cult centers ===
=== Cult centers ===
The center of his cult was [[Mount Soracte]],{{sfn|Virgil|loc=11.786}}{{sfn|Servius|380b|loc=11.785}}{{sfn|Rissanen|2013}}{{sfn|Di Fazio|2013}}{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Di Silvio|2014}}{{sfn|Romano Impero|2021}} a sacred mountain located north of [[Rome]]<!-- and distinguished by the fact that it stands isolated in the middle of the countryside -->, in an area characterized by deep [[karst]] cavities and secondary [[volcano|volcanic phenomena]]; these phenomena were associated in antiquity with [[underworld]] deities,{{sfn|Obnorsky|1900}} hence the area was sacred to underworld gods, such as the Roman {{lang|la|[[Dīs Pater]]}}, with whom {{lang|ett|Śuri}} ({{lang-la|Soranus}}) is sometimes identified.{{sfn|Servius|380b|loc=11.785}}
The center of his cult was [[Mount Soracte]],{{sfn|Virgil|loc=11.786}}{{sfn|Servius|380b|loc=11.785}}{{sfn|Rissanen|2013}}{{sfn|Di Fazio|2013}}{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Di Silvio|2014}}{{sfn|Romano Impero|2021}} a sacred mountain located north of [[Rome]]<!-- and distinguished by the fact that it stands isolated in the middle of the countryside -->, in an area characterized by deep [[karst]] cavities and secondary [[volcano|volcanic phenomena]]; these phenomena were associated in antiquity with [[underworld]] deities,{{sfn|Obnorsky|1900}} hence the area was sacred to underworld gods, such as the Roman {{lang|la|[[Dīs Pater]]}}, with whom {{lang|ett|Śuri|italic=no}} ({{lang-la|Soranus}}) is sometimes identified.{{sfn|Servius|380b|loc=11.785}}


Other centers dedicated to this deity were the [[Etruscan cities|ancient twin cities]] of [[Surina (Soriano)]] and {{ill|Surina (Viterbo)|it|Surina|display=1}}, in the present-day [[province of Viterbo]], Lazio, and the city of [[Sorano]], in the [[province of Grosseto]], Tuscany.{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Di Silvio|2014}}{{sfn|Romano Impero|2021}}
Other centers dedicated to this deity were the [[Etruscan cities|ancient twin cities]] of [[Surina (Soriano)]] and {{ill|Surina (Viterbo)|it|Surina|display=1}}, in the present-day [[province of Viterbo]], Lazio, and the city of [[Sorano]], in the [[province of Grosseto]], Tuscany.{{sfn|National Etruscan Museum}}{{sfn|Di Silvio|2014}}{{sfn|Romano Impero|2021}}
Furthermore, his epithet {{lang|ett|Manth}} ({{lang-la|Mantus}}) is thought to be the eponymous of {{lang|la|[[Mantua]]}} ({{lang-it|Mantova}}), the birthplace of [[Virgil]],{{sfn|Colonna|2006|p=141}} who also mentioned the volcanic god in the ''[[Aeneid]]''.{{sfn|Virgil|loc=11.786}}
Furthermore, his epithet {{lang|ett|Manth|italic=no}} ({{lang-la|Mantus}}) is thought to be the eponymous of {{lang|la|[[Mantua]]}} ({{lang-it|Mantova}}), the birthplace of [[Virgil]],{{sfn|Colonna|2006|p=141}} who also mentioned the volcanic god in the ''[[Aeneid]]''.{{sfn|Virgil|loc=11.786}}


=== Worshippers ===
=== Worshippers ===

Revision as of 11:41, 23 June 2024

Śuri
Member of the Novensiles
Other names
Etruscan alphabet𐌉𐌛𐌖𐌑
Major cult center
World
Weapons
Animals
Symbols
AdherentsHirpi Sorani
Gendermale
RegionItaly
Ethnic group
Genealogy
Parents
Siblings
ConsortCatha
Equivalents
Greek
HinduSūrya
NorseSurtr
Roman

Śuri (Template:Lang-ett), Latinized as Soranus, was an ancient Etruscan deity, also venerated by other populations of central Italy – Capenates, Faliscans, Latins and Sabines – and later adopted into ancient Roman religion.

Name and attributes

The Etruscan theonym[1] Śuri (Template:Lang-ett), Latinized as Soranus, means both 'black' and 'from the black [place]', i.e. the Underworld.[2][3][4][5] The root is Template:Lang-ett.[2][6][3][4][5]

Primarily the god of volcanoes and fire, which were associated with the underworld,[7] Śuri also was the chthonic god of the Sun and light,[a] as well as an oracular god, with powers over health and plague;[7] as god of volcanic lightning, he's thought to have been among the Novensiles, the nine Etruscan thunder gods.[6][5]

His sacred animals were wolves and goats.[b]

Epithets and Greco-Roman equivalents

Because of his multiple attributes, the Etruscan god Śuri bore many epithets,[6][3] among them the infernal theonyms Manth (Template:Lang-ett),[8][6][3] Vetis (Template:Lang-ett)[9][3] and Calu (Template:Lang-ett),[10][11][3] lit. 'dark' or 'darkness' or 'underworld',[12][13][a] as well as solar theonyms like Rath (Template:Lang-ett)[6][3][14] and Usil (Template:Lang-ett),[15] lit. 'light' or 'sun'.[16]

Śuri's multiple attributes were also associated with Greco-Roman epithets. By interpretatio graeca, he was identified with both the underworld god Dīs Pater/Hades (Template:Lang-ett, from Template:Lang-grc-ion)[6][3][17][18][7] and the sun god Apollo (Template:Lang-ett).[6][3][19][20][10][7][21] Their names are associated on Pyrgi inscriptions too.[22][6] Later on, after his cult had been syncretised with Apollo, the Romans also nicknamed him Apollo Soranus[11] or Apollo Soractis.[19]

Worship

Cult centers

The center of his cult was Mount Soracte,[19][17][11][23][6][4][5] a sacred mountain located north of Rome, in an area characterized by deep karst cavities and secondary volcanic phenomena; these phenomena were associated in antiquity with underworld deities,[7] hence the area was sacred to underworld gods, such as the Roman Dīs Pater, with whom Śuri (Template:Lang-la) is sometimes identified.[17]

Other centers dedicated to this deity were the ancient twin cities of Surina (Soriano) and Surina (Viterbo) [it], in the present-day province of Viterbo, Lazio, and the city of Sorano, in the province of Grosseto, Tuscany.[6][4][5] Furthermore, his epithet Manth (Template:Lang-la) is thought to be the eponymous of Mantua (Template:Lang-it), the birthplace of Virgil,[8] who also mentioned the volcanic god in the Aeneid.[19]

Worshippers

See also: Calu, divination, and augury

The priests of Soranus were called Hirpi Sorani, lit. 'Wolves of Soranus' (from Template:Lang-sbv).[11][23][4][5] They were considered skillful ornithomantists[7] and firewalkers; during the ceremonies, they walked on hot coals, holding the entrails of sacrificed goats.[17][20][24][25][5] During the annual festivities in honor of Apollo Soranus and Feronia, they walked barefoot among burning logs without being burned, for which they were forever released by the Roman Senate from military service and other liturgies.[7] The Lupercalia, in the Roman religion, probably derive from these priests.[11]

Servius has preserved the following legend about them: once, during a sacrifice to Dīs Pater, several wolves ran up to the altar and stole the sacrificial pieces. The shepherds gave chase and ran to a cave – into Mount Soracte – from which such suffocating fumes emanated that those who pursued fell dead. The pestilence that soon spread throughout the country was connected with the death of the shepherds, while the oracle, to whom they turned for advice on how to get rid of the plague, replied that the plague would stop as soon as the inhabitants, like wolves, began to lead a robber life. These people took the name Hirpi Sorani (from Template:Lang-sbv) and devoted themselves to the cult of Soranus, later identified with Dīs Pater due their volcanic and underworld attributes.[17][7]

Partners

Śuri has been historically associated with two female partners: the aforementioned Faliscan goddess Feronia, considered to be his sister-in-law,[c] whose major sanctuary (Template:Lang-la) was located near Mount Soracte;[25][21] and the Etruscan goddess Catha (Template:Lang-ett), considered to be his consort, goddess of the moon and the underworld.[18][26][6]

Since Śuri bore multiple solar and infernal theonyms (§ Epiteths), Catha's ones varied accordingly, e.g.: Manth (Template:Lang-la) was paired with Mania (Template:Lang-ett); and Aita was paired with Persipnei (Template:Lang-ett), also spelled Phersipnai (Template:Lang-ett), equivalent to the Greco-Roman theonym Persephone (Template:Lang-la).[18][6]

Under the solar theonym Usil (lit. 'light' or 'sun'), Śuri is named alongside Catha on the right lobe (convex face) of the bronze Liver of Piacenza, which is separated into two lobes.[27][15] In the beginning, some researchers argued that the first lobe, where the gods of the lights and heavens are listed, could represent Śuri/Usil, whereas the second an hypothetical partner named Tiur.[28] Infact, his name appears next to the word tiur (lit. 'moon' or 'month'),[29] that was hence believed to be the name of a lunar goddess and consort of Usil, but since tiur actually meant "moon" and "month" (lunar month, equivalent to Greek mēnē), that inscription was most likely meant as a datation, as confirmed by the Pyrgi Tablets,[30] while Usil's consort was actually named Catha.[31]

Further connections

Norse mythology

Main article: Surtr
Surtr with the Flaming Sword (1882) by F. W. Heine, based on a plaster frieze designed by Friedrich Wilhelm Engelhard (1859)

The Etruscan theonym Śuri, lit. 'black', is somehow cognate to Old Norse Surtr, lit. 'black'.[32][33] In Norse mythology, Surtr – king of the fire giants of Múspell,[d][e][f] birthplace of the Sun and other stars[37] – is "a mighty giant who ruled the volcanic powers of the underworld"[38] and will cover the Earth in fire during Ragnarök, causing the entire world to burn.[39] Rudolf Simek notes that jötnar – frost and fire giants – are usually described as living to the east in Old Norse sources, yet Surtr is described as being from the south.[38] Indeed, Surtr is mentioned twice in the poem Völuspá, where a völva divulges information to the god Odin. The völva says that, during Ragnarök, Surtr will come from the south with flames, carrying a very bright sword:

These and other apparent coincidences[41] inspired the hypothesis that Surtr's mythic south could be identified in Śuri's Etruscan Italy,[32] but, despite the archaeological findings confirm ancient exchanges among the Tyrrhenians and the Proto-Germanic peoples,[g] systematic studies of compared mythology and linguistics, as well as additional archaeological surveys, may still be needed to confirm deeper connections.[32]

See also

Annotated links
  • Dīs Pater – Roman god of the underworld
  • Catha (mythology) – Etruscan goddess
  • Feronia (mythology) – Italic goddess of wilderness and liberty
  • Fufluns – Etruscan god of growth
  • Orcus – Roman god of the underworld
  • Surtr – Norse mythical character

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ^ a b A black sun, i.e. a sun god of the underworld,[4][5] rather that a celestial god, was also defined by the Etruscans as Tinia Calusna (Jupiter of the Underworld = Zeus Chthonios).[5]
  2. ^ See § Worshippers.
  3. ^ Feronia was considered to be the consort of Śuri/Apulu's brother Fufluns, god of growth, vital energy and wine.
  4. ^ Drawing in part on various eddic poems, the Gylfaginning section of the Prose Edda contains an account of the development and creation of the cosmos: Long before the Earth came to be, there existed the bright and flaming place called Muspell – a location so hot that foreigners may not enter it – and the foggy land of Niflheim. In Niflheim was a spring, Hvergelmir, and from it flow numerous rivers. Together these rivers, known as Élivágar, flowed further and further from their source. Eventually the poisonous substance within the flow came to harden and turn to ice. When the flow became entirely solid, a poisonous vapor rose from the ice and solidified into rime atop the solid river. These thick ice layers grew, in time spreading across the void of Ginnungagap.[34]
  5. ^ The etymology of "Muspelheim" is uncertain, but may come from Mund-spilli, "world-destroyers", "wreck of the world".[35][36]
  6. ^ The Prose Edda section Gylfaginning foretells that the sons of Muspell will break the Bifröst bridge as part of the events of Ragnarök:

    In the midst of this clash and din the heavens are rent in twain,
    and the sons of Muspell come riding through the opening.
    Surtr rides first, and before him and after him flames burning fire.
    He has a very good sword, which shines brighter than the sun.
    As they ride over Bifrost it breaks to pieces, as has before been stated.
    The sons of Muspel direct their course to the plain which is called Vigrid ... .
    The sons of Muspel have there effulgent bands alone by themselves.

  7. ^ Examples include the Negau helmet, the Meldorf inscription and the spearhead of Kovel.

References

  1. ^ De Simone 2012.
  2. ^ a b Colonna 2009.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Maras 2010.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Di Silvio 2014.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Romano Impero 2021.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l National Etruscan Museum.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Obnorsky 1900.
  8. ^ a b Colonna 2006, p. 141.
  9. ^ Kenney & Clausen 1983.
  10. ^ a b Bouke van der Meer 2013, pp. 323–341.
  11. ^ a b c d e Rissanen 2013.
  12. ^ Zavaroni 1996.
  13. ^ Mc Callister & Mc Callister 1999.
  14. ^ Bonfante & Bonfante 2002, p. 204.
  15. ^ a b Nonoss 2015.
  16. ^ Babelon 1963.
  17. ^ a b c d e Servius 380b, 11.785.
  18. ^ a b c De Grummond 2004, p. 359.
  19. ^ a b c d Virgil, 11.786.
  20. ^ a b Pliny the Elder, 7.2.
  21. ^ a b Myth Index.
  22. ^ Colonna 2009, pp. 101–126.
  23. ^ a b Di Fazio 2013.
  24. ^ Silius Italicus, 5.175.
  25. ^ a b Strabo, 5.
  26. ^ De Grummond 2008, pp. 422, 425.
  27. ^ Bonfante & Swaddling 2006, p. 11.
  28. ^ "La religion étrusque". Arrête ton char. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
  29. ^ Bonfante & Swaddling 2006.
  30. ^ Adiego 2016, p. 155.
  31. ^ Jannot 2005, p. 146.
  32. ^ a b c VV.AA. 2023.
  33. ^ Orchard 1997.
  34. ^ Sturluson 1995.
  35. ^ Tilton 1897, p. 705.
  36. ^ Vigfússon & Powell 1883, p. 471.
  37. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica 2006, p. 803.
  38. ^ a b Simek 1993, pp. 303–304.
  39. ^ Sturluson 2005, pp. 73–75.
  40. ^ a b Dronke 1997, 21.
  41. ^ Crawford 2021.

Bibliography

Further reading

About the epithets

About the equivalents

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