Jump to content

Persian Gulf: Difference between revisions

Edit links
Coordinates: 26°N 52°E / 26°N 52°E / 26; 52
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Monkbot (talk | contribs)
Bots
3,694,069 edits
m Task 20: replace {lang-??} templates with {langx|??} ‹See Tfd› (Replaced 3);
KianS.r (talk | contribs)
20 edits
m Used fake and unofficial name with no references so I removed it because of having no citation and references that support that claim
Tags: Reverted Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit
Line 29: Line 29:
[[File:ISS-63 Persian Gulf at night.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Persian Gulf at Night from [[ISS]], 2020.]]
[[File:ISS-63 Persian Gulf at night.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Persian Gulf at Night from [[ISS]], 2020.]]


The '''Persian Gulf''',{{efn|{{langx|fa|خلیج فارس|translit=xalij-e fârs|lit=Gulf of [[Persis|Persia]]}}, {{IPA|fa|xæliːdʒe fɒːɾs|pron}}}} sometimes called the {{strong|Arabian Gulf}},{{efn| {{langx|ar|الخليج العربي|Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī}}}} is a [[Mediterranean seas|mediterranean sea]] in [[West Asia]]. The body of water is an extension of the [[Indian Ocean]] located between [[Iran]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="unstats.un.org">United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf Working Paper No. 61] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003154349/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf |date=2012-10-03 }}, 23rd Session, Vienna, 28 March – 4 April 2006. accessed October 9, 2010</ref> It is connected to the [[Gulf of Oman]] in the east by the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The [[Shatt al-Arab]] [[river delta]] forms the northwest shoreline.
The '''Persian Gulf''',{{efn|{{langx|fa|خلیج فارس|translit=xalij-e fârs|lit=Gulf of [[Persis|Persia]]}}, {{IPA|fa|xæliːdʒe fɒːɾs|pron}}}} is a [[Mediterranean seas|mediterranean sea]] in [[West Asia]]. The body of water is an extension of the [[Indian Ocean]] located between [[Iran]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="unstats.un.org">United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf Working Paper No. 61] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003154349/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp61.pdf |date=2012-10-03 }}, 23rd Session, Vienna, 28 March – 4 April 2006. accessed October 9, 2010</ref> It is connected to the [[Gulf of Oman]] in the east by the [[Strait of Hormuz]]. The [[Shatt al-Arab]] [[river delta]] forms the northwest shoreline.


The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive [[reef]]s (mostly rocky, but also [[Coral reef|coral]]), and abundant [[pearl oyster]]s, however its [[ecology]] has been damaged by industrialization and [[oil spill]]s.
The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive [[reef]]s (mostly rocky, but also [[Coral reef|coral]]), and abundant [[pearl oyster]]s, however its [[ecology]] has been damaged by industrialization and [[oil spill]]s.

Revision as of 19:37, 21 October 2024

This article is about the body of water. For other uses, see Persian Gulf (disambiguation) and Arabian Gulf (disambiguation).
"Gulf Region" redirects here. For the region in Australia, see Gulf Country.

Persian Gulf
Persian Gulf from space
LocationWest Asia
Coordinates26°N 52°E / 26°N 52°E / 26; 52
TypeGulf
Primary inflowsGulf of Oman, Shatt-al-Arab
Basin countriesIran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Oman (exclave of Musandam)
Max. length989 km (615 mi)
Surface area251,000 km2 (97,000 sq mi)
Average depth50 m (160 ft)
Max. depth90 m (300 ft)
Water volume8,780 km3 (2,100 cu mi)
Persian Gulf at Night from ISS, 2020.

The Persian Gulf,[a] is a mediterranean sea in West Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.[1] It is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz. The Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline.

The Persian Gulf has many fishing grounds, extensive reefs (mostly rocky, but also coral), and abundant pearl oysters, however its ecology has been damaged by industrialization and oil spills.

The Persian Gulf is in the Persian Gulf Basin, which is of Cenozoic origin and related to the subduction of the Arabian Plate under the Zagros Mountains.[2] The current flooding of the basin started 15,000 years ago due to rising sea levels of the Holocene glacial retreat.[3]

Geography

See also: Eastern Arabia and Arab states of the Persian Gulf

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Persian Gulf's southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)".[4]

This inland sea of some 251,000 square kilometres (96,912 sq mi) is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz; and its western end is marked by the major river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. In Iran, this is called "Arvand Rud" (lit. Swift River). Its length is 989 kilometres (615 miles), with Iran covering most of the northern coast and Saudi Arabia most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about 56 km (35 mi) wide at its narrowest, in the Strait of Hormuz. Overall, the waters are very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres (295 feet) and an average depth of 50 metres (164 feet).

Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from north): Iran; Oman's Musandam exclave; the United Arab Emirates; Saudi Arabia; Qatar, on a peninsula off the Saudi coast; Bahrain, an island nation; Kuwait; and Iraq in the northwest. Various small islands also lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states in the region.

Exclusive economic zone

Exclusive economic zones in the Persian Gulf:[5][6]

Number Country Area (km2)
1  Iran 97,860
2  United Arab Emirates 52,455
3  Saudi Arabia 33,792
4  Qatar 31,819
5  Kuwait 11,786
6  Bahrain 8,826
7  Oman 3,678
8  Iraq 540
Total Persian Gulf 240,756

Coastlines

Countries by coastline length[citation needed]:

Number Country Length
1  Iran 1,536
2  Saudi Arabia 1,300
3  United Arab Emirates 900
4  Qatar 563
5  Kuwait 499
6  Bahrain 161
7  Oman 100
8  Iraq 58
Total Persian Gulf 5,117

Islands

See also: List of islands in the Persian Gulf

The Persian Gulf is home to many islands such as Bahrain, an Arab state. Geographically, the biggest island in the Persian Gulf is Qeshm island, belonging to Iran and located in the Strait of Hormuz. Other significant islands in the Persian Gulf include Greater Tunb, Lesser Tunb and Kish administered by Iran, Bubiyan administered by Kuwait, Tarout administered by Saudi Arabia, and Dalma administered by UAE. In recent years, there has also been the addition of artificial islands for tourist attractions, such as The World Islands in Dubai and The Pearl Island in Doha. Persian Gulf islands are often also historically significant, having been used in the past by colonial powers such as the Portuguese and the British in their trade or as acquisitions for their empires.[7]

Oceanography

The Persian Gulf is connected to the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz. Writing the water balance budget for the Persian Gulf, the inputs are river discharges from Iran and Iraq (estimated to be 2,000 cubic metres (71,000 cu ft) per second), as well as precipitation over the sea which is around 180 mm (7.1 in)/year in Qeshm Island. The evaporation of the sea is high, so that after considering river discharge and rain contributions, there is still a deficit of 416 cubic kilometres (100 cu mi) per year.[8] This difference is supplied by currents at the Strait of Hormuz. The water from the Persian Gulf has a higher salinity, and therefore exits from the bottom of the Strait, while ocean water with less salinity flows in through the top. Another study revealed the following numbers for water exchanges for the Persian Gulf: evaporation = –1.84 m (6.0 ft)/year, precipitation = 0.08 m (0.26 ft)/year, inflow from the Strait = 33.66 m (110.4 ft)/year, outflow from the Strait = -32.11 m (105.3 ft)/year, and the balance is 0 m (0 ft)/year.[9] Data from different 3D computational fluid mechanics models, typically with spatial resolution of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and depth each element equal to 1–10 metres (3.3–32.8 ft) are predominantly used in computer models.

Name

Historical names

Map of the Persian Gulf. The Gulf of Oman leads to the Arabian Sea. Detail from larger map of the Middle East.

Before being given its present name, the Persian Gulf was called many different names. The Assyrians called it the "Bitter Sea".[10] In 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire established the first ancient empire in Persis (Pars, or modern Fars, also known as Persia), in the southwestern region of the Iranian plateau.[11] Consequently, in the Greek sources, the body of water that bordered this province came to be known as the "Persian Gulf".[12] In the book of Nearchus known as Indikê (300 BC), the word "Persikon kolpos" is mentioned for multiple times meaning "Persian gulf".[13]

During the years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the Achaemenid Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the name of "Persian (Pars) Sea" is widely found in the compiled written texts.[1]

At the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the Great, which belongs to the fifth century BC:[1] King Darius says:[14]

I ordered to dig this (Canal of the Pharaohs) canal from the river that is called Nile (Pirâva) and flows in Egypt (Mudrâyâ), to the sea that begins in Persia (Pârsa). Therefore, when this canal had been dug as I had ordered, ships went from Egypt through this canal to Persia, as I had intended.

— Darius I, Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptions

In Sassanian times, the Persian Gulf was called Pūdīg, which comes from Avestan: Pūitika, lit. 'cleansing', a name mentioned in Bundahishn.[15]

A historical map of the Persian Gulf in a Dubai museum with the word Persian removed[16][17]

Modern naming dispute

Main article: Persian Gulf naming dispute

The body of water is historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf.[18][19][20] Arab governments refer to it as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf,[21] and other countries and organizations have begun using Arabian Gulf.[22] The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.[23]

The dispute in naming has become especially prevalent since the 1960s.[24] Rivalry between Iran and some Arab states, along with the emergence of pan-Arabism and Arab nationalism, has seen the name "Arabian Gulf" become predominant in most Arab countries.[25][26] Names beyond these two have also been applied to or proposed for this body of water.

History

Ancient history

The region of the Persian Gulf has been inhabited since the Paleolithic.[27] During most of the Last Glacial Period (115,000–11,700 years Before Present), due to lowered sea levels (reaching around 125 metres (410 ft) metres below present values during the Last Glacial Maximum) combined with the shallow depth of the Gulf (on average around 35 metres (115 ft) and at max around 100 metres (330 ft) metres depth) most of the Persian Gulf was exposed as dry land,[28] forming a flat floodplain where a number of rivers converged. This region may have served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations. The modern marine Gulf was formed when sea level rose during the early Holocene, from around 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. The flooding of the Gulf may have stimulated the development of Neolithic farming cultures in regions of the Middle East adjacent to the Gulf.[27]

Map depicting extent of early civilizations around the Persian Gulf, including Lackhmids and Sassanids.
Map depicting the Achaemenid Persian empire in relation to the Persian Gulf.
A painting depicting the British Expeditionary Force off the coast of Ras Al Khaimah in 1809.

The world's oldest known civilization (Sumer) developed along the Persian Gulf and southern Mesopotamia.[29] The oldest evidence in the world for seagoing vessels has been found at H3 in Kuwait, dating to the mid-sixth millennium BC, when the Gulf was part of an extensive trade network that involved the Ubaid settlements in Mesopotamia and communities along the entire Gulf coast.[30]

For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the fourth millennium BC, the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by the Dilmun civilization. For a long time, the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was Gerrha. In the second century the Lakhum tribe, who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the Lakhmid Kingdom along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led by Shapur II against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shorelines.[31] During the seventh century the Sassanid Persian empire conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores.

Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including the Median, Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf.[32] Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in Persian Gulf, that started with Darius I and existed until the arrival of the British East India Company, and the Royal Navy by mid-19th century AD. Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including Shatt-al-Arab, Tigris, and the Nile in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India.[32]

The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf.[32][33]

Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Sassanid Empire ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the Silk Road, were important trade routes in the Sassanid Empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf. Siraf, an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the Persian Gulf, located in what is now the Iranian province of Bushehr, is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the fourth century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD.[34]

Colonial era

See also: Portuguese rule and British residency of the Persian Gulf

Portuguese influence in the Persian Gulf lasted for 250 years;[35] however, since the beginning of the 16th century, Portuguese dominance[36] contended with the local powers and the Ottoman Empire. Following the arrival of the English and the Dutch, the Safavid Empire allied with the newcomers to contest Portuguese dominance of the seas in the 17th century.[37]

The Portuguese Castle on Hormuz Island (Gaspar Correia. "Lendas da Índia", c. 1556)

Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correia invaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. On April 29, 1602, Shāh Abbās, the Persian emperor of the Safavid Persian Empire, expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain,[38] and that date is commemorated as National Persian Gulf day in Iran.[39] With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of Hormuz from the Portuguese; much of the trade was diverted to the town of Bandar 'Abbās, which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and the British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. The Ottoman Empire reasserted itself into Eastern Arabia in 1871.[40] Under military and political pressure from the governor of the Ottoman Vilayet of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha, the ruling Al Thani tribe submitted peacefully to Ottoman rule.[41] The Ottomans were forced to withdraw from the area with the start of World War I and the need for troops in various other frontiers.[42] In World War II, the Western Allies used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to the USSR, through a pathway known historically as the "Persian Corridor". Britain utilized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain in order to make use of the Trans-Iranian Railway.[43] The Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment to Soviet Union against the Nazi invasion.[44] The piracy in the Persian Gulf was prevalent until the 19th century. Many of the most notable historical instances of piracy were perpetrated by the Al Qasimi tribe. This led to the British mounting the Persian Gulf campaign of 1819.[45] The campaign led to the signing of the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 between the British and the Sheikhs of what was then known as the 'Pirate Coast'. From 1763 until 1971, the British Empire maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called the Trucial States)[46] and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the British Residency of the Persian Gulf.

Modern history

Operation Earnest Will: Tanker convoy No. 12 under US Navy escort in October 1987

The Persian Gulf was a battlefield of the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. It is the namesake of the 1991 Gulf War, the largely air- and land-based conflict that followed Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The United States' role in the Persian Gulf grew in the second half of the Twentieth Century.[47] On July 3, 1988, Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by the U.S. military (which had mistaken the Airbus A300 operating the flight for an Iranian F-14 Tomcat) while it was flying over the Persian Gulf, killing all 290 people on board.[48] The United Kingdom maintains a profile in the region; in 2006 alone, over 1 million British nationals visited Dubai.[49][50] In 2018, the UK opened a permanent military base, HMS Jufair, in the Persian Gulf, the first since it withdrew from East of Suez in 1971 and is developing a support facility in Oman.[51][52][53]

Cities and population

Eight nations have coasts along the Persian Gulf: Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. The Persian gulf's strategic location has made it an ideal place for human development over time. Today, many major cities of the Middle East are located in this region.

Wildlife

See also: Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert

The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique because of the Persian Gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrow Strait of Hormuz. The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near extirpation or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to dugongs, Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. However, the Persian Gulf is not as biologically diverse as the Red Sea.[54]

Overall, the wildlife of the Persian Gulf is endangered from both global factors, and regional, local negligence. Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution.[55]

Aquatic mammals

Along the mediterranean regions of the Arabian Sea, including the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Kutch, the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba, the Gulf of Aden, and the Gulf of Oman, dolphins and finless porpoises are the most common marine mammals in the waters, while larger whales and orcas are rarer today.[56] Historically, whales had been abundant in the Persian Gulf before commercial hunts wiped them out.[57][58] Whales were reduced even further by illegal mass hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s and 1970s.[59] Along with Bryde's whales,[60][61][62][63] these once common residents can still can be seen in deeper marginal seas such as Gulf of Aden,[64] Israel coasts,[65] and in the Strait of Hormuz.[66] Other species such as the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale,[67] (also historically common in Gulf of Aden[68] and increasingly sighted in the Red Sea since 2006, including in the Gulf of Aqaba),[65] omura's whale,[69][70] minke whale, and orca also swim into the Persian Gulf, while many other large species such as blue whale,[71] sei,[72] and sperm whales were once migrants into the Gulf of Oman and off the coasts in deeper waters,[73] and still migrate into the Red Sea,[74] but mainly in deeper waters of outer seas. In 2017, waters of the Persian Gulf along Abu Dhabi were revealed to hold the world's largest population of Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphins.[75][76][77]

One of the more unusual marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is the dugong (Dugong dugon). Also called "sea cows", for their grazing habits and mild manner resembling livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of humans and they can grow up to 3 metres (9.8 feet) in length. These gentle mammals feed on sea grass and are closer relatives of certain land mammals than are dolphins and whales.[78] Their simple grass diet is negatively affected by new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly the construction of artificial islands by Arab states and pollution from oil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war" and various other natural and artificial causes. Uncontrolled hunting has also had a negative impact on the survival of dugongs.[78] After Australian waters, which are estimated to contain some 80,000 dugong inhabitants, the waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia make the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species, hosting some 7,500 remaining dugongs. However, the current number of dugongs is dwindling, and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is.[78][79] Ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest, ever-present international conflict, the most lucrative world supply of oil, and the lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, have had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs.

Birds

The Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the Persian Gulf home. Concerns regarding the endangerment of the kalbaensis subspecies of the collared kingfishers were raised by conservationists over real estate development by the United Arab Emirates and Oman.[80] Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located 80 miles (129 km) from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman.[80] Such real estate expansion could prove devastating to this subspecies. A UN plan to protect the mangroves as a biological reserve was ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway.[80] Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate many of whom have governmental connections.[80]

Real estate development in the Persian Gulf by the United Arab Emirates and Oman also raised concerns that habitats of species such as the hawksbill turtle, greater flamingo, and booted warbler may be destroyed.[80][81] The dolphins that frequent the Persian Gulf in northern waters around Iran are also at risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse seine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's Hormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.[82][83]

Fish and reefs

The Persian Gulf is home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native.[84] Of these 700 species, more than 80% are reef associated.[84] These reefs are primarily rocky, but there are also a few coral reefs. Compared to the Red Sea, the coral reefs in the Persian Gulf are relatively few and far between.[85][86][87] This is primarily connected to the influx of major rivers, especially the Shatt al-Arab (Euphrates and Tigris), which carry large amounts of sediment (most reef-building corals require strong light) and causes relatively large variations in temperature and salinity (corals in general are poorly suited to large variations).[85][86][87] Nevertheless, coral reefs have been found along sections of coast of all countries in the Persian Gulf.[87] Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the Persian Gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the Persian Gulf, partially owing to global warming but mostly to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like the UAE and Bahrain.[88] Construction garbage such as tires, cement, and chemical by products have found their way to the Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the construction waste creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.[88] The result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival.

Flora

A great example of this symbiosis are the mangroves in the Persian Gulf, which require tidal flow and a combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them.[80] Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus Avicennia or Rhizophora that flourish in the salt water shallows of the Persian Gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on the surface of the water, as the corals are to biological health of the Persian Gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the Persian Gulf.[89][90] However, with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them.

Oil and gas

See also: Strait of Hormuz
Oil and gas pipelines and fields

The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of petroleum,[91] and related industries dominate the region. Safaniya Oil Field, the world's largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry.

In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude oil reserves, and about 35% of the world's natural gas reserves.[92][93] The oil-rich countries (excluding Iraq) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. Iraq's egress to the Persian Gulf is narrow and easily blockaded, consisting of the marshy river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers, where the east bank is held by Iran.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Persian: خلیج فارس, romanized: xalij-e fârs, lit. 'Gulf of Persia', pronounced [xæliːdʒe fɒːɾs]

References

  1. ^ a b c United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names Working Paper No. 61 Archived 2012-10-03 at the Wayback Machine, 23rd Session, Vienna, 28 March – 4 April 2006. accessed October 9, 2010
  2. ^ A Brief Tectonic History of the Arabian basin. Retrieved from the website: http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?pageid=133 Archived 2018-09-17 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ "A hot survivor". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
  4. ^ "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
  5. ^ "EEZ". www.seaaroundus.org. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
  6. ^ "Catches by Taxon in the waters of Oman (Musandam)". www.seaaroundus.org. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
  7. ^ Ramerini, Marco. "Portuguese in the Arabia and the Persian Gulf". Archived from the original on 11 September 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
  8. ^ Pous, Stéphane; Lazure, Pascal; Carton, Xavier (2015). "A model of the general circulation in the Persian Gulf and in the Strait of Hormuz: Intraseasonal to interannual variability". Continental Shelf Research. 94: 55–70. Bibcode:2015CSR....94...55P. doi:10.1016/j.csr.2014.12.008.
  9. ^ Xue, Pengfei; Eltahir, Elfatih A. B. (29 January 2015). "Estimation of the Heat and Water Budgets of the Persian (Arabian) Gulf Using a Regional Climate Model". Journal of Climate. 28 (13): 5041–5062. Bibcode:2015JCli...28.5041X. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.714.254. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00189.1. ISSN 0894-8755. S2CID 14873658.
  10. ^ Bagg, Ariel M. (1 March 2020). "The unconquerable country: the Babylonian marshes in the Neo-Assyrian sources". Water History. 12 (1): 57–73. Bibcode:2020WatHi..12...57B. doi:10.1007/s12685-020-00245-5. S2CID 216032694.
  11. ^ Touraj Daryaee (2003). "The Persian Gulf Trade in Late Antiquity". Journal of World History. 14 (1). Archived from the original on 5 August 2013.
  12. ^ "Documents on the Persian Gulf's name the eternal heritage ancient time by Dr.Mohammad Ajam".
  13. ^ Nearchus (2013). "The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates". The Voyage of Nearchus. 1 (1).
  14. ^ "DZ – Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
  15. ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
  16. ^ K Darbandi (27 October 2007). "Gulf renamed in aversion to 'Persian'". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 27 November 2010. Retrieved 30 November 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  17. ^ Mahan Abedin (9 December 2004). "All at sea over 'the Gulf'". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  18. ^ Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). "The World Fact Book". Retrieved 4 December 2010.
  19. ^ nationsonline.org. "Political Map of Iran". Archived from the original on 27 November 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
  20. ^ United Nations. "United Nations Cartographic Section (Middle East Map)". Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
  21. ^ Niusha Boghrati, Omission of 'Persian Gulf' Name Angers Iran Archived 2007-01-09 at the Wayback Machine, World Press.com, December 28, 2006
  22. ^ Zraick, Karen (12 January 2016). "Persian (or Arabian) Gulf Is Caught in the Middle of Regional Rivalries". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
  23. ^ "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. p. 21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
  24. ^ Eilts, Hermann (Fall 1980). "Security Considerations in the Persian Gulf". International Security. 5 (2): 79–113. doi:10.2307/2538446. JSTOR 2538446. S2CID 154527123.
  25. ^ Abedin, Mahan (4 December 2004). "All at Sea over 'the Gulf'". Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  26. ^ Bosworth, C. Edmund (1980). "The Nomenclature of the Persian Gulf". In Cottrell, Alvin J. (ed.). The Persian Gulf States: A General Survey. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. xvii–xxxvi. p. xxxiii: Not until the early 1960s does a major new development occur with the adoption by the Arab states bordering on the Persian Gulf of the expression al-Khalij al-Arabi as weapon in the psychological war with Iran for political influence in the Persian Gulf; but the story of these events belongs to a subsequent chapter on modern political and diplomatic history of the Persian Gulf.
  27. ^ a b Rose, Jeffrey I. (December 2010). "New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis". Current Anthropology. 51 (6): 849–883. doi:10.1086/657397. ISSN 0011-3204. S2CID 144935980.
  28. ^ Lambeck, Kurt (July 1996). "Shoreline reconstructions for the Persian Gulf since the last glacial maximum". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 142 (1–2): 43–57. Bibcode:1996E&PSL.142...43L. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00069-6.
  29. ^ Rose, Jeffrey I. (December 2010). "New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis". Current Anthropology. 51 (6): 849–883. doi:10.1086/657397. S2CID 144935980.
  30. ^ Carter, Robert (2006). "Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC". Antiquity. 80 (307): 52–63. doi:10.1017/S0003598X0009325X. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 162674282.
  31. ^ M. Th. Houtsma (1993). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09796-4. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
  32. ^ a b c Kaveh Farrokh (2007). Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war. Osprey Publishing. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
  33. ^ Pierre Briant (2006). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 761. ISBN 978-1-57506-120-7.
  34. ^ British Institute of Persian Studies. "Siraf". Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
  35. ^ Flannery, John M. (2013). The Mission of the Portuguese Augustinians to Persia and Beyond (1602–1747) Por John M. Flannery. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-24382-8.
  36. ^ "THE AGE OF COLONIALISM Persian Gulf States Table of Contents".
  37. ^ Dashti, Naseer (October 2012). The Baloch and Balochistan: A Historical Account from the Beginning to the fall of Baloch state Por Naseer Dashti. Trafford. ISBN 978-1-4669-5896-8.
  38. ^ Juan R. I. Cole (1987). "Rival Empires of Trade and Imami Shiism in Eastern Arabia, 1300–1800". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 19 (2): 177–203 [186]. doi:10.1017/s0020743800031834. JSTOR 163353. S2CID 162702326.
  39. ^ Archived 21 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine[dead link]
  40. ^ Rahman 1979, pp. 138–139
  41. ^ Rogan, Eugene; Murphey, Rhoads; Masalha, Nur; Durac, Vincent; Hinnebusch, Raymond (November 1999). "Review of The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Qatar by Frederick F. Anscombe; The Blood-Red Arab Flag: An Investigation into Qasimi Piracy, 1797–1820 by Charles E. Davies; The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia and the Gulf, 1745–1900 by Hala Fattah". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 26 (2): 339–342. doi:10.1080/13530199908705688. JSTOR 195948.
  42. ^ "Shaikh Abdullah Bin Jassim Al Thani – Amiri Diwan". Amiri Diwan. Archived from the original on 7 March 2018. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
  43. ^ Martin Blumenson; Robert W. Coakley; Stetson Conn; Byron Fairchild; Richard M. Leighton; Charles V.P. von Luttichau; Martin Blumenson; Robert W. Coakley; Stetson Conn; Byron Fairchild; Richard M. Leighton; Charles V.P. von Luttichau; Charles B. MacDonald; Sidney T. Mathews; Maurice Matloff; Ralph S. Mavrogordato; Leo J. Meyer; John Miller, Jr.; Louis Morton; Forrest C. Pogue; Roland G. Ruppenthal; Robert Ross Smith; Earl F. Ziemke (1960). Command Decisions. Government Printing Office. p. 225.
  44. ^ T. H. Vail Motter (1952). The Persian Corridor and aid to Russia, Volume 7, Part 1. Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army.
  45. ^ "Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammed al-Qasimi obituary". The Guardian. 1 November 2010.
  46. ^ Donald Hawley (1970). Trucial States. Ardent Media. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-04-953005-8. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  47. ^ Potter, L. (5 January 2009). The Persian Gulf in History. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61845-9.
  48. ^ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Airbus A300B2-203 EP-IBU Qeshm Island". www.aviation-safety.net. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
  49. ^ Beaumont, Peter (23 December 2006). "Blair was dangerously off target in his condemnation of Iran". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 30 July 2016.
  50. ^ "Classified document on Bahrain rankles Britain decades later". Reuters. 22 May 2015. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2015. The case shows how alive the history of British colonial rule still is in the Gulf today
  51. ^ "UK to establish £15m permanent Mid East military base". BBC. 6 December 2014. Archived from the original on 24 November 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
  52. ^ "East of Suez, West from Helmand: British Expeditionary Force and the next SDSR" (PDF). Oxford Research Group. December 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
  53. ^ Tossini, J. Vitor (20 February 2018). "The UK in Oman – A new support facility for the British Armed Forces". UK Defence Journal. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
  54. ^ Pernetta, John. (2004). Guide to the Oceans. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, Inc. p. 205. ISBN 978-1-55297-942-6.
  55. ^ Morteza Aminmansour/Pars Times. "Pollution in Persian Gulf". Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
  56. ^ Dr. Gheilani A.M.H. Whales and Dolphins in Arabian Sea: Arabian Sea Survey (2007–2008) Archived 2014-12-17 at the Wayback Machine. The Marine Science and Fisheries Center in the Ministry of Fisheries Wealth. Retrieved on December 17, 2014
  57. ^ Jongbloed M. Whales and dolphins in the Gulf Archived 2014-12-17 at the Wayback Machine. Al Shindagha. Retrieved on December 17, 2014
  58. ^ Jackson J. 2006. Diving with Giants[permanent dead link]. pp.59. New Holland Publishers. Retrieved on December 17, 2014
  59. ^ Clapham P., Ivashchenko Y. Marine Fisheries Review. Retrieved on December 17, 2014
  60. ^ Lambros M.. Whale Watching In Kuwait Archived 2017-09-21 at the Wayback Machine. LIVIN Q8. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  61. ^ Burahmah I.. 2013. Whale seen in kuwait seas Archived 2018-11-20 at the Wayback Machine. YouTube. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  62. ^ جرائم ومحاكم. 2015. حوت يسبح قرب أبراج الكويت Archived 2018-11-20 at the Wayback Machine. Youtube. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  63. ^ Khalaf N.. 2014. The 24-meters Blue Whale Skeleton at the Educational Science Museum in Kuwait City, State of Kuwait Archived 2017-10-19 at the Wayback Machine. issuu. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  64. ^ "PBS – The Voyage of the Odyssey – Track the Voyage – Maldives". PBS. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
  65. ^ a b "Summary review of cetaceans of the Red Sea" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2021.
  66. ^ 茂木陽一. "ホルムズ海峡でGTフィッシング②". Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
  67. ^ Minton G.. 2017. Pre-print manuscript published on humpback whales in the Persian Gulf Archived 2017-09-21 at the Wayback Machine. Arabian Sea Whale Network. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  68. ^ Articles/meps. "pdf" (PDF). www.int-res.com.
  69. ^ Sharif Ranjbar S.; Dakhteh S.M.; Waerebeek V.K. (2016). "Omura's whale (Balaenoptera omurai ) stranding on Qeshm Island, Iran: further evidence for a wide (sub)tropical distribution, including the Persian Gulf". bioRxiv 10.1101/042614.
  70. ^ Babu R. 2017. Whale tracing us in a boat at Kuwait sea area Archived 2018-11-20 at the Wayback Machine. Youtube. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  71. ^ Imisdocs/publications. "pdf" (PDF). www.vliz.be. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
  72. ^ Hoath R.. 2009. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Egypt. pp.112. The American University in Cairo Press. Retrieved on February 26. 2016
  73. ^ Dr. Perrin F.W., Koch C.C. 2007. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. pp.611. Academic Press. Retrieved on December 17, 2014
  74. ^ "Yemen". Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
  75. ^ WAM. 2017. Abu Dhabi has world's largest population of humpback dolphins Archived 2017-09-21 at the Wayback Machine. Emirates 24/7. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  76. ^ Gulf News. 2017. Abu Dhabi proves a haven for humpback dolphins Archived 2017-09-20 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  77. ^ Sanker A.. 2017. Abu Dhabi leads world in humpback dolphin numbers Archived 2017-09-21 at the Wayback Machine. Khaleej Times. Retrieved on September 21, 2017
  78. ^ a b c "Case Study". American.edu. Archived from the original on 24 June 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  79. ^ "Persian Gulf Mermaids Face Environmental Threats". Maurice Picow. 4 March 2010. Archived from the original on 14 January 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  80. ^ a b c d e f Jim Krane (3 July 2006). "Development in Persian Gulf Threatens Wildlife". Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on 23 September 2006. Retrieved 30 June 2008.
  81. ^ Tim Thomas & Ian Robinson (2001). "Turtles Rehabilitated After Persian Gulf Oil Spills". Archived from the original on 10 September 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
  82. ^ Mandana Javidinejad (2007). "Dolphins of Persian Gulf are in danger". Payvand News Agency. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 25 December 2010.
  83. ^ Vahid Sepehri (3 October 2007). "Iran: Spill, Dolphin Deaths Spark Alarm At Persian Gulf Pollution". Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 14 January 2011. Retrieved 25 December 2010.
  84. ^ a b Jen/fishbase.org (30 June 2003). "Fish Species in Persian Gulf". Archived from the original on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
  85. ^ a b Debelius, H. (1993). Indian Ocean Tropical Fish Guide. Aquaprint Verlag GmbH. p. 5. ISBN 3-927991-01-5.
  86. ^ a b Emery, K. O. (1956). "Sediments and Water of Persian Gulf". AAPG Bulletin. 40. doi:10.1306/5CEAE595-16BB-11D7-8645000102C1865D.
  87. ^ a b c Thomas Pohl; Sameh W. Al-Muqdadi; Malik H. Ali; Nadia Al-Mudaffar Fawzi; Hermann Ehrlich; Broder Merkel (2014). "Discovery of a living coral reef in the coastal waters of Iraq". Sci. Rep. 4: 4250. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E4250P. doi:10.1038/srep04250. PMC 3945051. PMID 24603901.
  88. ^ a b "Dumping by Construction Crews Killing Bahrain Coral". Maurice Picow. 16 June 2010. Archived from the original on 31 October 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  89. ^ SunySB. "Mangals". Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
  90. ^ Yamada, Akiyo; Saitoh, Takeo; Mimura, Tetsuro; Ozeki, Yoshihiro (Fall 1980). "Expression of mangrove allene oxide cyclase enhances salt tolerance in Escherichia coli, yeast, and tobacco cells". Plant and Cell Physiology. 43 (8): 903–910. doi:10.1093/pcp/pcf108. PMID 12198193.
  91. ^ Northrup, Cynthia Clark (2013). Encyclopedia of World Trade: From Ancient Times to the Present. London, UK: Routledge – via Credo Reference.
  92. ^ Persian Gulf Online. "Persian Gulf Oil and Gas Exports Fact Sheet (U.S. Department of Energy)". Archived from the original on 14 July 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
  93. ^ U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). "Persian Gulf Oil and Gas Export Fact Sheet". EIA/DOE (Energy Information Administration/Department of Energy). Archived from the original on 2 January 2011.
Look up persian gulf in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Persian Gulf.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Persian Gulf.
Videos
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persian_Gulf&oldid=1252532880"